Nazlı

Adem

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Military sociology emerged as a discipline in the 20th century. Despite some studies having been conducted on soldiers and the army prior to World War II, these studies were not directly included in the field of sociology but rather included in the field of other subdisciplines such as psychology. Only after World War II was the military able to be seen to become the subject of sociology, and sociological studies on the military gradually increased (Ateş, 2020, pp. 57–58). In this framework, the emergence and development of military sociology as a discipline through Janowitz, who had also been influenced by Stouffer, took place a decade after Stouffer’s death, and military sociology emerged as a discipline. The fact that military sociology had not existed by such a name and not been considered a subdiscipline at the time of Stouffer’s work led to Stouffer not being characterized as a military sociologist at that time (Segal, 2013, p. xiii). However, Stouffer’s work is seen to have allowed him to be considered as both a military sociologist and one of the founding figures of military sociology. From this perspective, this article seeks to answer the question of what impact The American Soldier (TAS) project had on the emergence of military sociology as a subdiscipline and how it contributed to the military sociological literature. This article is a qualitative study that uses the historical comparative method with the aim of showing how TAS was an important study that formed the foundations of military sociology.This article also aims to show how TAS, which was conducted by a team led by Samuel A. Stouffer (1949), served as a source for military sociology as a subdiscipline and to introduce both Stouffer and TAS to the Turkish literature. In order to achieve this, the study will first present the general characteristics of sociology in the USA during the period when TAS was being prepared, and then present TAS in detail. The project’s full title was “Studies in Social Psychology in World War II: The American Soldier” and comprises four volumes: The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life, The American Soldier: Combat and Its Aftermath, Experiments on Mass Communication, and Measurement and Prediction. This article discusses the first and second volumes, which have more intensive social psychological studies.Military sociology emerged as a discipline in the mid-20th century and developed rapidly after World War II. While military studies had previously been included in other subdisciplines, military sociology found its own identity after this period. This article examines TAS’s contributions to the development of military sociology and its literature.Samuel A. Stouffer was the leading figure in TAS. Stouffer had received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and was instrumental in popularizing empirical research. His dissertation showed measuring attitudes to be possible using the survey method, which marked a fundamental step for military sociology.This article discusses the development of the discipline of sociology in the United States. After World War I, social reform movements, the promotion of sociological research, and the spread of statistical studies led to the acceptance of sociology as a science. The University of Chicago played an important role in making sociology an objective science.Samuel A. Stouffer was an important figure in the field of sociology. He contributed to the development of social research and statistical methods and emphasized the importance of surveys for scientific research. Stouffer’s doctoral dissertation contributed to the acceptance of sociology as an objective science.TAS was directed by Stouffer (1949) and examined the lives and experiences of American soldiers during World War II. It focused on social psychological studies and examined the living conditions of military personnel in detail. TAS has made significant contributions to the literature of military sociology.Stouffer and his team collected and analyzed a large body of data on the attitudes and problems of US soldiers during World War II. These studies covered a wide variety of topics, including soldiers’ attitudes, morale problems, perspectives toward their leaders and the war, anxiety control, duty stations, and rotation problems.One of TAS’s goals was to provide the US Army with information about soldiers and to use that information to help formulate policy. To this end, the research branch collected, analyzed, and presented information on soldiers in the form of reports. These reports were made available to the general public at the end of the war.TAS addressed the problems related to adjustment and motivation created by the size of the US Army and the rapidly growing number of soldiers. It also examined the process of how soldiers adjusted to the authoritarian structure and values of the military and presented data on soldiers’ attitudes.In conclusion, TAS stands out as an important research initiative aimed at understanding the attitudes and problems experienced by US soldiers during World War II. It has been a fundamental resource for developing an in-depth understanding of military sociology as well as soldiers’ social and psychological experiences.This article provides information on studies that have examined the level of cohesion and satisfaction of soldiers within the army under the heading of cohesion studies. These studies (Stouffer et al., 1949) have examined the effects of factors such as education level, age, and marital status on soldiers’ attitudes and cohesion.TAS has shown that the factor of education to influence soldiers’ adaptation levels. In particular, a relationship has been noted to exist between soldiers’ education levels&nbsp;and their skills and socioeconomic status. Soldiers with higher education levels are noted to be generally more disciplined and obedient. In addition, educational advances in the USA between World Wars I and II were stated to have been reflected on the army, with newly recruited soldiers’ education levels being higher.&nbsp;Soldiers with higher education levels have more positive attitudes than those with lower levels of education. Meanwhile, those who have not achieved status in the army may have more critical attitudes, and this is explained by the concept of relative deprivation. Soldiers’ satisfaction with their assignments was also explained to perhaps vary based on factors such as age, marital status, and rank and soldiers could have different desires, such as using their civilian skills, learning new skills, gaining status, and avoiding death or danger. Mission and satisfaction are explained as being directly related to military success. These studies are based on important data that have taken into account such factors such as education, age, and marital status for understanding soldiers’ attitudes toward their duties and army rules, as well as their status, and job satisfaction. This type of research can be concluded to play an important role in improving cohesion and satisfaction within the army and enabling soldiers to perform better.TAS was a major social science study of the behavior, attitudes, and experiences of American soldiers during World War II. The results from the study provided important insights for military policy makers and social theorists, and TAS drew a number of conclusions based on soldiers’ perceptions of leadership, social control, rank, and experience:Attitudes toward leadership. The study found new recruits to have more positive attitudes toward officers compared to soldiers who’ve served longer. TAS also found soldiers’ positive attitudes toward officers to be more prevalent in combat units.Education level and attitudes. Soldiers with higher levels of education were found to have less-positive attitudes toward officers than soldiers with lower levels of education. Soldiers with higher levels of education were also found to be less convinced of the importance of certain tasks and more sensitive to lacking status.The role of non-commissioned officers (NCOs). NCOs are defined as a group that facilitates and bridges communication between officers and enlisted personnel.Social control issues. Just like the society from which soldiers had been recruited, the US Army also had problems with racial discrimination. This reflected the military’s compromises on race relations and inequalities in society.Point System. As a result of the research, a demobilization plan was developed that took into account factors such as length of overseas service, number of children, and length of military service.TAS has been recognized as an important milestone in social science and has contributed greatly to the development of social science. TAS was a comprehensive research project that examined the experiences of American soldiers during and after World War II. The results provided a wealth of important information for military policymakers, social scientists, and other researchers and also contributed to the development of research methods in the social sciences.

The Founding of Military Sociology: The American Soldier

Aykut

Assoc. Prof.

Nebiye

Military Sociology and its Education in Türkiye: A Comparative Analysis

Mustafa

Öğretim Görevlisi

Barış

Raif

Prof. Dr.

Melek

The purpose of this study is to determine what the social attitudes are about women’s participation in the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) and their acceptance into all military classes. In Türkiye, women have been and continue to be involved in military duties in various classes and positions. However, the effort to increase the visibility of women in various social spheres, a phenomenon encouraged by modernization, has resulted in regulations and privileges regarding women. This process led to the debate on integrating women into various areas of responsibility within the armed forces to start much earlier in Türkiye than in many other countries. However, despite early progressive steps and societal acceptance and encouragement, women’s participation in the TAF has not reached the expected level. As of 2020, Türkiye has the lowest rate of female soldiers among NATO countries at 0.30%. Therefore, importance is had in having Türkiye explain how this contradictory situation regarding the recruitment of female soldiers relates to the current social context.Not enough studies on female soldiers are observed to be present in the Turkish literature. Existing studies generally evaluate women’s disadvantaged position and internal sensitivities through the argument of gender discrimination. Revealing, interpreting, and illuminating the sexist discourses female officer candidates encounter during their education or professional life through primary sources has been the prominent theme in these studies. On the other side of the literature are the historical narratives that have evaluated the processes of women’s participation in the military through the discourses of important figures at the legal and political levels (Akgül, 2010; Altınay, 2000; Dalaman, 2022; Durgun, 2004; Eken, 2006; Erogul et al., 2023; Hürkan, 2016; Korkmaz, 2022; Kuloğlu, 2005). However, insufficient sources are found to reflect the thought patterns of the social structure regarding women’s participation in the military and their job descriptions in Türkiye. Moreover, the problematic history of civil-military relations is also evident in the issue of female soldiers. When addressing women’s participation in the military, a kind of dichotomy exists between the civilian and military spheres. On one hand, a desire is found for a balance in civil-military relations (i.e., no major rupture between society and the military), but on the other hand, due to the military being the manager of organized violence, women are evaluated on the basis of difficult conditions based on physical standards. Therefore, gender-based cultural transmissions combined with the physical and biological conditions of female soldiers have not only affected women’s participation in the military but also increased the distance between the military and society, thus damaging civil-military relations.The Western literature on female soldiers has dealt with fundamental changes in the military system, especially with the end of the Cold War (Carreiras, 2006; Iskra et al., 2002; Kümmel, 2002; Segal, 1995). The professionalization of Western militaries&nbsp;since the second half of the 20th century (i.e., the end of World War II) have brought about a break with past assumptions about recruitment policies and military tasks. While these innovations within the military structure have improved the administrative and support functions of the military profession, they have also increased the representation of women in the armed forces. This has led to the establishment of various standards for female soldiers to have equal access to all roles. These changes have been debated in the context of group cohesion and military effectiveness, and sociocultural dynamics alongside gender issues have been key concerns for both those advocating restrictions regarding the roles of female soldiers as well as researchers arguing for the acceptance of female soldiers in all fields.This study will not only make an original contribution to the literature on female soldiers in Türkiye but will also analyze how the image of female soldiers created in the social sphere and the norms associated with them relate to institutional arrangements. The first part of the study presents the theoretical approaches together with the factors that affect women’s participation in the armed forces and regulate their scope of duty to some extent. The second part identifies the findings on societal attitudes with a focus on Türkiye through a survey of 382 respondents and discusses these in relation to the sociocultural dimension of the theoretical framework. In this way, the aim is to examine the consistency of social perspectives and preferences in terms of existing regulations and institutional functioning regarding the phenomenon of female soldiers.

Social Attitudes towards Women’s Military Service in Turkiye

Abdüsselam

Assist. Prof.

Military Spending and Employment in Eastern European Countries: New Evidence from Panel Data Analysis

Niyazi

Every technique attempts to create a world that serves the creator’s purpose. This Heidegger viewpoint on what technique is a fact that should be considered by those who wage war in terms of the technique required for the conduct of war. Based on this premise, this study aims.Questioning the purposes of today’s various techniques, which can be seen to determine not only the current world system, but also what a human being is, is a complex process. Instead of conducting this investigation one by one, the metaphor of “pharmakon” aids in understanding how technique determines humanity. In its most basic form, pharmakon refers to both medicine and poison. A philosophical discussion of technique is made through the antagonism of something being both medicine and poison. This study used the concept in question to reveal approaches to technique and spark discussion.Another technique-related concept discussed in the study is “transhumanism.” As in classical humanism, the first uses of this concept show that technical developments that could affect human biology were discussed to re-express what a human being is. Transhumanism is explained as a philosophical movement in this study, but the political aspect is determined by how this philosophy’s ideals are applied.The concept of transhumanism was chosen for two reasons. The first is to reveal the ideological meanings of this concept today and to discuss the goals of today’s wars using political philosophy concepts. The second reason for selecting it is to highlight the harmful, disruptive, or ambiguous effects of automation and artificial intelligence, which are aspects of transhumanism and have become decisive in today’s wars, on political decision-makers and military personnel.The goal of the first section was to establish a theoretical framework by explaining the concept of pharmakon. Meanwhile, the second section, which discusses transhumanism, discusses the approaches to technique using the concept of pharmakon and some other concepts offered by political philosophy, and an attempt is made to determine some of the purposes of today’s wars, based on the use of technique as a tool of dominance over the other subject. The use of technique as a tool in war is touched on in the final two chapters, focusing on how technique-intensive tools of war change relationships in the context of strategy, war, and society.According to the purpose and conceptual framework of the study, the following two research questions; “If all techniques are pharmakology, what are the pharmakological effects of the technologies developed in the name of war?” How do all techniques, particularly those developed for warfare, poison the relationship between war and society?In wars, actors develop tools to achieve their political goals. This effort transforms war into a dynamic, ever-changing phenomenon. In this case, the warring actor must constantly develop tools for its own political purposes, determine the other’s political purposes and the context of the technical war tools created in response, and use this determination in the name of strategy. The study argues that a strategy with the right political goals and tools for war cannot be established without asking who handles the technique and how the worlds created make the subject dependent on the technique.The main claim of transhumanist philosophy is that all human struggles can be evaluated technically, and that solutions will come with technique, so that there will be no struggle that humans cannot overcome. In line with this materialist viewpoint, transhumanism accepts that the technically “enhanced” human species is both useful and inevitable. Its origins can be traced back to classical humanism and Enlightenment thought, which argued that rational humans can transcend the fundamental and insurmountable limits of creation. Transhumanism is the concept of “faith in rationality” in Enlightenment thought, which can also be seen as the current thought system and political movement.The goal of war is political, and since today’s authority uses technique as a tool of dominance and creates a political economy, the goal of war through technique is debatable. The study discusses the transformation of the idea of transhumanism, which re-discusses what a human being is through technological creation, into an ideology that legitimizes domination through technology, and shows that inequality between world societies is one of the causes of today’s wars.Because a system of dominance through technique has been created today, the purpose of war can be thought of in terms of technique. This situation can be viewed as a historical and dynamic process. After all, historical political orders were not as technically sophisticated as modern ones. However, the weapon of war has always been about technique. In this context, if one considers the pharmakological effects of each new technique, new techniques such as automation and artificial intelligence not only constantly change the character of war, but also endanger the status of the warring subject as a subject by making it dependent on itself. The study attempted to convey this situation by associating it with political decision-makers and the military profession, and it was demonstrated with historical examples how techniques such as automation and artificial intelligence made the subject of war dependent on itself.It is argued that a strategy in the name of war cannot be established without first asking how the technique is handled by whom, and how the worlds created with the technique make the subject dependent on the technology. In today’s world, as&nbsp;demonstrated in the section of the study on transhumanism, the purpose of wars appears to be to oppose the inequality created by an authority that provides domination through technique, and thus the warring subject must develop its own technical tools to that end. Indeed, the opposite is true for the authority that achieves dominance through technique; strategy is a phenomenon developed on the other party’s behalf.

Evaluation of Approaches to Technique in the Context of War and Military Profession

Atilla

Temmuz

The aim of this study is to describe the perceived threats to the nation-state and the transformations of the organizational structure in military organizations over three periods of the history of the Republic of Türkiye (1919-1945, 1945-1990, 1990-2023). The study also aims to evaluate these within the framework of the discussions on military sociology. The main limitation of the study is that it only provides a broad overview of each period without delving into the details of the military institution’s transformation. While this approach is suitable for the purpose of the study, it may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the changes that have occurred during each period. The study is a literature review that focuses solely on Türkiye post-Republic. The scope of the study excludes sociological discussions related to the transition from traditional society to modern society, as well as civil-military relations. The study’s scope being limited and the study not providing a comprehensive understanding of the broader sociological context in which the military operates are important to note. However, the study’s focus on post-Republic Türkiye provides valuable insights into the military’s organizational structure and perceived threats during these periods.Military organizations and security practices also transform in line with changes in the perceived threats and types of collective violence against the modern state change. When examining the historical context, threats to states starting at the beginning of the 20th century to the pre-Cold War period involved all-out wars that aimed at destroying national unity, as well as spatially concentrated wars that resulted in mass deaths. The perceived threats in these periods have been enemy invasion, with the force structure being a massive army and the military mission being national defense. For the Republic of Türkiye, this first period involves World War I, the War of Independence, and World War II, in which it had participated briefly but experienced its effects intensely. As war industrialized, industrial production methods and bureaucratic organization became integrated into the production of military equipment and the conduct of war. The societal values of the military organization were embraced by the population, and the institutional blueprint of the military expanded across nearly all segments of society, guided by the overarching concept of national service.After World War II, the threat shifted to nuclear attacks, which posed regional-level risks. During this era, the perceived threat revolved around the possibility of nuclear warfare, with a professional army characterized by the composition of a diverse force, with the primary military objective being support for alliances. The advent of the nuclear threat eroded the traditional temporal and spatial confines of warfare. Nations possessing nuclear capabilities maintained a state of readiness among their populations through the deterrence of these weapons. This context, characterized by an ever-present risk and the need for constant vigilance in the space between war and peace, reshaped the global security landscape and exerted a significant influence on the bipolar world structure&nbsp;dominated by NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Efforts to mitigate nuclear risks prompted NATO to provide military equipment and technology support to its member countries, including Türkiye. The acquisition of new weapons and equipment within this framework necessitated the utilization, safeguarding, and maintenance of these assets, leading the Turkish Armed Forces to enlist individuals from new professions and sectors. This heightened bureaucratization resulted in a greater degree of structural differentiation and hierarchical stratification within the military. Additionally, the traditional vertical pyramid-shape of the organizational base that had been found in classical armies began to broaden as a consequence of this process. As this bureaucratization unfolded, the military organization underwent a transformation into an expanded professional army. Within this evolving structure, the ranks of professionals within the army diversified and expanded, giving rise to a layered hierarchy of talent, distinct from the citizen-based mass conscript armies of the past.In the post-Cold War era, the central challenge has lain in confronting decentralized and widely spread network warfare scenarios that encompass local elements, such as terrorism and ethnic conflicts, and that are characterized by uncertainties regarding time and space. During this period, the primary perceived threat has consisted of localized violence necessitating the presence of a smaller professional military force that is primarily engaged in new missions such as peacekeeping operations. The prevailing types of threats in this era have been local and subnational, typified by low-intensity violence with little temporal and spatial predictability and deliberately targeting civilian populations. The key attributes that enable the military organization to counter such threats include speed, creativity, effective communication, self-organization, and adaptability. This adaptability extends to equipment, military leadership (both at the soldier and managerial levels), and organizational structure. In alignment with the theoretical underpinnings of these developments, the Turkish Armed Forces has responded by reducing the duration of compulsory military service and downsizing its personnel numbers, concurrently increasing the proportion of civilian and professional military staff within the institution. Despite this downsizing and increased flexibility, the Turkish Armed Forces has persisted in its military transformation, embracing the concept of an expanded professional army. It has restructured itself with a focus on regional defense, expanded its armored and heavy weaponry capabilities, and in addition to combating local terror threats, has engaged in peacekeeping and maintenance operations like Operation Claw and Operation Peace Spring.When delving into the sociological analysis of the transformation within the Turkish Armed Forces, similar to many other societal institutions, the fact that the military establishment has experienced profound changes in response to the sweeping global shifts that have characterized recent history becomes increasingly apparent. These shifts have ushered in a new era where fundamental concepts such as industrialization, the&nbsp;evolving nature of labor processes, and the imperative of adaptability have played pivotal roles in reshaping the military landscape. To truly comprehend the intricacies of this transformation, a more exhaustive exploration is imperative. This requires a thorough investigation that delves into the nuanced details of each distinct historical period, as delineated in the core themes of this study. By undertaking such a comprehensive analysis, a richer understanding can be gained of how the Turkish Armed Forces has adapted and evolved over time as a microcosm of broader societal changes.

The Changing Perception of Threats to the Nation-State and the Changing Structure of Military Organization in Türkiye from the Republic to the Present Day

Tolga

Throughout history, states aspiring to establish dominance have strategically established foreign military bases in regions where they aim to establish hegemony through indirect control or in geographically proximate areas. Foreign military bases, in this context, serve as primary tools for advancing political interests and asserting political power.These bases hold immense strategic value, primarily serving as facilities for armed forces to conduct battle, defense, and training operations. From a traditional geopolitical perspective, it is widely acknowledged that the path to achieving genuine global political power, capable of exerting meaningful worldwide strategic influence and protecting its interests abroad always begins with building military bases abroad (Guifang and Jie, 2019, p. 503).There are three primary strategic reasons for the establishment of foreign military bases. Despite the evolving content of these reasons in response to shifting global dynamics and power balances, these fundamental drivers have consistently persisted:Strategic Interest: Generally, when there is a need to counter a specific threat, the proximity of a base to the source of the threat is crucial for ensuring security. For major powers, this proximity can be a decisive factor in establishing a foreign base. These bases can be located in the territory of friendly states or even in the territory of adversaries. Their roles encompass deterring threats, engaging in conflicts and wars, gathering intelligence, conducting military exercises, ensuring the security of transition, and directing states to establish bases abroad on their own. In such situations, a state that maintains a base abroad is inclined to employ force, especially in the early years, to secure and protect this base.Joint Strategic Interest: Establishing a foreign military base is often considered a special method for the two states to cooperate and unite against a common threat. It provides host countries with the opportunity to harness the military presence of major powers to support the defense of their territories. On the other hand, the warning of shared strategic interests can undermine the rationale for base construction.Technological Advancements: Technological progress constitutes the impetus for the establishment of foreign military bases. Historically, the need for coal stations for naval vessels has driven the creation of bases in foreign countries. Similarly, advancement in aviation technology has required the presence of airports in various regions across the world (Converse, 1984). Moreover, progress in intelligence technologies has also required the establishment of bases worldwide. Some bases have been equipped with intelligence facilities to monitor regional communications. Notably, technologies such as nuclear capabilities, especially for their control and limitation, have emerged as pivotal reasons for establishing a foreign military base. Emerging technologies may also be a reason for establishing such bases.Today, the traditional roles of foreign military bases (defense of an ally or allies, functions of deterrence and counterbalancing, homeland defense, and intelligence gathering) still hold relevance but have diminished in priority compared to the past. However, counter-terrorism and reconnaissance missions have gained increased significance (Lachowski, 2007, p. 3).According to Glaser (2017, p. 5), three important reasons underscore the contemporary necessity of military bases. (1) deter potential offensives, (2) reassure friends and allies, and (3) provide a swift military response to any operational contingency. This underlines the significance of forces at these bases for counter-terrorism and reconnaissance missions and underscores the assumption that foreign military bases are essential for rapid deployment in military interventions.Common strategic interests often play a pivotal role in the establishment of foreign military bases on the territory of countries with which they maintain formal alliance ties. Although allied states may not always fulfill their security commitments, ordinarily with national strategic interests at the forefront, having formal ties based on a military base agreement signifies the commitment of the parties to uphold the agreement. Notable examples, such as Japan, Germany, and South Korea, hosting US military bases as a part of security agreements with the US, exemplify this situation (Ohtomo, 2012, p.18).The main reason for host countries to allow foreign military bases on their sovereign territory is the prospect of gaining economic and security advantages in return. As such, the decision of host countries on whether to allow foreign bases revolves around the balancing between economic and security benefits and political costs. It is an intuitive choice for a host country to permit foreign military bases, primarily for financial reasons (Brown, 2020, p. 13, 16). Foreign military bases, which are a powerful means for the security needs of the host country, also provide the creation of capital and a large market for goods and services in the host nation.&nbsp;Foreign military bases offer host countries to influence the resolution of local or regional conflicts. Simultaneously, they allow the base-owner country to address security needs and establish a network within the region. From a positive perspective, these bases serve as a valuable asset, providing both defense capabilities and resources where they are established. For example, as noted by Ryen Henry (2006, p. 48), the extensive network of US military bases abroad “reflects the American commitment to a global insurance policy for an evolving security environment”.However, this argument of support and altruism is inconsistent with the predominant nature of US strategic thinking regarding overseas bases, which often focuses on&nbsp;planning and equipping bases for attack rather than local conflict resolution or defense. Notable instances include the use of US bases in the Philippines for military operations in Vietnam, and the use of US bases in Germany for logistical support for the war in Iraq. The benefits of hosting foreign military bases may be substantial for local economies and governments. Still, they also include a host of other economic costs, including pollution, noise, and disturbance of peace, which cannot be fully offset by local spending by military personnel or hiring local people. Furthermore, US bases used in this manner may inadvertently make countries allied with the US more vulnerable to attacks, rather than providing adequate protection for the host countries (Lutz, 2009, p. 27).Some advocate an ideology that supports foreign military bases, arguing that the world is a dangerous place and naturally needs the control of the armies. They posit that foreign military bases are a normal and essential component of the global security framework, valued by the governments and the populations of the host countries (Johnson 2004). These bases are often presented as essential security means against objective risks. Stephen Van Evera (2001), however, suggests that foreign military bases can also be seen as symptoms or causes of irrational or limitless fears, bordering on paranoia, as they are constructed to regulate a world perceived as chaotic.Foreign military bases stand as prominent symbols and underpin the attitudes and approaches of base-owner states toward foreign and defense policy. However, their primary political purpose is not to increase stability, but to use the military presence of the base state as a tool for political change (Campbell and Ward, 2003, p. 100). In this context, the presence of a foreign military base can introduce political instability to the region in question. Agreements such as the Status of Force Agreement (SOFA), negotiated with unpopular local governments, may lead local populations and other nations to view these foreign military presences as authoritarian (Peterson, 2012, p. 194).&nbsp;There is a perspective suggesting that foreign military bases may not only contribute to the authoritarianism of the host country’s administration but also create security vulnerabilities. Over time, a military infrastructure can pose a threat to the host country, disrupt regional security, and potentially become a target or vulnerable to foreign attack (Zeijden 2009). Particularly, military bases established in proximity to conflict zones and neighboring hostile countries can pose various to the host country. The inability to take precautionary measures against threats, influenced by the terms of agreements between the host and the base-owner states or merely their existence, can lead to discussions that extend to questions of sovereignty.

Influence of Foreign Military Bases on Bilateral Relations: Institutional, Strategic and Cultural Impacts

Selçuk

This research aims to determine foreign military students’ perceptions of Türkiye and also discusses the importance of foreign military education in global strategy. Being different from normal student exchange programs, the study evaluated the strategic importance the foreign military exchange student program has for countries. The interviews were conducted with the guest military personnel (GMPs), who are formed of students from the Turkish Air Force Academy, Turkish Naval Academy, and Turkish Health Sciences University.The United States of America (USA) is an important country in terms of developing an understanding of international military education. International military programs are generally related to public, military, and security diplomacy. After World War II, the USA aimed to support and spread American culture and educational understanding. The Fulbright Act (US Congress,1946) and Smith-Mundt Act (US Congress, 1948) were enacted for this purpose. This process also changed the understanding of foreign military education. Soft power theory has special significance within the framework of countries’ goals and policies and gained an important position in the period that followed. The United States believes foreign military education programs to increase cooperation and reduce conflict (US Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act [USMECA], 1961, p. 2451). For this reason, identifying the military leaders of the future has been considered important (United States Foreign Assistance Act, 1961, p. 719). International military education is an important policy of the USA and is considered a tool for increasing its effectiveness in the global struggle. The prevention of wars and conflicts by increasing cooperation, improving conflict resolution, and increasing the number of allies was established as some of the general objectives of international military education (USMECA, 1961, p. 2451). The exchange program is very important with regard to countries’ strategic aims. Foreign military students’ desire to receive voluntary education in a foreign country is strategically important, and the effect of soft power is considered as the assumption that countries can influence the potential choices of young people. Determining Türkiye’s soft power in the region is important, and foreign military students’ perceptions of Türkiye should be determined in accordance with the stated objectives. This study is thus an attempt to determine their perceptions.MethodThis section includes information about the study design, study group, data collection instrument, and data collection and analysis processes.Research DesignThe study considers the phenomenological design, a qualitative research method, to be appropriate within its scope and has preferred this method for its ability to reveal students’ perceptions of Türkiye (Yıldırım &amp; Şimşek, 2018, p. 72).Study GroupMaximum variation sampling, a type of purposive sampling, was used to determine the study group. The study includes students from each different country and region.Data Collection ToolsThe interviews were collected using a questionnaire the researcher (Cantürk, 2021) has designed. The semi-structured interview form is called the Cultural Interaction and Adaptation Assessment Form for Guest Military Personnel and was designed to determine MAPs’ opinions before and after their arrival in Türkiye. The interview form consists of four sections on the GMPs’: (a) demographic information, (b) process of applying for education in Türkiye, (c) educational experiences, and (d) future plans. The semi-structured interview form includes six open-ended questions. Due to the aforementioned topics having been previously addressed from a broad perspective in the master’s thesis study, this time the study aims to focus on section b of the form and analyze it in greater depth. The validity and reliability tests of the developed interview form were completed with the feedback of three experts on research methods.Data AnalysisThe interviews lasted approximately 30-35 minutes. Audio recordings were made during the interviews. After the interviews were completed, the audio recordings were coded and converted into written documents. The study was coded and classified using the program MAXQDA 2018.1 program.FindingsThe students in the study are from Africa, Asia, the Mediterranean, Europe, and the Caucasus. In general, military students from different countries lacked sufficient information about Türkiye. When considering their limited information, GMPs were seen to define Türkiye as a country with a Muslim population. Other information included some aspects of tourism, movies, TV series, and sports activities.ResultsAmong the limited information available to the foreign military exchange students when asked to define Türkiye, the first definition that came to their minds related to the country having a majority Muslim population in terms of religious affiliation. In addition to religion, the participants’ most important determinants in their perceptions involved tourism, Turkish television series, and sports activities. The students who stated knowing about Türkiye through tourism and vacation regions were found to generally be from Central Asian and Middle Eastern countries.The students who stated having information about Türkiye through Turkish TV series were observed to generally be from Central Asian countries. Meanwhile, the students from West Africa, Central Asia, and North Asia were found to have obtained information about Türkiye as a result of sports activities. Some students from the African continent stated knowing Türkiye as a state with an Arab population.As a result, existing plans should be updated by taking into account the strategic benefits of this field in order to be more successful with regard to international military education. The fact that students in the mentioned regions had very limited knowledge about Türkiye can be evaluated as a limited dimension of soft power in the region. In this context, military attachés, especially foreign missions, can be seen to need to implement various measures to increase soft power. However, the need for a professional structure to maintain the vitality of existing warm relations appears essential in terms of students’ selection and promotion activities prior to coming to Türkiye, their cultural interaction and adjustment after arriving, their satisfaction criteria, their expectations, and their alumni network after their education and return to their countries. Without the establishment of this structure and the support of effective activities, Türkiye appears unlikely to be an effective actor regarding international competition in the field of international military education.

War College Guest Military Students’ Perceptions of Türkiye

Uğur

Sociology is generally perceived as a peace-oriented discipline whose goals include the visibility of social inequalities, their elimination, and the achievement of individual and societal well-being. However, the possibility exists of instrumentalizing sociology for ideological purposes and using sociological data for intelligence rather than scientific endeavors. In today’s complex and dynamic world, access to information and analytical skills provide a strategic advantage to states, institutions, and individuals (Akman, 2019, p. 40). Information and intelligence play a critical role in policy making, security planning, and even in managing commercial competition. As a result, intelligence disciplines have emerged as important fields that are primarily carried out by military and intelligence agencies (Özdemir &amp; Kahya, 2021, p. 6). While sociology primarily aims to understand and explain complex social realities by focusing on human behavior, social structures, and relationships, the focus of social science information gathering activities is often limited and traditionally excluded from intelligence gathering processes. As a result, the intersections and collaborative potential between the social sciences and intelligence disciplines are often overlooked. This article examines the concept of sociological intelligence, which represents the intersection between sociology as a social science and intelligence studies. Sociological intelligence involves the application of sociological theories, methods, and research in intelligence gathering and analysis with the goal of providing functional information about social structures, societal dynamics, and group behavior.Despite the dominance of strategic intelligence, military intelligence, and security threats in intelligence disciplines, a lack currently exists in the Turkish literature specifically devoted to sociological intelligence. As a result, a comprehensive assessment of the potential contribution of the social sciences, especially sociology, to the field of intelligence is also conspicuously lacking. This article aims to provide a conceptual examination of sociological intelligence, to identify its initial reception in foreign sources, and to highlight social sciences’ potential to contribute to the intelligence disciplines. This study is an archival research study focused on sociological intelligence as a term. The data collection process involves scanning open online archives that encompass a variety of resources such as in the social sciences, intelligence disciplines, and military. The data collection period spanned from January 10 to July 1, 2023 and involved the systematic scanning of online articles, books, academic studies, and official documents. The search was conducted using keywords such as intelligence, sociological intelligence, espionage, and sociological espionage in databases and online search engines. The limitations of the study arise from limited access to open online archives and limited access to military sources and may limit the breadth of the findings. Following the data collection, the research analyzed the obtained information and evaluated the use and evolution of the term of sociological intelligence.The article begins by highlighting the initial use of sociology for military purposes, particularly by the US military. Subsequent sections explore the basic concepts of sociological intelligence, review the limited work in the field, and finally draw attention to the US Army’s (1997) publication Strategic Intelligence, which systematically addresses the definition, purpose, and components of sociological intelligence. The study aims to serve as a resource for academics, researchers, and professionals in the fields of sociology and intelligence while also contributing to intelligence collection and analysis. Integrating the social sciences with the information and intelligence disciplines is seen as promoting a more comprehensive and multidimensional understanding, thereby facilitating more effective decision-making in areas such as policy formulation, security planning, and social interaction management.Sociological intelligence has paramount importance to a nation’s foreign services and armed forces. Military scholars and policymakers rely on sociological intelligence to understand the social matrix of potentially adversarial countries. In addition, commanders overseeing operations in foreign territories require sociological intelligence to counter guerrilla and resistance activities, effectively manage local governance during times of conflict, and implement effective psychological programs. The genesis of sociological intelligence as a term can be traced back to an ethnographic study initiated in the Soviet Union and subsequently adopted by the US military and intelligence apparatus. Important figures in the field of sociological intelligence include the Russian researcher Pavel Ivanovich Kushner and the German intelligence specialist Gerhard von Mende. The earliest documented occurrence of the term in the Turkish literature can be traced to its appearance in a 1952 issue of Ordu Dergisi [Journal of the Army]. The formal use of the term in English can be traced back to a 1953 report by the US National Security Council, which officially endorsed the collection of political and sociological intelligence by the U.S. military and intelligence agencies. In addition to its military applications, sociological intelligence has the potential to be used in the business world. Companies can use sociological intelligence to gather information about other nations through competitive intelligence, enabling them to assess cultural values, attitudes toward success, and propensities for cooperation. The growing acceptance and use of this concept is evidenced by its inclusion and explanation in encyclopedias and dictionaries. Sociological intelligence is considered an indispensable tool for understanding the dynamics of group relations and social structures within a nation.In 1968, sociological intelligence first appeared as a term in the Encyclopedia Britannica (1968, p. 347), highlighting the lack of adequate sociological intelligence regarding the Soviet Union during the USSR’s occupation of Nazi Germany in World War II. In 1976, George H. W. Bush emphasized the importance of sociological intelligence during his tenure as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (Excerpts of Speech, 1976, p. 5). The 1979 edition of the United States Code (1979, p. 1579) defined the duties of the Central Intelligence Agency to include the collection of sociological intelligence related to national security. The US Army’s (1992, pp. 3–32) Field Manual 34-52 Intelligence Interrogation expanded the concept of sociological intelligence to focus on people, traditions, behaviors, and institutions. Richelson (1999, p. 6) defined sociological intelligence as the study of group relations within a country through ethnic, religious, or political groups’ influence on stability and foreign policy. Kinniburgh (2004, p. 118) emphasized the importance of sociological intelligence in understanding covert networks, as well as the need for human intelligence in addition to technical intelligence. Over the years, sociological intelligence has appeared as a term in encyclopedias and dictionaries, and its importance has been discussed regarding understanding specific group relationships (The New Encyclopedia Brittanica, 2003, p. 688; Encyclopedia Americana, 2005, p. 246; Burton, 2005, p. 145). Proponents suggest applying sociological intelligence not only to military contexts but also to the business sector, recognizing its role in competitive intelligence efforts (Blenkhorn &amp; Fleisher, 2005, p. 62). They argue that an understanding of sociological, educational, economic, political, and geographic intelligence is critical for decision making in a global business environment (Blenkhorn &amp; Fleisher, 2005, p. 62).The US Army’s (1997) Strategic Intelligence handbook provides a comprehensive examination of sociological intelligence. Created for the Military Adaptation Program professional specialization course, this handbook presents a detailed definition of sociological intelligence and elaborates upon its goals and key components. It defines sociological intelligence as the study of human groups, behaviors, and characteristics, and its goal is to determine population size, characteristics, workforce effectiveness, and potential military human resources. Sociological intelligence uses sociological concepts to understand a country’s population and its various groups. Factors such as health, wealth, religion, education, and social status provide opportunities for propaganda. Strategic planners rely on population analyses to understand demographic changes while race, ethnicity, and culture contribute to social divisions. Environmental factors such as living standards, housing, health, religion, education, and public opinion shape the morale and attitudes of a nation. Education is critical to workforce effectiveness, and public opinion can influence government decisions. Overall, sociological intelligence provides valuable insights for strategic analysis and decision-making.

A Conceptual Examination of Sociological Intelligence

Banu

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

Levent

This study, it is aimed to prove the “trade promotes peace” hypothesis with archeological and anthropological data. A comprehensive framework, encompassing utilitarianism, legal bonds, commercial relationships, and peace, is established to examine the intricate interplay between trade and the concept of gift-giving. Moreover, the study endeavors to comparative perspective, drawing parallels between past and present societies.&nbsp;The study is structured into three distinct sections. In the first section, we conducted a meticulous review of the empirical literature, focusing on modern-day societies. We explore the profound interdependence fostered by trade, which yields increased financial gains and improved overall welfare for countries. Furthermore, we emphasize the significant economic losses incurred by countries in conflicts, underlining the crucial role of trade in promoting peace. A recurring theme in these studies is the unwavering commitment of countries to safeguard their welfare gains from trade, leading to a tangible reduction in the risk of conflicts. Remarkably, the risk of conflict decreases while the rate of trade among countries continues to increase.Tracing evidence that trade thrived on peaceful social relations in early civilizations has traditionally been the scope of archeology and anthropology. Consequently, in the second section of this study, we delve into archeology research related to trade. This research provides illuminating insights into the historical facets of trade, commodities involved, distribution mechanisms, quantities, and temporal aspects of mutual exchanges. It is well known that early societies engaged in long-distance trade as far back as the Upper Paleolithic, and these exchanges encompassed not only essential goods but also luxury items. Furthermore, it is considered that the exchange of goods was not always barter-based; at times, information or services may have been offered in exchange for goods. Such exchanges necessitate safe routes and interactions, which remain crucial but inadequately explained. This underscores the significance of anthropological and interdisciplinary studies that explore the links between trade and peace, offering a comprehensive perspective.&nbsp;The third and final section of this study employs the work of Marcel Mauss to determine the traces of peace relations within the realm of trade. We begin with an overview of Mauss’s influential work. The framework for analyzing trade and gifts is delineated as “utilitarianism, legal bond, commercial relationship, and peace.” Subsequently, we strive to establish a comparative perspective that links early societies and their contemporary counterparts. In this context, Marcel Mauss’s great work, “The Gift,” renowned within social anthropology, serves as a central reference point. Mauss’ work explores the profound implications of gift-giving, encompassing fields as diverse as economics, sociology, law, psychology, trade, and international relations. This study attempts to identify areas where Mauss’s work leaves unanswered questions, serving as a guide for further exploration.&nbsp;Within the gift cycle prevalent in primitive or archaic societies lies the basis of contemporary legal, economic, and social phenomena. Before the written rules, for primitive or prehistoric societies, the gift cycle offers a comparative perspective with today’s societies in showing the basis of legal and commercial relationship. The cycle of gifts transcends mere acts of giving, receiving, and reciprocating; it represents a complex web of relationships, seemingly unrequited but with an implicit expectation of reciprocation within a reasonable timeframe, thereby dictating the course of interactions among individuals or societies. Gift-giving paves the way for social interaction based on a peaceful relationship. The seemingly voluntary yet inherently obligatory gift cycle, whether involving two or more parties, imposes certain obligations upon all participants within an acceptable timeframe, establishing a legal framework that the parties willingly uphold.The utilitarian approach, a moral philosophy rooted in maximizing individual happiness or minimizing suffering through actions, aligns closely with gift-giving. Utilitarianism is generally recognized as the perspective that deems the morally right action to be the one that generates the greatest good or maximum benefits. Gift-giving aligns with the utilitarian principles of classical economics, as it enhances an individual’s happiness. The initial giver of a gift takes the first step toward establishing a social and economic relationship based on peace. The sustainability of this relationship hinges upon the response of the other party to the gift. The act of giving a response gift within a reasonable timeframe, offering something of greater value after a delay, or choosing not to reciprocate can alter the course of relations among individuals or societies. In addition, the concept of gift-giving can be assessed from an anti-utilitarian standpoint. If an individual derives happiness from the act of giving gifts, this action closely aligns with utilitarianism. Utility, in this context, functions as an individual’s survival strategy, operating through cognitive processes that often operate swiftly.Gift-giving is regarded as an initial step toward establishing peaceful relations. A gift marks the beginning of a mutual and complex relationship built on trust. The initial giver of the gift makes a choice under the uncertainty surrounding whether the gift will be reciprocated. Perhaps this act is intended to minimize the risk of a potential conflict arising. In summary, the exchange of gifts contributes to the development of social relations between individuals and societies.&nbsp;Irrespective of the presence or absence of written legal regulations, every society inherently desires to live in social order and economic prosperity. Trade, serving as the determinant of international relations and a fundamental factor of peace within and between societies, has been an enduring factor in social and economic relations across nearly all societies since the last ice age. Trade conducted within the framework of peace not only enhances interdependence and prosperity among countries but also paves the way for the permanent establishment of peace.

Trade and Peace within the Gift Theory from a Behavioral Economics Perspective

Anıl

The Withering Away of the Physician in Medical Sociology: Medicalization, Biomedicalization, and Pharmaceuticalization

Fatih

Changes in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Values During the Early Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Business Faculty Students

Melike

Assist. Prof. Dr.

The distinction between the terms “skill” and “ability” is important. The essence of this differentiation should be highlighted at the outset. According to the Turkish Language Institution, “skill” is defined as the ability to accomplish a task and achieve the desired outcomes based on predisposition and learning, whereas “ability” is described as a boundary rooted in heritage and encompassing learning. The fundamental distinction between these terms lies in the emphasis on inheritance for “ability” and the acquirable and developable nature of “skill,” which also inherently includes ability. Additionally, a distinction exists between “skill” and “competence.” Competence is often used to denote skill sets, comprising practical and theoretical knowledge used to enhance performance, cognitive abilities, behaviors, and values (Succi, 2019, p. 284).As defined by Peterson and Van Fleet (2004, p. 1298), “skill” encompasses the ability to perform a specific behavioral task or cognitive process related to a particular task. Notably, skill consists of three components: (1) domain-specific knowledge, (2) a method to access that knowledge, and (3) the ability to execute a series of behaviors or cognitions using the acquired information. However, the first two components serve as prerequisites for the observable action, with the third component being the observable skill. The necessity of recognizing, developing, and adapting skills to new conditions is crucial to prevent alienation and ensure professional success and satisfaction. Attewell (1990) explored some of the epistemological and conceptual problems of the term “skill” and explained four distinct sociological notions of skills, namely, positivist, ethnomethodological, Weberian, and Marxist. In addition to being fairly mundane, skill is also a phenomenon that tends to be objectively measured and hierarchically evaluated. Skill is the determinant of basic claims and ideals, such as success in business life, satisfaction, and sufficient income. For a person not to become alienated from his/her work and him/herself, he/she should realize and develop the skills suitable for new conditions (Attewell, 1990).“Soft skills” encompass various key abilities, such as teamwork, effective communication, leadership, conflict resolution, planning, and problem-solving. Three fundamental skills in the workplace are emphasized (A Scans Report for America, 2000): basic skills (reading, writing, math, listening, and speaking), thinking skills (creative thinking, decision making, problem-solving, learning methods, and critical thinking), and personal skills (individual responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, selfmanagement, and integrity).Katz is accepted as the first person who mentioned soft skills. Katz (2009, pp. 7–18) categorized skills into technical, human, and conceptual skills: Technical skills involve specific activities and methods; human skills center on working effectively with others; and conceptual skills encompass understanding an organization’s various functions and their relationship with external factors.Hurrell, Scholarios, and Thompson (2012, pp. 165–166) explained three dimensions of the soft skills. The first component is the part related to the person’s qualifications/ qualities. This component can be defined as the skills expected from the employee to perform a specific job/task. The second component is skills related to the job itself, such as the job itself, the broader job context, recruitment, selection, and training practices. The third component is the skills that come to the fore with the impact of economic actors on the social structure. This component shows what is worthy of being labeled as skilled working in society. In other words, the soft skills of the individual at work should be understood as a reflection of what he/she brings as a skill to this job; the conditions, needs, and limitations of the job; and the skills that are valued (Hurrell et al., 2012, pp. 165–166).The basic skills that come to mind when soft skills are mentioned are teamwork/ effectively working with others, communication, leadership, conflict management, planning/organization skills, management skills, problem-solving, self-awareness, critical thinking, technical skill/technology use, taking responsibility, time management, decision making, working under stress, competition, creativity, eagerness to learn, and emotional intelligence (Balcar, 2016; Chamorro-Premuzic et al., 2010; Freestone et al., 2006; Gündeş &amp; Atakul, 2017; Jackson, 2014; Kember et al., 2007; Nair et al., 2009; Odusami, 2002; Özdemir et al., 2021; Radcliffe, 2005; Ratnaningsih, 2013).However, the literature presented conceptual challenges in the understanding and application of soft skills, often leading to confusion among traits, values, characteristics, and behaviors. The distinction between cognitive and emotional abilities as soft skills and whether they are inherent or interpersonal adds complexity to the concept. The question of whether soft skills can be developed remains contentious, with a requirement for proper knowledge, practice, and feedback (Matteson et al., 2016, pp. 81–83).Higher education is expected to provide students with the necessary knowledge and skills for individual and professional development (Franco-Angel et al., 2022; Gündeş &amp; Atakul, 2017; Tambe, 2021). Developing skills requires accessing accurate information, having opportunities for practical experience, and receiving feedback on practical activities (Matteson et al., 2016), with universities being an ideal setting. However, in many countries, university graduates often lack industry-relevant skills (Patacsil &amp; Tablatin, 2017; Radcliffe, 2005). For instance, Nair, Patil, and Mertova (2009) revealed significant discrepancies between engineering students’ developed skills and industry expectations in Australia’s Monash University undergraduate programs. Higher education institutions fall short of equipping graduates with skills that meet the expectations of governments, employers, and students for lifelong learning. Reports and plans from various countries, such as Australia, Germany, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, emphasize the necessity for higher education to impart high-order thinking skills to graduates, regardless of their field of study (Kember et al., 2007, p. 610).Studies that considered soft skills as a prerequisite for learning academic knowledge (e.g., Barrie, 2006) coexist with those emphasizing the need to develop soft skills within the context of the relevant discipline (e.g., Kember et al., 2007). Barrie (2004, pp. 269–270) defined three encompassing attributes of university education outcomes: attitude toward knowledge (having knowledge), attitude toward the world (global citizenship), and attitude toward oneself (lifelong learning), which are supported through the development of five clusters of skills and abilities. These clusters provide a concrete manifestation of specialized undergraduate education within the individual’s personal qualities, cognitive abilities, and practical skills. These five clusters are research and inquiry; information literacy; personal and intellectual autonomy; ethical, social, and professional understanding; and communication. The challenge is that the skills to be imparted in universities are often listed without hierarchical order, shared meanings, or consensus among faculty members (Barrie, 2004), diminishing the impact of university-level learning on lifelong learning.Universities are encouraged to embed soft skill development within technical skill courses as a functional and effective strategy (Balcar, 2016; Schulz, 2008). However, students also play a pivotal role in acquiring soft skills, necessitating personal effort and initiative (Majid et al., 2019, p. 18). The impact of socio-cultural factors and the individual’s background on skill development is emphasized; a student’s socio-cultural background and accumulated economic, cultural, and social capital can influence their engagement with the university and their ability to capitalize on opportunities for skill enhancement. Additionally, students’ lack of awareness regarding the importance of soft skills in employability and career development is another challenge (Majid et al., 2012). Students need to recognize the significance of these skills and actively engage in activities that foster their development.When the examples of education and training models in the literature and the suggestions to support soft skills development are evaluated together, universities can support their graduates to develop soft skills. First, departments in universities should organize their curricula in a way that supports the acquisition of technical and soft skills. The important part here is to know the employment areas of the discipline well, ensure continuous cooperation with the relevant sectors and alumni, and recognize the current skills that graduates need in working life and include them in the curriculum. The education–teaching environment is student centered in a way that encourages students to learn, and the conceptual integrity of soft skills among faculty members is also a factor that facilitates students’ acquisition of skills. Apart from the curriculum, universities need to develop workshops and practical activities aimed at providing the&nbsp;basic soft skills expected of university graduates and the prominent soft skills specific to the field. Creating environments in which different actors (student–student, student– faculty member, student–graduate, etc.) will interact is important, particularly considering that students develop skills by observing others who are highly successful. These activities will make students feel like a part of their university, strengthen their sense of belongingness, and support them in developing their cultural and social capital. Finally, universities should conduct studies that consider students’ awareness/effort level toward social skills and the importance of socio-cultural factors.This study aims to create a preliminary resource for the development of Turkeyspecific models for improving higher education–market cooperation and employment through soft skills acquisition.

Difficulties in Conceptualizing Soft Skills and the Role of Soft Skills in the University–Employment Relationship

Enes

Miki

Migrants are often forced to cope with a variety of problems, such as loneliness and foreignness. As people who are far away from the places of their birth and upbringing (Adıgüzel, 2019), migrants not only try to adapt themselves to the societies they migrated to but also attempt to maintain their relationships with their home countries. The emergence of new media tools can make those attempts much easier in several ways (Dekker &amp; Engbersen, 2014; Komito, 2011). Although digital gaming is a recently popularized media tool and is often criticized for its possible negative impacts, there are limited studies regarding its implication for migrants’ social relationships and social adaptation. This study examines how digital games could influence the course of migrants’ social adaptation and transnational relationships.&nbsp;&nbsp;Digital games have become a part of everyday life for many these days. Online games are especially enjoyed by millions of players worldwide, bringing together people from different corners of the world who accumulate social capital through these interactions (Trepte et al., 2012). This element of interaction indicates a social dimension of these games. As Williams and Steinkuehler (2006) state, just like bars and cafés, which are traditional places for social interaction, digital games can function as alternative places outside of home and workplace, that is, a third place for socialization. While living far from their homeland, migrants can use digital games as a third space for socialization and spending time with friends and relatives in their home countries. In his case study of African migrants in the USA, Bayeck (2020) finds that digital games can sustain migrants’ transnational social networks, reduce their sense of alienation by being connected with different communities, and help them understand the social practices of the countries they have migrated to, which might initially seem confusing. Dralega and Corneliussen’s studies (2018; 2017) show that digital games could connect the locals and the minority, help minorities engage with the broader community, and support the social adaptation process of migrants.&nbsp;This study adopts a qualitative method to delve deeper into a subject that has been newly explored in social sciences (Cresswell, 2020, p. 48). Data was collected through semi-structured interviews. The participants of the study were selected through a purposive sampling method. They were contacted through gamers’ sites and groups on social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Reddit. Ten Turkish gamers, who lived outside Turkey or who had been abroad longer than a year and considered living overseas again, were selected as interviewees. Interviews were conducted by the first author between 16 March and 17 April 2022, using the online meeting software of the participants’ choice. The interviews lasted between 30 to 60 minutes and were voice- or video-recorded according to the participants’ choice. All the participants gave their consent to the recordings. Data was analyzed according to the thematic structure of the interview. The collected data was analyzed under three themes. The&nbsp;first theme is about the participants’ demographic characteristics and migration experiences. The second theme is about the participants’ perceptions of digital games and their preferences regarding game choices. The last theme delves into the participants’ experiences of transnational social relations in digital games, particularly in relation to social adaptation as migrants. The final theme is presented in two different sections in this paper.&nbsp;The findings of the study show that based on participants’ perception of digital games and the importance they attach to games and their sociability, digital games showed the ability to help migrants maintain and make new transnational social relationships as well as cope with adaptation processes as migrants in different degrees. Digital games can be quite an effective tool for migrants to maintain their relationships with native countries. Eight out of ten participants maintained their existing relationships in their homelands through digital games. As William and Steinkuehler (2006) also point out, the participants saw digital games as a third place for socialization, a space where they spent time with the people they missed. Thus, digital games provide migrants with means to maintain relationships they do not want to leave behind and fulfill their longing for them. At the same time, digital games also act as a platform where the participants meet new friends from their homelands. In this respect, it is possible to say that digital games have a significant potential for developing and sustaining transnational relationships and creating social space beyond borders.This research also finds that digital games could have positive implications for social adaptation. A number of participants expressed that playing digital games enhanced their social relationships in their host countries. One of the participants made most of her friends in Poland, where she had lived, at a local game café. Another participant’s friendship with one of his colleagues was strengthened through playing digital games together. Friendship with gamers from different backgrounds can help an individual easily adapt to a new cultural environment. One of the participants, who had no difficulty adapting to life in a foreign country, said that he had played digital games with gamers from different countries. He further added that he had once even joined a guild named the “Hellenic Horde,” which consisted of Greek gamers from Cyprus, and became good friends with them. It is significant that the participant, who is a Turk, formed a strong bond with other gamers in a Greek guild despite the historical tension between the people of Turkish and Greek origins in Cyprus. This underscores the fact that establishing transnational relationships in their home countries does not necessarily hinder their adaption to the societies they have migrated to. On the contrary, they can be more understanding and adaptive to different cultures (Vertovec, 2009, p. 78). Digital games, which help cross-cultural communications (Binark &amp; Bayraktutan Sütcü, 2008), can make migrants’ adaptation to different cultural environments easier.It seems that the degree to which migrants benefit from digital games in terms of transnational relationships and social adaptation varies according to their own level of sociability, choice of games, cultural conservativeness, and the importance they attach to games. The participants who are introverted and prefer playing games on their own tend to benefit from gaming as a socialization tool. However, the participants who are extroverts and play games with other players tend to make and maintain transnational friendships through digital games, as well as adapting to social life in their host countries. Similarly, the benefit of socialization varies according to the weight of digital games in migrants’ lives. The participants who attach special importance to digital games are more inclined to leverage them for socialization than those who regard digital games as mere recreation. The benefits of socialization differ according to the way migrants play games as well as the importance they attach to them. This indicates that digital games may not be beneficial in all circumstances.Cultural attachment is another factor for migrants’ transnational relationships and social integration. The participants who harbor biases against other cultures tend to develop more relationships with the gamers hailing from the same place of origin. On the one hand, migrants’ religious and cultural attachment makes them feel close to their homelands. On the other hand, this type of transnational relationship may hinder their sociocultural adaptation (Pitkänen et al., 2012, p. 217–218). One of the participants, identified as K8, was culturally and religiously attached to Turkey and kept a distance from other cultures. Among all the participants, he had experienced the most difficulty in social adaptation. At the same time, he seemed to have benefited very little from digital games in terms of socialization. Thus, as Crawford et al. (2011) argue, digital games should be treated as part of everyday lives, interactions, and practices rather than as an entirely different space from daily life. Our ideologies, culture, and values influence our everyday practices, and digital games constitute an integral part of such practices.&nbsp;The implications of digital games for transnational relationships and migrant adaptation indicate their potential as a significant social capital resource. Social capital, which is defined as resources one acquires through social connections, can provide non-material resources (e.g., emotional support, information, and advice) as well as material resources (e.g., money, food, and shelter) (Schiller et al., 1995). There are a number of studies that demonstrate that digital games can serve as sources of social capital. For instance, Zhong’s research (2011) shows that an exchange of emotional or other substantial support can be realized among gamers who play Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games due to an experience of cooperation and shared time and space. Zhong also finds evidence that digital games positively contribute to gamers’ participation in offline social life. The accounts of the participants in this study indicate many similarities with the findings of other related studies. For&nbsp;some participants (K1, K2, and K10), digital games provide a space for emotional support from friends and families back home. Meanwhile, digital games are viewed as one of the most important tools for migrants (K9) to develop social networks in their host local communities. Nevertheless, this study did not find any evidence indicating that social relationships developed through digital games provide individuals with material resources.

Digital Games in Terms of Migrants’ Transnational Relations and Social Cohesion: A Study on Turkish Immigrants

Canan

Zehra

The integration of non-state actors into the sphere of social welfare in Türkiye, the increase in the employment of women, and the “welfare gap” (Vobruba, 1998), especially in the care sector, have given rise to “global care chains” (Hochshild, 2000). An informal labor pool has emerged of migrant women, made up mostly of those who came from former Soviet Union countries (Akalın, 2007, p. 210). This research explores how the roles of motherhood and caregiving are reproduced by focusing on intra-household negotiations and seeks answers to the following questions: (1) How is the relationality between live-in migrant care workers and mothers negotiated? (2) How are the culturally differentiating caregiving and domestic roles shared between migrant care workers and the mothers who hire them? As a result, the study aims to understand and describe the negotiations involved in the unequal relationality between the two parties as well as their competing and overlapping ideas about motherhood and caregiving.Conceptual FrameworkThe scholarly literature on migrant care workers focuses on (1) the problems migrant women experience (Anderson, 2012), (2) the exploitation of their physical and emotional labor through fictive kinship ties (Baldassar et al., 2017), and (3) mothers’ perceptions of migrant care workers (Yazgan et al., 2017). These studies usually shed light on the perspectives and experiences of either the migrant care workers or the mothers through concepts such as emotional labor, fictive kinship, and global care chains. However, a focus on the negotiation of childcare in households where the migrant care worker and mother live together requires an analysis that goes beyond isolated perspectives (Erdem &amp; Şahin, 2009, p. 283). The precarious working conditions of care workers (Hellgren, 2015), as well as the problems arising from cultural and class differences inside the household, determine how caregiving roles are negotiated between the migrant care worker and the mother who hires her.MethodsThis study employs a phenomenological qualitative research design that analyzes subjective meanings and experiences through social interaction in order to understand the relational negotiations regarding the caregiving roles between a mother and migrant care worker. While households receiving live-in childcare services constitute the unit of analysis, the subjects of the research are migrant care workers and the mothers who hire them in Istanbul, the hub of migrant care workers in Türkiye (Ministry of Labor and Social Security, 2019). Using the quota sampling technique, the study group includes mothers and their live-in migrant care workers who have been sharing the same house for at least the last three months, with the aim of reaching a total of 20 participants (i.e., 10 migrant care workers and 10 mothers). The data collection process started in January 2022, and the study so far has been able to include five households that employ migrant care workers, for a current total of 10 participants (i.e., 5 migrant care workers and 5 mothers).Findings and ConclusionAccording to the preliminary findings, the relationality between the mothers and the migrant care workers emerges over three main phases. The first is the reconciliation phase, where the caregiver and the mother reveal their expectations and recruitment criteria. While both parties have similar concerns about privacy and security that arise from living in the same house, the mother is distinguished in this stage by her worries about both the care worker’s ability to provide proper care for the child as well as the possible emotional attachment that will occur between the child and the migrant care worker. The care worker is particularly concerned about taking responsibility for someone else’s child and the language barrier. The mothers noted that language, religion, and ethnicity were not significant criteria for recruitment, instead specifying the significance of the care worker having a loving and caring approach toward the child as well as having a proactive role in the household. The care workers’ expectations mainly center on having good household relationships and obtaining a good income. The second adaptation stage shows the cultural differences and similarities between the mother and the care worker to become visible through the competing and overlapping ideas of what being a good mother and proper childcare mean. The mother’s and migrant worker’s ideas of what being a good mother means mostly converge on this point, and this agreement is defined beyond cultural differences within the framework of the intensive emotional care given to the child. However, the findings from this study showcase this cultural transcendence and conformity to dissolve around participants’ ideas about the meanings of proper childcare. In some households, migrant care workers prefer the traditional childrearing practices they had internalized back in their countries while criticizing the mothers for pursuing book-based childrearing techniques. Concurrently, the mothers criticize the care workers for their poor hygiene habits, inadequate childcare skills, and cultural differences, which they believe are rooted in the living conditions in their previous hometowns. Within this context, a majority of the mothers conceive migrant care workers as part of the family, and migrant care workers hold that they care for the children as if they are their own. Nevertheless, some of the migrant care workers in these households underlined how they do not see themselves as part of the family. Indeed, they believe that an employer-employee relationship exists inside the household. This inconsistency shows the boundaries of the fictive kinship to have been drawn unilaterally, predominantly by the mother. The last stage involves how household routines and order are maintained; during this stage, the initially secure relationality between the migrant care worker and the mother transforms in line with the unique communication strategies of the household members. The relationality between the migrant care worker and the mother is established through the implicit and open negotiation processes regarding childcare. Based on these findings, this study argues that, while this process is predominantly adapted to the expectations of the mother, migrant care workers do not internalize the fictive kinship the mother has constructed and the insecure employment conditions.

Relational Negotiation Processes Between Migrant Care Workers and Mothers: From Caregiving to Fictive Kinship

Muhammet

Res. Assist.

This study examines the negative discourse encountered by Georgians engaged in circular labor migration from Georgia to Turkey for tea harvesting. Using interviews with local residents, news articles and media comments targeting Georgians, the study reveals the challenges Georgians face during their workdays and the processes surrounding their labor and field observations are also presented. Data were analyzed concerning the conceptual framework of discrimination and the processes of myth production. Furthermore, the reactions of Georgians to the processes are discussed using strategies and tactics. Thus, this study aims to uncover and address the discrimination and myths surrounding Georgians’ experiences in the tea market, their coping strategies, and the perpetuation of discrimination.In its examination of structural discrimination (2012, p. 7), this study introduces the concept of “delegitimization” (Delegitimization), drawing inspiration from BarTal’s (1989) work on extreme stereotypes and discriminations, and combines this concept with myths. Oren and Bar-Tal (2007) examine this concept using Israel and Palestine as an example, indicating the reference to the negative aspects of groups subjected to discrimination by society. This can also emerge as dehumanization, highlighting the group’s negative characteristics and traits, stigmatizing them with political labels, and emphasizing their differences from morally superior groups. Additionally, it can be achieved by equating the group’s characteristics with those of a different negative group. Exclusion and discrimination are explained by Bar-Tal (1989, pp. 172–173) using five different conceptualizations. The first conceptualization is dehumanization, which classifies a group as subhuman and animal-like. A dehumanized group is pushed to the margins, while the dominant group assumes the authority to domesticate them. The second conceptualization is outcasting, which occurs when a group violates crucial social standards. The third conceptualization is trait characterization, which reduces those subjected to discrimination to parasitic, unstable, and unreliable traits. The fourth conceptualization is the use of political labels to brand the group. This conceptualization is not limited to labeling the group as fascist or communist but also involves the politicization of an individual’s country identity if it differs from the dominant group. Religious differences can also directly push the group into a political realm. Lastly, group comparison is achieved by aligning the group with another group disliked by the dominant society.This study examines the discrimination against Georgians involved in circular labor migration from Georgia to Turkey for tea farming work within the framework of the aforementioned concepts. It also focuses on how myths and discrimination are created. To support these claims, this study emphasizes a field experience that includes participatory observation of the daily lives of Georgians. The study consists of three sections: the discrimination against Georgians and the myths created as well as their relationship with power dynamics, the field experience of participatory observation conducted with Georgians that is analyzed based on discrimination and myths, and lastly the conclusion.MethodologyIn 2017, approximately 2,438,000 people entered through the Georgia border crossing, with around 222,000 monthly entering through land routes, since those who come for tea farming prefer not to use sea or air. Thus, 2,349,554 people entered by land. Notably, the months of May, June, July, and August experienced the highest influx. During the summer, 1,082,803 people entered Georgia. Since Georgia fell under the category of countries with a “hidden population,” the exact number of people arriving for tea harvesting is unknown. While this study does not aim to generalize discrimination against the group, its aim is to address discrimination and uncover the group. Thus, this study is designed within the framework of interpretive and critical social science and focuses on discrimination against Georgians. The participants in the qualitative interviews naturally vary since discrimination is multidimensional and involves multiple actors. For this purpose, 48 qualitative interviews were conducted, which included seven intermediaries, three cultural memory carriers aged 70, six employers (all of whom are local participants and currently employers), one dental assistant, two pharmacists, one key informant from the Rize Migration Administration, one key informant involved in smuggling and crime prevention from the public security branch, the president of Rize Chamber of Commerce, one security officer and office manager at the Sarp Border Crossing, one journalist, one Georgian citizen married in Turkey, one imam from the city of Batumi, twelve Georgian workers, three Turkish students studying in Georgia (from Rize, Urfa, and Adıyaman), and six different categories of tradesmen. The interviews were recorded, analyzed, and subjected to descriptive and discourse analysis. In addition, discourse analysis was conducted with a focus on the representation and perception of Georgians in the media.ConclusionThis study highlights the discrimination and myths endured by Georgians who engaged in labor mobility for tea farming in Turkey. While these challenges are specific to Georgians, they reflect broader processes experienced by migrants and indigenous populations as “others.” When Georgians and other groups are included in the labor process, they are dehumanized, pushed to the edges of society, reduced to a single identity, labeled with political tags, and all opposition actions are justified using group comparisons. This underlying process results in the ethnicization of labor through Georgians. The ethnicization of labor also facilitates the process of capturing the surplus value. Therefore, intermediaries, employers, factories, shopkeepers, and the entire process from the Sarp border gate to the tea gardens controlled Georgian labor. This process is related to the neoliberal policies implemented in both Georgia and Turkey. However, in Georgia, Turkish and Muslim groups are ethnically classified and included in the labor markets as cheap labor using specific forms of discrimination and myths. The reason why Georgians are excluded from the tea labor market is due to discrimination and myths, which are also related to demographic transformation, neoliberal policies, and historical background in Georgia and Turkey. Kurds, who can participate in hazelnut harvesting, cannot be included in the tea labor market. Aside from the ethnicization and feminization of seasonal agricultural labor among Kurds in Turkey, the tea region’s exclusionary view of Kurds prevents them from entering this market. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the tea region handled its labor needs from within its region. This labor was mostly in the form of family labor. Additionally, according to the local population, Kurdish workers were transported from prospective eastern provinces such as Ardahan, Kars, and Erzurum. However, since tea picking requires expertise, Kurds used their labor in activities like transportation, working at collection points, and factories rather than tea picking. It is possible to adapt the discrimination and myths generated against Georgians to the production of local seasonal agricultural labor.Despite facing discrimination, Georgians have developed tactics to resist and negotiate these adverse conditions, myths, and labor exploitation. By mobilizing through their network adopting certain behaviors, and engaging in sharecropping activities, they strive to improve their working conditions and economic situation. Most Georgian workers are part of this principle. If Georgians perceive that their labor is being exploited, marginalized, or subjected to injustice, the information is quickly passed through their networks. Consequently, they engage in activities to increase the weight, such as checking the scales and recording the weight at tea collection points, including the woody sections by cutting the tea deeper, adding grass, soil, and stones in the tea bag, and soaking the tea bag in the stream if there is no supervisor at the garden. They also demonstrate their daily resistance by deliberately damaging the tea plants while walking, and due to the nature of their daily work, they can demand separate wages for transportation, collection, and sales activities, which were initially priced separately. In response to discrimination, Georgians express their names as Turkish–Muslim names to show their affiliation with Muslim communities coming from Georgia. Some even hide tattoos having the shape of a cross and conceal their necklaces. These tactics are not only directed to intermediaries but also to employers. They include tactics such as compelling their employer to buy them cigarettes, quitting their jobs, slowing down their work pace, and even claiming to be sick and unable to work. In some cases, these tactics are directed at shopkeepers. They can obtain little items without paying if they have no option and believe they are being overcharged for a product simply because they are Georgian. When confronted by the police, some&nbsp;Georgians, due to the lack of adequate documentation, pretend not to know Turkish despite being fluent in it, and sometimes they pretend to be locals based on their Turkish language skills. In addition to evading all these forms of discrimination and myths, they engage in sharecropping activities to improve their economic income.Georgians that participate in labor mobility for tea farming from Georgia to Turkey have experienced various forms of discrimination in their target regions. This discrimination is replicated under certain conditions, as detailed in the section above concerning their daily life. Despite this, Georgians have developed tactics against this discrimination and myths, engaging in negotiation and redefining work tactics and strategies. We hope that the processes and structures examined in this study will help in understanding other groups in a different labor market. Thus, understanding these processes is crucial to comprehend the dynamics in labor markets and capitalism, and the ever-changing positions of various groups within the local and national labor markets.

Discrimination and Myths against Georgians in Tea Farming

İsmail

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Tradition, Morality and Solidarity in Durkheim’s Theory

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Since the 1950s, environmental sociology is hardly accepted despite existing social-environmental issues. These problems have been generated by the rapid industrialization and urbanization causing pollution in the post-war era. Environmental sociology was established in the 1970s when environmental problems gained public attention and the environmental movement emerged. The theories of sociologists Durkheim, Weber, who introduced the rationalization concept, and Marx, who introduced the theory of metabolic rift, were welcomed in environmental sociology. However, Durkheim was criticized that his methodological dictum was excluding society-environment interaction. There are two explanations for the association between Durkheim and societyenvironment interaction. On the one hand, the industrialism of his era caused the exclusion of environment from sociology. On the other hand, Durkheim’s works have significant references to environment that indicate a potential for environmental sociology. This paper aims to examine Durkheim’s sociological approach in terms of society-environment interaction. First, the foundation of environmental sociology is summarized. Then, both examples showing the exclusion of environment and societyenvironment interactions in Durkheim’s studies are shown. The paper concludes with the assessment of Durkheim’s contribution to current environmental sociology challenging ecological crisis that threatens society. Although the first years of sociology were marked by geographical and biological determinism, sociologists favoring a “world view” of development, progress, and modernism in later years ignored environment as an issue (Hannigan, 2006). After a century, when environmental problems had surfaced and threatened industrialized Western societies, environmental concerns and movement were accepted in society and from the cultural perspective. Two pioneers of environmental sociology, Dunlap and Catton (1978) criticized human exceptionalism paradigm of causing the exploitation of nature and Durkheim’s methodological dictum (Madappalli, 2016). The paradigm assumes nature as an endless resource and that the human progress is limitless, while human existence is unique as a result of its developed culture (Catton &amp; Dunlap, 1978) that “covers the dependence of human societies to biophysical environment” (Rice, 2013, p. 238). However, environmental problems and restrictions in the 1960s shook this paradigm and Durkheim’s methodological dictum that reportedly ignored society-environment interaction. Hence, environmental parameters were included in sociological researches. In fact, the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale, developed by environmental sociologists, introduced “environmental facts” against the social facts of Durkheim. The paradigm aims to consider the effects of&nbsp;environmental problems like resource scarcity on main sociological research issues like stratification (Catton &amp; Dunlap, 1978). Hence, environmental sociologists, by using the New Ecological Paradigm, challenge Durkheim’s methodological dictum by accepting the effect of environment on society (Dunlap &amp; Catton, 1979). Durkheim was criticized for excluding the impact of the environment on sociology with his methodological dictum. Sociology, a social discipline excluding environment (Foster, 1999, p. 367), was positioned out of “psychology, biology, economics, and geography” by Marx, Weber, and Durkheim, the three fathers of sociology (Buttel, Dickens, Dunlap, &amp; Gijswijt, 2002, p. 5). However, Marx and Weber were applauded for their concepts, the metabolic rift and rationality, in environmental sociology, unlike Durkheim who was criticized for his methodological dictum that was believed to be against the use of biophysical parameters in sociology (Lidskog, Mol, &amp; Oosterveer, 2015). Durkheim defined social facts only with other social facts, ignoring the biophysical environment (Dunlap, 2016), and implied examination of social systems without using environmental parameters (Norgaard, 1997, p. 159). Durkheim developed a social reductionism to resist biological reductionism (Benton, 1991, as cited in Konak, 2010). Hence, traditional sociology following Durkheim’s approach excluded biophysical environment (Hoyen, 2013). To objectify society within a scientific discipline (Durkheim, 2016, pp. 58, 59, 168), Durkheim defended the use of social facts and collective consciousness against biology and psychology (Hannigan, 2006, p. 5), that social facts can only be explained by social facts (Buttel, 2002) that have power over individuals and are different from non-human and organic facts (Durkheim, 2016). As a result, the methodological dictum made Durkheim and sociologists ignore biological and physical parameters (Dunlap, 1997; Dunlap &amp; Catton, 2007). The exclusion of physical reality by Weberian and Durkheimian authors (Ritzer 1975; Choldin 1978, as cited in Dunlap &amp; Catton, 2007) should be seen as a constructive approach in the early years of sociology (Buttel, 2002). The exclusion of environment was dominant and environmental parameters were ignored in other subdisciplines like rural sociology until the 1970s; these subdisciplines are the foundation of environmental sociology (Dunlap &amp; Martin 1983, as cited in Dunlap, 2002). Durkheim implied the static position of nature throughout history while society changes and evolves (Durkheim, 2010; Gross, 2000; Jarvikoski, 1996). Durkheim separated the concept of evolution, originated from ecology and biology, from nature and integrated it into the social sphere (Durkheim, 2014). Furthermore, he put a sharp distinction between human society and animals, as they lack of morality and collective consciousness (Durkheim, 2010) and they are static unlike human societies (Durkheim, 2014). Although sociological theorists Durkheim, Weber, and Marx did not directly examine society-environment interaction; their studies indirectly included this issue (Hannigan, 2006, p. 5). Hence, Durkheim should be comprehended through the extensive framework of human-nature systems instead of narrow anthropocentricism (Rosa &amp; Richter, 2008). In fact, Durkheim did not deny the importance of biological and physical parameters in sociology (Jarvikoski, 1996). Moreover, Durkheim followed the example of natural science during the exploration of social reality (Durkheim, 2016). Despite a strong and common prejudice in traditional sociology, Durkheim’s studies involve many references to the environment. However, the methodological dictum of Durkheimian scholars reinstructed sociology (Catton, 2002), resulting in Dunlap and Catton, two founders of environmental sociology, strongly criticizing the Durkheimian theory. Contrarily, the limited prevalence of social facts and the emphasis on the environmental parameters in Durkheim’s studies are important objections to their critique (Rosa &amp; Richter, 2008). Çelebi (2007, p. 159) highlighted the importance of the balance between population and land as social facts that affect society. Durkheim considered the effects of the position of sun and the condition of the atmosphere to people, and his social morphology notion had other environmental insights like the use of land (Gross, 2000). He also implied the coevolution of nature and society in his work of Pragmatism and Sociology (Foster, 1999). According to him, nature is not the reverse of society, but a part, the highest representation, and complex form of nature (Durkheim 2010; Jarvikoski, 1996). Moreover, Durkheim (2016) implied similarities between “physical environment” and society and defined society as part of nature. Durkheim often referred to nature in his classical study of totemism. Tribe members lean toward plants, animals, and rocks in understanding their society. They imitate animals in their religious rituals. Safety and domination of nature make up their religion (Durkheim, 2010). Durkheim often used biological terms like species, population density, and resource scarcity in his explanation of social evolution and solidarity concepts (Buttel, 2002). He implied that division of labor exists in all living organisms, and transfers society from nature (Durkheim, 2014). On the other hand, his notion of competition and division of labor undermined environmental concerns like pollution and resource scarcity in urbanization (Lenski, 1984, as cited in Buttel &amp; Humprey, 2002). This paper aims to examine Durkheim’s sociological approach in terms of societyenvironment interaction. The construction process of sociology as a distinct discipline excluded environmental parameters. However, urbanization and industrialization in the 1950s have caused environmental concerns and movements in Western societies.&nbsp;The foundation of environmental sociology was challenged in the 1970s by the methodological dictum of Durkheim. Although some of his studies strongly separate society from environment like social facts, he often referred to environmental concepts like population, balance, organism, and resource scarcity. Durkheim also implied metabolic interaction between society and environment, and that society is a complex part of nature.

Society-Environment Interaction in Durkheim: Exclusion of Social Facts versus Environmental Potential

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Durkheim and the Nation

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From Holism to Participation: Three Phases in Durkheim’s Work

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Published by the Istanbul University Department of Sociology, İstanbul University Journal of Sociology has held an important place in the development of sociology as a scientific discipline in Turkey. 

First published in 1917, İstanbul University Journal of Sociology was the first sociology journal written in Turkish. In its roughly 100-year history, the journal has become the most pioneering and prominent publication within the discipline. The publication languages of the journal are Turkish, English, French and Germany. The print version of the journal has been stopped as of 2022; the publication continues as an electronic only journal.

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology is an open-access, double-blind peer-reviewed, international journal focusing on the publication of research and studies covering all aspects of the social. The journal’s goal is to aid and facilitate both international and interdisciplinary scientific communication, to strengthen the links between scientific research and society in Turkey, and to stimulate and enhance the quality of debate. Representing an interdisciplinary forum for the exchange of recent data and expert opinions, it reflects the importance of a comprehensive approach to resolving the social problems in Turkey.
İstanbul University Journal of Sociology publishes peer-reviewed research reports on sociology, bringing together research conducted within a variety of different disciplines. Articles include theoretical, philosophical, political essays, research papers, research on social behaviors, and historical research related to any social activity. In addition to original research, the journal features both articles and book reviews.
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The journal’s goal is to aid and facilitate both international and interdisciplinary scientific communication, to strengthen the links between scientific research and society in Turkey, and to stimulate and enhance the quality of debate. Representing an interdisciplinary forum for the exchange of recent data and expert opinions, it reflects the importance of a comprehensive approach to resolving the social problems in Turkey. İstanbul University Journal of Sociology publishes peer-reviewed research reports on sociology, bringing together research conducted within a variety of different disciplines. Articles include theoretical, philosophical, political essays, research papers, research on social behaviors, and historical research related to any social activity. In addition to original research, the journal features both articles and book reviews.

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İstanbul University Journal of Sociology is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABCAC0D48F9844D0B211AD7D55559C54" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor-in-Chief to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. Editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor is responsible for the content and overall quality of the publication and must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only editor has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the Editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the Editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. Unless the authors and editor permit, the reviews of referees cannot be published or disclosed. The anonymity of the referees is important. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for double-blind peer review evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.&#65279;

Peer Review

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. Editor-in-Chief provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.​ The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated?- Are the methods described comprehensively?- Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

General Formatting Requirements<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=formatting_guidelines1.pdf" target="_blank">Formatting and content requirements for manuscripts to be submitted to İstanbul University Journal of Sociology </a>Font: The font used in the entire manuscript should be Times New Roman, font size 10. For tables and figures, see below.Page Layout: Page margins for bottom, top, right, and left should be pre-set as 2.5 cm (0.98 inch). Text should be justified with no hyphenation breaks in words at the end of a line. Text should be typed as a single-column document. Paragraphs and headings should not be indented, but aligned with the main text.Paragraph Format: Paragraph indents should be pre-set in the tabs section as follows:before and after: 0.6 nkline spacing: 1.5.Page Limit: Manuscripts prepared in compliance with the guidelines should not exceed 20 pages.Manuscript SectionsTitle: Article titles should be boldfaced and centered. If the study has been submitted before or extracted from a project or a thesis, an asterisk (*) should be placed at the end of the title and an explanation provided as a footnote. (Please refer to the sample).Author (s)’s Names: Author’s names should be written in bold. Authors’ full names, titles, institutional affiliations, postal addresses, and contact details such as e-mail addresses should be mentioned.Abstract: Abstracts should be between150–200 words. No citations should appear in the abstractKey Words: 5–8 words representing the manuscript should be given as keywords.Main Text: Qualitative and quantitative studies should contain the following sections: Introduction, Method, Findings, and Discussion. The Methods section must include Sampling/Study Population, Data Collection Tools,and Procedure as sub-sections if an original research method has been used.Literature reviews should elaborate on the problem, analyze the relevant literature, emphasize the gaps and inconsistencies in the literature, and discuss actions toward solving these problems.Other types of studies can allow slight variations in sections, but they should not contain too many details and sub-sections that could distract readers’ attention and compromise readability.Başlık* Title in TurkishÖz* Öz (Abstract in Turkish) should be between150–200 words. No citations should appear in the “öz”Anahtar Kelimeler* 5-8 Turkish words representing the manuscript should be given as “anahtar kelimeler”Uzun Özet* A 1000-1500 word extended abstract in Turkish that provides the main points of main textReferences: Both in-text citations and references should comply with the APA guidelines as provided in the Publication Manual of American Psychological Association(APA) (6th edition).<ul><li>“Başlık”, “Öz”, “Anahtar Kelimeler” and “Uzun Özet” will be supplied by İstanbul University Journal of Sociology translation office for authors whose native language is not Turkish</li></ul>Tables, Figures, and AppendicesTables and Figures: Tables, figures, pictures, graphics, and similar aspects should be embedded in the text, and not provided as appendices.For tables and figures, use Times New Roman, font size 9.Under the Paragraph tab, ensure that the indentation is as follows:<ul><li>Before and after: 0</li><li>Spacing: Single</li></ul>Tables and figures should be left aligned, and the text wrapping feature should be turned off. Please refer to the sample below for tables.Appendices: Each appendix should be displayed on a separate page after the references section.

Author Guidelines

Before beginning the online submission process please read the Information for Authors and make sure you have the followings available:<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=formatting_guidelines1.pdf" target="_blank">Formatting and content requirements for manuscripts to be submitted to İstanbul University Journal of Sociology</a>Cover letter to the editor<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li>Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li> <li>Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li>Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with APA 6.</li> </ul> </ul><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABCAC0D48F9844D0B211AD7D55559C54" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=iusd_title.docx" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li> <li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li> </ul> </ul>Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (200-250 words) both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Key words: 5 words both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (only for articles which are not in English)</li> <li>Main article sections</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exits)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul>Manuscript Submission<ul type="disc"> <li>ScholarOne manuscript submission site of the journal is: <a href="http://mc04.manuscriptcentral.com/tjs" target="_blank">http://mc04.manuscriptcentral.com/tjs</a> </li> <li>The manuscript must be submitted through the account of the corresponding author. The account of authors other than the corresponding author or someone else who is not included as an author in the work must not be used for submission. All correspondence regarding the submission is made with the corresponding author through e-mail via the ScholarOne system.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>To login to the ScholarOne manuscript submission system, you must have a User ID and password. If you do not have a username and password, you must follow the instructions in the Create Account at ScholarOne manuscript submission site of the journal.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>If you experience problems with your account, please do not create a new one and contact İstanbul University Journal of Sociology Editorial Office via <a href="mailto:sosyolojidergi@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">sosyolojidergi@istanbul.edu.tr</a></li> <li>When you log in, click the Author button at the top of the page.</li> <li>Clicking the Author button, you will access Author Dashboard. By clicking Unsubmitted and Manuscripts in Draft heading on the Dashboard you can access your unsubmitted manuscripts. To make a new submission, please click Start New Submission.</li> <li>Manuscript submission is a 7-step process. At any stage you can stop the submission process; everything you have typed into the system will be saved. You can continue to your semi- completed submission by viewing it in the Unsubmitted and Manuscript in Draft section. </li> <li>The 2nd step in the submission process is to upload your manuscript. </li> <li>To upload files; Select the file you want to upload from the Selection File button. Specify the file type from the File Designation button beside. </li> <li>While uploading Main Document, make sure that the main document has no information that clarify the author’s identity. Due to double blind peer review, Main Document must not include Title Page, the name of author or any other detail that can disclose the author identity. </li> <li>Additionaly, Supplemental File for Review must not include any detail that can disclose author identity as well.</li> </ul>Files to be uploaded separately<ul type="disc"> <li><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/3987D117ECEB471BB87B0B638CAF14C1" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a></li> <li>Permissions obtained for previously published material if used in the present manuscript</li> <li><a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=iusd_title.docx" target="_blank">Title page</a></li> <li>Main Manuscript Document</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (200-250 words) both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Key words: 5 words both in Turkish and in English</li> <li>Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (only for articles which are not in English)</li> <li>Main article sections</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exists)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>Clicking the Upload Selected Files, the files mentioned above will be uploaded and automatically converted to PDF files on the system.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>After uploading,  please click on PDF button and view your files. If the uploaded files have flaws, you can delete the files and repeat upload process.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>Cover letter can be uploaded on the 6th step in the submission process. The final step in manuscript submission process lists all the information you have submitted.  The complete information will be indicated by a green check (✓). If incomplete, there will be a red cross (x) check. Once you have completed the submission process to your satisfaction click on the submit button.</li> <li>Once the manuscript submission is completed, verification screen including your Manuscript ID will appear, and you will be notified via email.</li> </ul>

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology complies with APA (American Psychological Association) style 6th Edition for referencing and quoting. For more information:-    American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (6th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.-    <a href="http://www.apastyle.org" target="_blank">http://www.apastyle.org</a>Accuracy of citation is the author’s responsibility. All references should be cited in text. Reference list must be in alphabetical order. Type references in the style shown below.Citations in the TextCitations must be indicated with the author surname and publication year within the parenthesis.If more than one citation is made within the same paranthesis, separate them with (;).Samples:More than one citation;(Esin et al., 2002; Karasar, 1995)Citation with one author;(Akyolcu, 2007)Citation with two authors;(Sayıner &amp; Demirci, 2007)Citation with three, four, five authors;First citation in the text: (Ailen, Ciambrune, &amp; Welch, 2000) Subsequent citations in the text: (Ailen et al., 2000)Citations with more than six authors;(Çavdar et al., 2003)Citations in the ReferenceAll the citations done in the text should be listed in the References section in alphabetical order of author surname without numbering. Below given examples should be considered in citing the references.Basic Reference TypesBooka) Turkish BookKarasar, N. (1995). Araştırmalarda rapor hazırlama (8th ed.) [Preparing research reports]. Ankara, Turkey: 3A Eğitim Danışmanlık Ltd.b) Book Translated into TurkishMucchielli, A. (1991). Zihniyetler [Mindsets] (A. Kotil, Trans.). İstanbul, Turkey: İletişim Yayınları.c) Edited BookÖren, T., Üney, T., &amp; Çölkesen, R. (Eds.). (2006). Türkiye bilişim ansiklopedisi [Turkish Encyclopedia of Informatics]. İstanbul, Turkey: Papatya Yayıncılık.d) Turkish Book with Multiple AuthorsTonta, Y., Bitirim, Y., &amp; Sever, H. (2002). Türkçe arama motorlarında performans değerlendirme [Performance evaluation in Turkish search engines]. Ankara, Turkey: Total Bilişim.e) Book in EnglishKamien R., &amp; Kamien A. (2014). Music: An appreciation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.f) Chapter in an Edited BookBassett, C. (2006). Cultural studies and new media. In G. Hall &amp; C. Birchall (Eds.), New cultural studies: Adventures in theory (pp. 220–237). Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.g) Chapter in an Edited Book in TurkishErkmen, T. (2012). Örgüt kültürü: Fonksiyonları, öğeleri, işletme yönetimi ve liderlikteki önemi [Organization culture: Its functions, elements and importance in leadership and business management]. In M. Zencirkıran (Ed.), Örgüt sosyolojisi [Organization sociology] (pp. 233–263). Bursa, Turkey: Dora Basım Yayın.h) Book with the same organization as author and publisherAmerican Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Articlea) Turkish ArticleMutlu, B., &amp; Savaşer, S. (2007). Çocuğu ameliyat sonrası yoğun bakımda olan ebeveynlerde stres nedenleri ve azaltma girişimleri [Source and intervention reduction of stress for parents whose children are in intensive care unit after surgery]. Istanbul University Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 15(60), 179–182.b) English Articlede Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., &amp; Wodak, R. (1999). The discursive construction of national identity. Discourse and Society, 10(2), 149–173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957926599010002002c) Journal Article with DOI and More Than Seven AuthorsLal, H., Cunningham, A. L., Godeaux, O., Chlibek, R., Diez-Domingo, J., Hwang, S.-J. ... Heineman, T. C. (2015). Efficacy of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine in older adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 372, 2087–2096. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1501184d) Journal Article from Web, without DOISidani, S. (2003). Enhancing the evaluation of nursing care effectiveness. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 35(3), 26–38. Retrieved from http://cjnr.mcgill.cae) Journal Article wih DOITurner, S. J. (2010). Website statistics 2.0: Using Google Analytics to measure library website effectiveness. Technical Services Quarterly, 27, 261–278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07317131003765910f) Advance Online PublicationSmith, J. A. (2010). Citing advance online publication: A review. Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a45d7867g) Article in a MagazineHenry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today’s schools. Time, 135, 28–31.Doctoral Dissertation, Master’s Thesis, Presentation, Proceedinga) Dissertation/Thesis from a Commercial DatabaseVan Brunt, D. (1997). Networked consumer health information systems (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9943436)b) Dissertation/Thesis from an Institutional DatabaseYaylalı-Yıldız, B. (2014). University campuses as places of potential publicness: Exploring the politicals, social and cultural practices in Ege University (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://library.iyte.edu.tr/tr/hizli-erisim/iyte-tez-portalic) Dissertation/Thesis from WebTonta, Y. A. (1992). An analysis of search failures in online library catalogs (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley). Retrieved from http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~tonta/yayinlar /phd/ickapak.htmld) Dissertation/Thesis abstracted in Dissertations Abstracts InternationalAppelbaum, L. G. (2005). Three studies of human information processing: Texture amplifica&#173;tion, motion representation, and figure-ground segregation. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B. Sciences and Engineering, 65(10), 5428.e) Symposium ContributionKrinsky-McHale, S. J., Zigman, W. B., &amp; Silverman, W. (2012, August). Are neuropsychiatric symptoms markers of prodromal Alzheimer’s disease in adults with Down syndrome? In W. B. Zigman (Chair), Predictors of mild cognitive impairment, dementia, and mortality in adults with Down syndrome. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.f) Conference Paper Abstract Retrieved OnlineLiu, S. (2005, May). Defending against business crises with the help of intelligent agent based early warning solutions. Paper presented at the Seventh International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems, Miami, FL. Abstract retrieved from http://www.iceis.org/iceis2005/abstracts_2005.htmg) Conference Paper - In Regularly Published Proceedings and Retrieved OnlineHerculano-Houzel, S., Collins, C. E., Wong, P., Kaas, J. H., &amp; Lent, R. (2008). The basic nonuniformity of the cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 12593–12598. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805417105h) Proceeding in Book FormParsons, O. A., Pryzwansky, W. B., Weinstein, D. J., &amp; Wiens, A. N. (1995). Taxonomy for psychology. In J. N. Reich, H. Sands, &amp; A. N. Wiens (Eds.), Education and training beyond the doctoral degree: Proceedings of the American Psychological Association National Conference on Postdoctoral Education and Training in Psychology (pp. 45–50). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.i) Paper PresentationNguyen, C. A. (2012, August). Humor and deception in advertising: When laughter may not be the best medicine. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.Other Sourcesa) Newspaper ArticleBrowne, R. (2010, March 21). This brainless patient is no dummy. Sydney Morning Herald, 45.b) Newspaper Article with no AuthorNew drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12.c) Web Page/Blog PostBordwell, D. (2013, June 18). David Koepp: Making the world movie-sized [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/page/27/d) Online Encyclopedia/DictionaryIgnition. (1989). In Oxford English online dictionary (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://dictionary.oed. comMarcoux, A. (2008). Business ethics. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-business/e) PodcastDunning, B. (Producer). (2011, January 12). inFact: Conspiracy theories [Video podcast]. Retrieved from http://itunes.apple.com/f) Single Episode in a Television SeriesEgan, D. (Writer), &amp; Alexander, J. (Director). (2005). Failure to communicate. [Television series episode]. In D. Shore (Executive producer), House; New York, NY: Fox Broadcasting.g) MusicFuchs, G. (2004). Light the menorah. On Eight nights of Hanukkah [CD]. Brick, NJ: Kid Kosher.

Ensure that the following items are present: ●    Cover letter to the editorü    The category of the manuscriptü    Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.ü    Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.ü    Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.ü    Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.ü    Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are inline with APA 6.●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABCAC0D48F9844D0B211AD7D55559C54" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>●    Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript●    <a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=titlepage-tjs_637055212739219017.docx" target="_blank">Title page</a>ü    The category of the manuscriptü    The title of the manuscript both in the language of article and in Englishü    All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country),e-mail addressesü    Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax numberü    ORCIDs of all authors.●    Main Manuscript Documentü    The title of the manuscript both in the language of article and in Englishü    Abstracts (200-250 words) both in the language of article and in Englishü    Key words: 5 words both in the language of article and in Englishü    Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English for the articles which are not in Englishü    Acknowledgement (if exists)ü    Referencesü    Acknowledgements, grant supports, conflict of interest should be indicated

<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABCAC0D48F9844D0B211AD7D55559C54" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/66EE5F4908F44A6FA5B92F4D78957028" target="_blank">Author Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/16279B004C2A43C1BF7BBE28181666F7" target="_blank">Title Page</a>

Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	İsmail Coşkun
Cover (PDF)
Full Text (PDF)
Front Pages (PDF)