Alper

Assist. Prof.

Water is the source of life for all living things. Because of our need for water, mankind has always seen water as a sacred element throughout history. Water, over artifacts and monuments symbolized life, healing, fertility, strength, beauty and enjoyment. It was seen as sacred in Turkey and was believed to be the spirit of water. In addition, water was associated with fortune, life, soul, chance, fortune, conscience, and character. In Turkish culture and the Islamic faith, water and rain are considered as the source of life and abundance. In Turkish-Islamic architecture, waterspouts are called corten. Waterspouts protected mortar and masonry walls from corrosive effects by getting rid of rain and snow water away from the wall and foundation. In the Anatolian Seljuks and Dynasties periods, a large part of the cortens in architectural works was made simple and another was meant to be figurative. The pre-Islamic and Islamic beliefs of Turks determined their view of water. Cortens was produced positively in the context of these religious beliefs. It is known that the cortens, especially those with figures, are made with symbolic purposes such as fertility, abundance, happiness, and power. Therefore, the figures are in direct relation with these concepts. The usage of animal figures was avoided apart from these meanings. Although Islamic belief and Turks perceived water positively, the Christian faith and the Latins perceived water as positive in the spiritual direction and negative in the material direction. Sacred water was used for religious rituals. No doubt the most important of these rites is baptism, which is seen as a spiritual cleansing rather than a material one and early Christians emphasized the spiritual aspect. During the Middle Ages, the Western Christian world did not accept bathing as an innocent practice leaving out it in religious rituals. Many monks and saints believed St. Francis of Assisi’s idea that an unwashed body is a sign of piety! For this reason, Western society avoided water except for the occasional bath. In the 12-14th centuries, the works of Gothic architecture started in Europe. In this architectural understanding in which religious structures are predominant, buildings tend to rise vertically. In Gothic architecture, the waterspouts represented as figures that provide the evacuation of rain water are called gargoyles. The gargoyles have a terrifying psychological effect on the believer. These are mostly waterspouts with plastic properties made in the form of terrifying demonic creatures. In the medieval Christian world, the church taught religion to society through art. That is, art was made for the purpose of religious propaganda. In the Middle Ages, the Church even resorted to the most formidable forms of evil in order to spread its religious teachings. Some gargoyles served as a moral reminder to sinners, and because gargoyles were thought to represent the souls condemned for their sins, it was suggested that sinners were forbidden to enter the church. By reflecting the horrible appearance of hell, Satan, which is an unconventional image that does not conform to the church, reminds people that they will be safe in the sacred church. Although some gargoyles are quite simple in design, the&nbsp;majority of them are decorated in detail. These are decorative carvings representing grotesque animals, birds, dragons, satyrs, mermaids, snakes, and many other themes. They can also be in the form of fascinating hybrids and mythical creatures such as semi-human semi-animal figures. The functional purpose of the gargoyles is the waterspout. The symbolic aim is to ward off evil. The waterspouts in religious and secular buildings served the same purpose in different architectures throughout the 12-14th centuries. The figured waterspouts are shaped differently in proportion to the value judgments, beliefs, traditions, cultural and architectural heritage of societies. Due to the ban on animal and human figures in Islamic architecture, the figured ornament was rarely seen. The Turks have a moderate approach to figurative ornaments due to their old beliefs. In the Anatolian Seljuk architecture, almost all the building groups have symbolic, mythological, astrological, cosmological and talismanic figures. We usually see figured ornament around openings such as doors and windows, but it is rarely encountered in the waterspouts. Cortens have symbolized power, strength in relation to protection while symbolizing goodness, abundance and mercy in relation to rain. The cortens associated with guardianship of religion generally had been located on facades trough the roads where people can see easily. In the cortens, animal or human figures can be seen. Animal figures include depictions of lions, rams and bulls. Mythical creatures include depictions of dragons. The lion is the symbol of strength; the rams and bulls are symbols of abundance, and the dragon symbolizes both abundance and power. The Abbey Church of Saint Denis in France is accepted as the first Gothic structure. The eastern section of the church was designed by Abbot Suger. The Western world inherited the Greek, Hellenistic, Etruscan and Roman architectures and adapted these ancient styles to gothic architecture. The understanding of ornaments in Gothic architecture developed in the scholastic thinking of the church. All the decorations around the religious buildings were made parallel to the teachings of the church. Emphasis on the instructional use of visual imageries, resulted in the creation of many monsters. The animal figured waterspouts were used in the western world by Greeks and Etruscans who especially preferred those with lion heads. The gargoyles depict a wide variety of animals and imaginary creatures that we tend to associate with evil. It is not a coincidence that they often have cloven hooves, bat wings, goat beards and horns. Gargoyles were consciously depicted as demons and associated with evil. The use of these figures in waterspouts caused them to consider water as a symbol of disaster and trouble. Since Turkish-Islamic architecture has a limited number of cortens showing figures, we tried to include all the samples. The cortens are classified according to the&nbsp;figures they depict. As there is a large number of gargoyles in Gothic Architecture, we included only a few samples. Some examples of gargoyles in churches or monasteries in different parts of Europe were compared. Similarities between these gargoyles were found in different structures. Finally, similar and different characteristics of the figured waterspouts in two separate cultures are indicated.

A Comparison Experiment on the Figures of the Rainspout in Gothic Architecture and Turk-Islam Architecture in the 12th and 14th Centuries

Sevinç

Assoc. Prof.

Drawing attention with its decorations in addition to its architectural features, Double Minaret Madrasa has been the center of attention of many researchers and has been examined in many respects. Our aim is not to repeat the evaluations and studies related to the structure, but to present new suggestions for its ornaments. A large part of the decorations of the madrasa has been destroyed and only the entrance facade has survived. Unfortunately, in the recent restorations, the extent of this damage has increased. Within the scope of our research, new determinations have been made regarding the original status of some decorations in the structure. Built in 1271, the Double Minaret Madrasa was abandoned over time, and the stones of the building were used in the construction of other buildings. Excavations were carried out in the structure under the presidency of Prof. Dr. Haluk Karamağaralı between 1963-1965, and restorations were carried out in various periods. The ashlar facing of the structure ends in the upper part of the pointed arches of the openings that leads to ascend to the minaret inside. There is almost a square panel just above the opening which leads to ascend to the left (north) minaret. In this panel, which is made with Mâ’kılî writing style, an arrangement consisting of turquoise and eggplant purple colored glazed tiles and bricks is seen. In this writing style based on geometric basis, all the letters are angled. In the ornament, the word “Allah” is placed in four different directions. The missing tiles were renewed, the writing panel was completed, and the unglazed tiles were painted in the repairs carried out in 2007-2008. However, various errors in the writing and completions of the current panel are striking. This panel decorating the minaret base has a mathematical arrangement. Letters are placed in two rows; there are gaps between the leaning unglazed bricks. These areas are filled with (baklava) diamond-shaped and eggplant-purple glazed tiles. Thus, the name “Allah” has been made apparent with the eggplant purple tiles. The areas around the unglazed bricks and eggplant purple tiles are surrounded by turquoise glazed tiles. In the restoration, it is understood that the tips of letters on the left side of the panel are not completed and the “elif “ letter in the upper left corner is missing. Additionally, one arm of the swastika was left missing. A panel is located just above the opening leading to ascend to the right (south) minaret. In the panel, the original of which consisted of mâ’kılî style writing, there are geometrical looking irregular shapes instead of writing. It is understood that the work underwent a repair in an unauthentic way. It is seen in the panel that the names of “Muhammad”, “Ebubekir”, “Omar”, “Osman” and “Ali” are respectively written with Arabic letters in the mâ’kılî writing style. The current panel should be completely replaced and completed in accordance with the original. In the upper part of the bases, an arrangement of brick and tile is seen. In this ornament, square shaped turquoise tiles were placed between long rectangular unglazed bricks. The same ornament is repeated on the eastern and southern facades of the bases. However, in the restoration work, the same decoration which should be on the top of the left side minaret is left unpainted. On the outer sides of the both minaret bases (north and south), a large panel of tiles was placed. In the panels, which are understood to be formed with tile mosaic technique originally, two wide borders circle the big medallion in the middle. There is a palmette lotus frieze in the first row. Unglazed bricks and turquoise colored tiles were placed in skipping form in the second row. In the corners of the medallion, the plant ornamentation in from of palmette, rumi and curly branches is repeated. The border forming the frame is thick and its surface is decorated with a geometric decoration made of pentagons in two rows. There are 12 pointed arched niches in the polygonal section which enables the transition from the shoe cabinet section to the cylindrical body. It is understood from the traces that these niches with different widths were adorned with ornaments made with tile mosaic technique originally. It can be detected from the old traces that four of the pointed arched niches had plant decorations. In the plant ornamentation, there are palmettes at the ends of the interwoven hexagrams. Ornament made in accordance with the principle of infinity; the palmette ends of the stars are connected by concave curves and a hexagonal is formed. The palmettes decorate each corner of the hexagon. The decorations inside the other niches have almost disappeared. Minaret bodies are completely decorated with a beautiful harmony of bricks and tiles. Bricks shaped in different sizes, such as square and rectangle, are arranged in horizontal plane. Square shaped eggplant purple colored tiles are placed between the bricks. In the body ornament of the minarets, the name “Muhammed” which is written with eggplant purple glazed tiles in the mâ’kılî writing style is seen. Thin, rectangular turquoise colored tiles were mortared between both bricks and the joint gaps surrounding the eggplant purple glazed tiles. Turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles have been destroyed much faster because they have no organic bond with the structure and most of them have come off. One of the few examples, whose portal was crowned with double minaret, Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa is one of the most important works in terms of Turkish art. The double minaret integrates the portal with its decoration and adds color to the stone structure with its tiles. In the double minaret, in which turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles were used, mâ’kılî writing is seen as well as geometric and plant ornaments in parallel with the decoration features of the period. These decorations are important in terms of reflecting the characteristics of the period. The blanks between the letters and the gaps have the same widths in mâ’kılî writings with angled, plain, sharp, lines. The master followed these rules in the examples of the Double Minaret Madrasa, but also filled the inside of the lines that made up the letters, resulting in seemingly thicker letters. In Mâ’kılî writing, words having high religious meanings and in this writing style words like Allah, Muhammad, Ali, Ebubekir, Omar, Osman and Kalima Shahadah are often used. The masters showed not only manual skills but also mathematical and design proficiencies. It is no doubt that the tiles of the Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa, which has been destroyed for the most part presently, are among the most outstanding examples of Anatolian decorative arts and reflect the fancy and tastes of their periods. Therefore, urgent measures should be taken to prevent further damage to the building both in terms of architecture and decoration.

New Proposals for the Brick and Tile Decorations on the Minarets of Çifte Minareli Medrese (Double Minaret Madrasah) In Sivas

@JOURNAL_BOX_FEATURED

Muhammet

Ahmet

Res. Assist.

Ani, located 45 km east of Kars, on the shore of the Arpacay water that separates from each other of the Turkey-Armenia border, has been one of the ancient cities with a historical past dating back to BC. 3000 years. Ani, which forms the western border of the historical Arran geography, entered a new era with the Seljuk conquest by Sultan Alparslan in 1064. This period, which constitutes the second prosperity period after the Bagratuni Dynasty; is a period in which political, commercial, social and artistic breakthroughs took place in the city. Archaeological excavations ongoing here are important in terms of revealing the rich artistic activity in the 11th and 12th centuries, which constituted the second prosperity period of Ani.The historical, artistic and architectural development of the city coincides with the Middle Ages. Being the center of the Bagratuni Dynasty in 961 and the Seljuk conquest in 1064 are the breaking points in the history of the city. This period, which started with the Bagratunids in the middle of the 10th century and continued until the end of the Seljuk rule in 1199, expresses the economic and social welfare period of Ani. Ani has developed economically due to its location on the Silk Road route and the crossroads between the Caucasus and Anatolia, and in parallel, it has become quite commercially rich compared to the contemporary cities around it. This situation caused receive immigration from the city and naturally increase the population. The extraordinary urban texture and monumental works of Ani, which have reached a similar richness in socio-cultural terms, undoubtedly belong to this period. The immovable and movable artefacts belonging to the archaeological excavations that have been going on for years support this argument.The unglazed ceramics, which we encountered intensively during the Ani excavations are notable for their general form characteristics, especially with their ornaments consisting of animal figures such as mountain goat, horse, deer, lion, chicken, rooster and dog, as well as human figures. These figures on the ceramic fragments, which are understood to form the ornamented borders of a vessel, are often impressed in a way that depicts a lively scene in motion. So much so that the human figures in the compositions are often dancing; it is seen that animal figures are sometimes depicted while&nbsp;dancing. The scenes are flowing and are separated from each other by sometimes with a plant similar to the tree of life, sometimes a circle with the motif of the Seal of Suleiman and sometimes borders with zigzags that are placed vertically. The ornaments were embroidered with the cylindrical seal printing technique. This style is connected to the “Arran School (11-12th century)” by the researchers. This style also emerges as a characteristic style of unglazed ceramics that are frequently found in medieval excavations in Azerbaijan, Nakhchivan, the south of Georgia, the north of Iran and the North East Anatolian Region of Turkey. It is possible to see similar stylistic features in unglazed ceramics found as a result of excavations in medieval settlements such as Zhinvali and Uplistsikhe in the north of Tbilisi in Georgia; Shamkir, Ganja, Beylegan and Örenqala of Azerbaijan; Dvin, Dashtadem, Metzamor of Armenia and Rey of Iran.The unglazed ceramics with mountain goat figures, which constitute the subject of the article, are encountered on the finds unearthed in the Seljuk Bazaar, Seljuk Residences and Seljuk Great Baths during the 2019-2021 excavations carried out by us. Mountain goats in here are depicted along with other animals and human figures. They are processed in the cylindrical seal printing technique. It is thought that these compositions belong to the ornamented borders circling the bodies of the large pots, which are thought to be food jars.The goat is the oldest friend of mankind and one of the first domesticated animals. First of all, the goat is the definition of stubbornness. Having a stubborn character also made it a solid structure. The mountain goat appears in the art of the nomadic Central Asian Turkish communities as a hunting animal in the first place. In addition to the flavor of its meat, it has been hunted by nomadic communities with the use of milk, hair and skin. Thus, it caused it to be loved and valued enough to be processed into rock paintings.It can very well be said that the goat is also related to the perception of power. Because in the examples with mountain goat figures that we see starting from the Huns to the Uyghurs, it is clear that this figure symbolizes the ruler. In this respect, goats are symbols of “khanate and domination”. Its inscription on the Kultigin Monument dated 732 proves this. It can be said that this symbolism is influenced by the fact that mountain goats live both in high places and in hard-to-reach areas. For this reason, it was accepted as sacred by the Turkish communities and even accepted as the messenger of God and turned into a political image by the Turkish khans. This perception is undoubtedly due to the free and courageous lives of goats.The first examples of the mountain goat figure in the medieval world belong to the Ani excavations. Especially in the excavations of Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr (1892- 1893/1904-1917), Beyhan Karamagaralı (1989-2005) and Yasar Coruhlu (2006-2010), abundant ceramics with mountain goat figures were found. The closest examples are seen in the medieval cities of Arran geography. The finds obtained during the excavations in Zhinvali in Georgia, Shamkir in Azerbaijan and Dvin in Armenia are other finds similar to Ani samples.An example of Anatolian Seljuk’s art should be mentioned here. The tiles with mountain goat figures belonging to the Kubâdâbâd Palace (1226-1236), which was built by the Seljuk Sultan Alâeddin Keykubat (I), are extremely important.&nbsp;

Unglazed Ceramics with Mountain Goat Figures of Ani

Merve

Özlem

Modern dönemle birlikte geleneksele karşı yeni olana yönelim vurgulanmaya başlamış; soyut düşünsel ideolojiler, teknolojik ilerlemeler ve tarihî süreçlerle toplumsal gelişmeler gibi birçok sosyo-kültürel etken sonucunda basit formlara dayalı yeni bir mimari düzen ortaya çıkmıştır. Yeni olanın orijinallikle ilişkilendirilebilen yapısı, belirli bir üslup çerçevesinde çeşitlilik tanımlayan modern yaklaşımın özgünlüğünü tartışmaya olanak sağlamaktadır. Özgünlük mimaride yer, mekânsal kurgu, form, malzeme, teknoloji gibi fiziksel bileşenlerin yanı sıra tasarım aşamasındaki düşünsel nitelikleriyle de ele alınabilmektedir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında gelenekten kopuş ve yeniye yönelim gibi ideolojileriyle modernizm, mimarlığın düşünsel nitelikleriyle de özgün olabileceğini göstermektedir. Buna karşılık çeşitliliğin birliği olarak üslup olgusunun yalnızca form bileşeniyle tanımlanma riski ve soyut çizgilerin bu tanımlamaya imkân veren alt yapısıyla modernist ifadenin zaman içerisindeki dönüşümü kaçınılmaz hâle gelmektedir.&nbsp;İkinci Dünya Savaşı gibi toplumsal gelişmelerin de dâhil olmasıyla aslen Batı’da temellenen modernizm, özellikle Batı dışı bağlamlara yalnızca mimari form özelinde evrenselleşen bir uluslararası üslup şeklinde yansıyarak tartışmalı bir dönüşüm göstermiştir. Temelde kendi içerisinde bile yorum farklılıkları gözlemlenen modernizm, Batı dışı bağlamlarda toplumsal ve tarihî süreçlerin de değişkenlik göstermesiyle, salt form üzerinden ele alınmaya başlamıştır. Çalışma bu noktada, tartışmayı Batı dışı bir bağlam olan Türkiye üzerinden aktarmayı amaçlamaktadır. Türkiye’nin Avrupa’daki savaşın bitmesiyle dışa açılması ve yeni devlet yönetiminin kentsel planlama kararları gibi geçirdiği süreçler modernizmin ülke mimarlığına yansımalarında etkilidir. Yaşanan bu değişimlerle birlikte Batı’da yaşanan uluslararası üslup sürecine geçiş döneminin çakışması ise modernizmin Türkiye’ye yeni bir mimarlık arayışı sonucunda hâlihazırda uluslararası bir üslup olarak gelmesine sebep olmuştur. Bu dönemde modernizmin uluslararası üslubundan esinlenen Türk mimarlar, kendi mimari karakterlerini yansıtarak bireyselleşememiş ve özgün üretimler gerçekleştirememiştir. İstanbul Belediye Sarayı ve Hilton Oteli gibi 1950’li yıllarda inşa edilen bazı yapılarda, yalnızca uluslararası üslubun biçime dayalı özellikleri kullanılmış ve taklit denebilecek kütleler ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Kamu yapılarının yanı sıra o dönem tasarlanan özellikle toplu konut yapılarında da benzer yaklaşımlar sergilenmiştir.Bununla birlikte zaman içerisinde uluslararası üslubun gelenekselden uzaklaşmadan modern anlayışla Batı-dışı bağlamlarda inşa edildiği yapı örneklerinden de bahsedilebilmektedir. Türk Tarih Kurumu, SSK Zeyrek Tesisleri, Türk Dil Kurumu gibi özgünlük arayışlarıyla inşa edilmiş en bilinen kamu yapılarının yanı sıra birçok konut tasarımında bu arayışlara rastlanmaktadır. Sedad Hakkı Eldem’in çağdaş materyalleri modernizmin çizgileriyle yorumlayarak tasarladığı Sirer Yalısı, geleneksel ve modern olanın bir arada ele alınabileceğini örneklemektedir. Sedat Gürel tarafından tasarlanmış parçalı birimlerden oluşan yazlık konut grubu da modern yaklaşımların geleneksel mimari ve çevreye ait özellikleriyle yorumlanabileceğini ifade etmektedir. Her iki yönde incelen tüm örnekler, kaynakları Batı’da olan modern mimarlığın evrenselliğinin form odaklı olmayabileceğini göstermektedir. Modernizmin özündeki ideolojinin evrenselliğini ve evrensel olanın da yorum farklılıklarıyla özgünleşebileceğini ifade eden bir yaklaşım karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Formun üretiminin yer ve bağlam ayırt edilmeksizin evrensel bir üslup olarak doğrudan aktarımı ise yoruma bağlı özgünlüğün yerini tasarımların aynılaşmasına bırakmaktadır.&nbsp;Modern dönemden günümüze kadar gelen süreçte, teknolojiyle birlikte yaşanan toplumsal gelişmeler sonucunda, mimari tasarımların giderek daha da form odaklı görsel yaklaşımlara dönüştüğü görülmektedir. Çağdaş mimari üretimlerde dijital tasarım yöntemlerinin, teknolojinin sunduğu teknikler ve materyaller çerçevesinde yeni formlar tanımladığı gözlemlenmektedir. Yeni gelişen teknolojiler, her ne kadar formların çeşitlenmesine olanak tanısa da fiziksel ve sosyal bağlamıyla ilişkili bir tasarım fikrine dayandırılmaması durumunda, tıpkı uluslararası modern üslupta olduğu gibi yalnızca mimari formun oluşturulmasına odaklanmaktadır. Modernizmin dönüştüğü uluslararası üslup kavrayışıyla benzeşen çağdaş dönemin bu teknolojik yaklaşımları, günümüz mimarlığında da özgün kütlelerin üretimini zorlaştıran evrensel teknikleri ve formları içermeye başlamaktadır.&nbsp;Mimari türü veya dönemi tanımlayıcı bir tarz bulma arayışında olan teknolojik üslubun bilgisayar destekli bu dijital üretimleri, benzer tekniklerin kullanımı sonucunda birbirine benzer biçimler ortaya çıkarabilmektedir. Bu durum uluslararası modern üslupta olduğu gibi mimari tasarımların özgünlüklerinin de sorgulanmasına sebep olmaktadır. Böylece üslup, biçim ve özgünlük ilişkisinin çağdaş mimarlık ortamında hâlâ devam eden bir tartışmaya yol açtığı görülebilmektedir.Bu kapsamda çalışmada modern dönemden gelen özgünlük, üslup ve form olgularının günümüz çağdaş mimarlık yaklaşımlarının neresinde olduğu irdelenmektedir. Nitelik ve içerik bakımından oldukça farklılaşmasına rağmen bu iki dönemin benzeşen yanları üzerinde durularak, uzun yıllardır süregelen özgünlük ve form tartışmasına bir soru işareti bırakmak çalışmanın amacını oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın ilk bölümünde özgünlük ve üslup, modern soyut formları içeren mimarlık örnekleri aracılığıyla irdelenmektedir. Bu bölümde modernizmin öncü mimarları Mies van der Rohe, Adolf Loos, Le Corbusier ve Alvar Aalto’nun bireysel modernist üsluplarını yansıtan üretimleri örneklenmektedir. İkinci bölümde Batı kaynaklı ideallerle ortaya çıkan modernizmin Batı-dışı toplumların mimarilerine yansımaları, birebir formun aktarımı ve özgün çözümler şeklinde iki gruptan oluşan Türkiye’deki özel konut grupları üzerinden tartışılmaktadır. Son bölümde ise, günümüze kadar süregelen bu tartışmanın, 21. yüzyıl çağdaş mimarlığında ele alınma şekli benzer bir karşılaştırmayla değerlendirilmektedir. Dolayısıyla çalışma, kuramsal temele dayanan karşılaştırmalı bir yöntemi içermektedir. Coğrafi bağlamların yanı sıra modern dönem ve çağdaş dönem arasındaki tekniklere ve forma dayalı üslupların karşılaştırılması örnekler, tablolar ve kavramlar üzerinden yapılmaktadır.&nbsp;Sonuç olarak çalışmada, modern dönemin ardındaki özgün fikirlerin değil, uluslararası üslupta kabul edilen mimari formların evrenselleştirilmesi durumu eleştirilmektedir. Modernizmin uluslararası üslup döneminde ve günümüzün çağdaş yaklaşımlarında, üslup ve form kavramlarının farklı tekniklerle benzer bir çerçevede işlendiği analiz edilmektedir. Yeni bilişim teknolojileri ile üretilmiş formlara ve tekniğin baskın olduğu bir ortaklaşmaya sahip çağdaş mimarlığın da uluslararası üslupta olduğu gibi yer ve bağlam fark etmeksizin her yerde uygulanması durumunda, “yeni” bir evrensel üsluba doğru dönüşebilme tehlikesi taşıdığı düşünülmektedir. Buna karşılık üsluplaşarak evrenselleşecek olan, tasarım yaklaşımlarının özündeki yorumlanmaya açık düşünce sistematiği olduğunda daha verimli ve sürdürülebilir bir dil oluşumu sağlanacaktır. Bilişim teknolojilerinin yeni mimari form, yöntem ve dil arayışlarında, bağlam ve üslup ilişkisinin göz önünde bulundurularak yönlendirilmesi, evrensel üsluba getirilmiş olan eleştirilerin tekrarlanmasını da engelleyecektir.&nbsp;

Discussions of Authenticity, Style and Form in the Architecture from  the Modern Period to the Present

Tuba

Miniature manuscripts, which have survived the geography that the Ottoman Empire ruled for six centuries and fill various libraries and museums of the world today, are treasures still waiting to be discovered with the research done so far. These works have been the subject of various studies to date within the framework of their subjects, the elements of the depictions or specific subjects such as composition, color and technique. The fact that the tree examples in miniature art have a richness of style, design and species has been a motivating and exciting issue in the selection of the subject. The main goal of our research is to examine the tree species in Ottoman miniature art through examples of the 16th-century. Within the scope of the study, after evaluating the prominent miniatures of the period in terms of trees, stylistic examination and research were made to determine whether they were suitable for historical reality or not, and the consistency of these trees with geographical vegetation was tried to be detected. Within the scope of the research, a prestudy on botanical science and illustration was carried out and support was received from specialized researchers. Besides, in the context of the subject of the description, the sources of the period, travel notes and travelogues benefited.Many tree species in nature look similar to each other. Species are divided into many varieties, even within themselves. Therefore, it is sometimes not possible to make a definitive judgment about the absolute types of trees painted in miniature art. Some hints are needed to partially detect the species. It is difficult to name a tree that has no leaves and no trunk texture is shown. Or a leaf mass that is far from detail, similar to many different trees, and its resemblance to a specific species cannot be predicted. In this case, support is taken from the subject of the description, its geography and the information in the sources. Diagnosis is much easier in naturalistic examples where the miniature artist gives clear clues to show the tree type. Within the scope of the research, these trees were mostly evaluated. In these trees, the species is understood by looking at the form of the leaf, the leaf array and direction, the colour and texture of the trunk, the height of the tree and the general appearance. It is much easier to determine the species of some trees with characteristic features.&nbsp;Cupressus is one of the most preferred tree species in Ottoman miniature. Particularly in the background of the sultan’s assemblies, the Cupressus, lined up with the upper parts of which are visible, have become the classical background of the Ottoman miniature. Cupressus illustrated a great design richness in classical period works despite characteristic appearance.Blooming trees, the heralds of the spring season, are another group of trees that are excessively seen in miniature art. These flowering trees, known as the spring branch, display diversity according to the style of the miniature artist, accompanied by leaves, buds and seeds with different appearances. Except for a small number of examples where the spring branches are described in the foreground and detailed, it is mostly seen to be entangled in a cypress tree and obscured.&nbsp;Another tree that is diverse in Ottoman miniature with its different designs is the sycamore tree. The trunks of these trees, which are often described in the foreground with detail and with exquisite workmanship, are mostly thick and lively with hollows, cavities and deep shadowing. Grey colour tones were frequently preferred on the body and yellow and red colours along with green on the leaves.&nbsp;A tree species seen in realistic examples with documentary value is poplar. The main work where poplar trees can be identified is Mecmû-ı Menâzil which belongs to Matrakçı Nasuh. In the work, poplar trees with similar baselines are designed in different ways with various forms of green in the areas that are accommodated during the Iraq journey. It is also possible to see the poplar tree in the descriptions of the nakkashane products of the classical period.The leading trees depicted locally in Ottoman miniatures are palm species. Particularly in Siyar al-Nabi, which is about the life of the Prophet, these trees are illustrated with various details as the most significant trees in Arab geography. Mecmû-ı Menâzil, which is about Kanuni’s (1494-1566) expedition to Iran, draws attention as a work that includes original date trees. These trees, which are illustrated as a naturalist, have a wide variety of appearances young or ripe, fruity or non-fruity, with few or lush leaves.In the miniatures of the 16th-century, sphere-shaped trees similar to oak, hackberry or terebinth are often coincident encountered. The decent-shaped trunks of these trees, which are called ball trees by today’s artisans, are divided into several branches close to each other at the part where the leaves begin, and the circular leaf mass rises on these branches.&nbsp;In the miniatures of the 16th-century, it is possible to see many fruit trees. Cherry, pomegranate, apple and quince, apricot, almond, pear and peach trees were diagnosed in documentary examples. In the Ottoman miniature, leafless willow trees, horse chestnut, olive, ash-like multi-leaf trees and coniferous tree species such as pistachio pine, larch, yellow pine, red pine, fir, cedar and juniper are also encountered. It can be stated that many of the tree species can be diagnosed by the geography described in the Ottoman miniature.In the light of such analysis, it was observed that the realist attitude of 16th-century miniature art was reflected in these illustrations to a great extent and added value of their position as reflections from the past, like a documentary. This study reveals how rich the tree inventory of the 16th-century Ottoman miniature was, as well as the richness of style and design of the period.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Tree Species in Ottoman Miniature Art (16th-Century)

Fatma

Binding can generally be defined as a covering made of cardboard, usually encased with leather, for books or various magazines. A person who performs the art of bookbinding is called a bookbinder. The subject of this article involves bindings bearing the signature of the Seljuk bookbinder Mehmed al-Sharīf, and their decorative features. Like many Seljuk bookbinders, Mehmed al-Sharīf’s name has only survived to the present through his signed bindings. The literature has no detailed information about his life, when he lived, or his art style. This article examines in detail the bindings that have been determined as bearing the signature of this bookbinder, as well as the materials, construction techniques, and decorations in the bindings and attempts to reveal the bookbinding style the bookbinder used.As a result of the research done in manuscript libraries and the literature about Turkish-Islamic bindings, a total of eight bindings have been identified bearing the signature of Mehmed al-Sharīf. The first example is the manuscript with inventory number TPML A. 2334. The corner pieces are triangular and have bookbinder seals with the inscription of “Mehmed al-Sharīf.” The seals are 5 mm in diameter. The second example is the manuscript with inventory number Yusuf Aga ML 191. The covers are surrounded by a 10 mm wide, upside-down rūmī edge/border decoration. The corner pieces are triangular and have three bookbinder seals with a diameter of 5 mm. The third example is the manuscript with the inventory number Vahit Pasha ML 1175. The leather of the binding is a reddish-brown goatskin. The covers are surrounded by a 10 mm wide, upside-down rūmī-edge decoration, and its corner pieces are triangular, with three bookbinder seals possessing a diameter of 5 mm. The fourth example is the three-volume manuscript with inventory number TPML A.465 (1-2, 5-6, 9-10). All three bindings are of the same material and have the same decorative features. The leather is a light brown goatskin. The front and back cover decorations of the bindings are the same. The covers are surrounded by a 10 mm wide, upside-down rūmī-edge pattern interspersed with stars. The corner pieces are triangular, with three identical bookbinder seals 5 mm in diameter. The fore-edge flap is divided into three equal sheets and has four seals applied inside. Bookbinder seals and gold-inlaid dots are also found inside the medallion of the envelope flap. The fifth example is the manuscript with inventory number Sulaymaniyah ML Turhan Valide Sultan 253. The skin of the binding is a dark brown goatskin. The corner pieces of the binding are triangular, with three identical bookbinder seals of 5 mm diameter printed inside. The sixth example is the manuscript with inventory number Sulaymaniyah ML Mahmud Pasha 237. It has a circular bookbinder seal with a diameter of 5 mm on each corner. While a bookbinder seal is also found in the middle of the front cover, a rose motif has also been created by pressing 7 seals in a circular manner in the middle of the back cover. The fore-edge flap only has one bookbinder’s seal imprinted on the corners of the ruler, as on the covers. Seals are also seen on the envelope flap corners. The middle of the envelope flap has seven bookbinder seals that form a rosette, mirroring the one on the back cover. The seventh example is the manuscript with inventory number Vahit Pasha ML 1169. The leather is a reddish-brown goatskin. The corner pieces are triangular and contain three bookbinder seals with 5 mm diameters. In the center of the covers, the bookbinder seal was applied seven times to form a rosette, just as in the previous example. The eighth and final example is a binding in the Victoria and Albert Museum. This binding was identified by Duncan Haldane’s Islamic Bookbindings in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Three and seven bookbinder seals were affixed between the full ground geometric pattern on the cover surface.Mehmed al-Sharīf continued the characterization and decoration style of the Anatolian Seljuk binding tradition in his bookbinding works. He preferred cold press and gold inlay techniques when applying the binding’s decorations. The most frequently used technique is the cold press technique, which is also common among Seljuk binding. Bookbinder seals with the inscription “Mehmed al-Sharīf” can be found on the corners of the bindings, in the middle of the covers, on the fore-edge flap, or on the envelope flap. The seal must have been applied with the same tool, as all are circular with a diameter of 5 mm. In the seal, the name of Mehmed (Mohammad) was placed at the top of the text line due to respect for the name of the Prophet Mohammed (pbuh). The lower part of the seal has the phrase “al-Sharīf,” and because of this phrase occurring in his name, he is considered to perhaps have descended from Hasan (the grandchild of Prophet Mohammed). The signed bindings contain two manuscripts with copy dates whose book-binding originality has been determined. The date of the manuscript with inventory number of TPML A. 2334 was copied is 654/1256, and the date the manuscript with inventory number of TPML A. 465 was copied is 699/1299. Thanks to these data, Mehmed al-Sharīf can be said to have been a Seljuk bookbinder who produced works in the second half of the 13th century at the latest. Considering the libraries where the works are located and the inscriptions placed on them, the bookbinder can be said to have lived in Anatolia. This bookbinder produced works at the end of the 13th century and most likely continued to live into the first quarter of the 14th century.&nbsp;

Bookbindings Bearing the Signature of Mehmed al-Sharīf and Their Decorative  Characteristics

Murat

Prof.

Pınar

The figurines evaluated in this study were found in 2007 in Aydın, Karpuzlu, Hatipkışlası, and Ilıcasu within the territory of the ancient site of Alinda, and were brought to the collections of Aydın Archaeological Museum. Four figurines with different typological and iconographic features were examined in the same area. The works in the museum were grouped by considering their usage patterns as well as their forms and technical features. The works discussed within the scope of the study are votive figurines. While four figurines in the museum that we analyzed within the scope of the study were described as votive artefacts. Figurines generally consist of a round head and rectangular body. This group of figurines consists of those made of terracotta in an iconic shape. The small number of Old Carian cultic inscriptions regarding cultic practices of Caria that survived to today through Greek literary texts from a limited source of information. Figurines belonging to the typology of kourotrophos, hydrophoros, dressed women and Hades/Zeus figurines, which were mostly found in the sacred areas of Demeter and Persephone in the Late Classical - Early Hellenistic Period, especially in the Caria, were handled technically, typologically and iconographically. The findings in the vicinity of the city of Alinda are very important in terms of bringing southwest examples of the city’s figurine typology to the literature, specifically for Carian coroplastic studies. The figurines handled in this study constitute the first terracotta figurine samples published in the territory of the site of Alinda and they are introduced to the scientific world. The figurines were found 6 km of the city, and no archaeological work has been carried out in this area yet. When the localization of the artefacts, which are problematic in the context of the finds, together with their iconographic connections, is examined, it is remarkable that it covers the territory of Alinda and is located 21 km east of the Labraunda Zeus Sanctuary. When the typological and iconographic features of the figurines are examined, their cult-related features determined within the sacred areas of Demeter and Persephone indicate that they belong to a context connected with the road known to exist between the city of Alinda and the Labraunda Zeus Sanctuary. Another indication, based on the iconography of the figurines, is the existence of another sanctuary outside the city, apart from the temple located in the acropolis in the ancient city of Alinda. Although the interpretations do not go further than the hypothesis since the data obtained are quite scarce, more concrete evidence can be obtained as a result of the scientific studies to be carried out in the field. The ideational origins of the kourotrophos figurine typology numbered TK.1 date back to the Prehistoric Periods in Anatolia. The figurine, which is thought to represent a goddess as a mother or protector, has different variations as sitting and standing, with a baby on her lap or being breastfed. The typology, which we encounter iconographically different periods and in different geographical regions, has an apotropaic meaning related to women and childbirth. Western Anatolian examples of the hydrophoros figurine numbered TK.2 are also seen in the Hellenistic Period, mostly in the Classical Period. Especially the figurines which carry the hydria standing on the head with their right hands have been detected in the sacred areas of Demeter and Persephone in the Caria since the Classical Period. Thus, the place of this type of figurine in the regional coroplastic, the development of the type and its iconography are emphasized. The fact that they were found in the same context as the Hades/Zeus figurines numbered TK.4 from the sacred areas of the Caria indicates that the mentioned typology is iconographically connected. There are different opinions about who it represents in both examples, but it has been evaluated as images related to the cult of Demeter and Persephone. Since the mentioned findings do not belong to a systematic excavation or a layer, the analogy method was used as the dating criterion within the scope of the study. In this context, the kourotrophos numbered TK.1 and Hades/Zeus figurines numbered TK.4 are thought to date back to 350-325 BC, and also the hydrophoros numbered TK.2 and the female-type figurine of Herculaneum numbered TK.3 are thought to date back to 325-300 BC. The fact that the figurines date back to different periods shows that the area was also used within a certain period of time. In the technical evaluations of the figurines, similarities were found in clay and lining properties, and different forms were observed in the steam hole. Furthermore, owing to the preservation of a single specimen as a whole, the base-body, head and body ratio of the figurine numbered TK.2 was calculated. The base of the hydropohoros figurine numbered TK.2, which is probably a craft of a workshop which made productions between 325-300 BC, was calculated as 1/8 and the body ratio as 1/5. The similarities of these examples to Theangela and Halicarnassos figurines indicate the existence of a workshop or inter-city trade of moulds. We can see that the majority of coroplast who made the figurines in the region were local artists. While Classical artists gave sacred meaning and apotropaic motifs in the sanctuary, they also gave importance to the need to be in harmony with Classical aesthetics. In this sense, we can understand the effectiveness from a viewer’s perspective of adding a sacred meaning and apotropaic effect to some iconic motifs in the Carian sanctuary in the 4th century BC. Thus, it was attempted to obtain data that can help with the stylistic features and dating of these works. It was determined that the figurines, which are the subject of the article, had similarities with some figurines in other museums in terms of form, technical features, and usage purposes. Considering the sense of style and the techniques used, it was concluded that the figurines at Aydın Archaeological Museum could be dated to the 4th century BC.

A Group of Figurines From the Territorium of Alinda

Müge

Kasım

Primitive soaps prepared with raw materials of plant and animal origin in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greek and Roman civilizations are quite different from their current form. These soap-like substances have been an important tool in cleaning various textiles and goods, in the treatment of diseases and providing personal hygiene. From the 7th and 8th centuries, soap production centers emerged in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean countries. Marseille in France, Savona in Italy and Castile in Spain are the most important centers. Due to climatic conditions, olive trees grow in abundance in these cities. The fact that one of the main raw materials of soap is olive oil has enabled the establishment of the soap industry in these centers. In Islamic cities such as Aleppo, Nablus and Jerusalem, soap production, dating to ancient times, and turned into a major industry during the Ottoman period.At the end of the 18th century and throughout the 19 th century, the reasons such as the discovery of chemical methods for the raw material of soap in the Western world, the introduction of steam power in the industry, the developments in transportation and the awareness of health rules increased the production and consumption of soap. In the same century, soap production is mentioned as one of the main hometown industries in the Ottoman world, and there are many documents related to soap in the Ottoman archives. In these documents, subjects such as raw materials used in soap production, quality of soap, trade and production centers are frequently mentioned. The documents mentioning the soap production centers are important in terms of identifying the regions and places where the soap factories were built. Based on the documents and yearbooks of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, these centers are İzmir, Urla, Aydın, Ayvalık, Edremit, Burhaniye, Ayvacık, Midilli, Crete, Aleppo, Damascus, Nablus, Antakya, Kilis, Antep and Maraş. In addition, in the Annuaire Oriental du Commerce (Oriental Trade Yearbooks) published in 1889-1890, 1891, 1893-1894, 1896 and 1909, it is seen that the soap sector constituted the main industry of the same centers. Considering this information, soap factories were identified in Ayvalık, Burhaniye, Havran, Edremit and Ayvacık in the Marmara, in İzmir and Urla in the Aegean, and in Antakya, Kilis, Antep, Nizip, Birecik in the Mediterranean. The climatic conditions of the settlements enabled olive trees to grow. Therefore, soap factories were built in these centers where olive oil was obtained abundantly and cheaply.Among the centers mentioned, it is learned from the documents that the main industry of Antakya in the 19th century was the soap production sector. The number of soap factories in the city was nine in 1888-1889, eleven in 1892-1902 and fifteen in 1906. Today, there are seven soap factories in Antakya. However, the architectural formation of the soap factories identified in Antakya and other centers has some similarities and differences. The plan, space, façade and building material properties of these structures have developed in parallel with the architecture seen in their geography. In this context, the Selahattin Ökten Soap Factory in Antakya was introduced as singular in terms of the plan, space functions, façade features and building materials. A typology study was carried out with the soap factories found in other regions. Three different main typologies have been determined in these soap factories, whose construction dates are from the second half of the 19th century to the 1960s. 1- Soap factories with different units in a courtyard 2- Soap factories with inner courtyards 3- Soap factories without courtyards. Soap factories of the 1st type appear in Ayvalık, Burhaniye, Havran, Edremit, Ayvacık and İzmir. Generally, two-storey and rectangular-mass soap factories of this type delimit one side of the large courtyard. The courtyard is shared by buildings with different functions, especially the olive oil mill, together with the soap factory. They also have metal conical-shaped boilers. Type 2 is located in Antakya, Kilis, Gaziantep, Nizip and Birecik. This type of plan consists of vaulted and arched sections that surround a courtyard from two, three or four directions. There are usually stone soap cauldrons and olive oil wells on the ground floors. The wooden curtains seen on the facades of the first floors facing the courtyard and the street add a characteristic feature to these soap factories. The third type is encountered in every region. However, the building elements and facades are shaped according to the architecture of the region they are located in. Functionality is prioritized in soap factories. Therefore, aesthetic concerns are at the lowest level. Interior spaces and facades are kept quite plain.&nbsp;

Selahattin Ökten Soap Factory in Antakya and an Evaluation on Soap Factory Plan  Typology

Nergiz

Yunus

Karagöz-Hacivat plays are a Punch-and-Judy-type of folkloric shadow theatre that takes its subjects from the socio-economic conditions of its time. At the same time, Karagöz-Hacivat’s plays also involve archaic thoughts, belief systems, and myths, as well as many folkloric materials that have been maintained whether consciously or unconsciously in daily social life.Kanlı Kavak [The Bloody Poplar] is a reflection of three different cults, that occur in almost every mythology, culture, and tradition regarding the Turkish Karagöz-Hacivat shadow theatre. Contrary to the tree beliefs that are generally accustomed to being evaluated as symbols of the enormous and the sublime, the plot development in Kanlı Kavak mentions negative aspects of the tree such as being cruel and cursed, which is one of the ways that make the play interesting. On the other hand, the processing of the plot that develops around the tree, the house, the fountain (water), the snake and the djinn, which is one of the symbols of supernatural beings, can be considered as elements related to the tree. The play, which carries the traces of social life in the center of belief to the curtain of Karagöz, also comes to the fore with its richness of mythological elements.Researchers seem to agree that Kanlı Kavak occurs among the kar-i kadim [unfathomable eternal] plays. When looking at the main characters in Kanlı Kavak, are seen to be Hacivat, Karagöz, Karagöz’s wife, Âşık Hasan, Âşık Hasan’s son Muslu, the Djinn, the first Albanian, and the second Albanian. The tree appears with various functions and meanings in many mythologies and cultures and takes place in Karagöz-Hacivat plays as the projection of social life. From this perspective, the tree in Turkish shadow theatre is seen to be used in three different ways in terms of content and visuals: as showpieces, as dividers, and as a decorative element (i.e., the use of wood).Tree-related beliefs vary widely. One of the stages in becoming a shaman, who uses the limbs of the tree as a symbolic ladder reaching to the sky, involves planting a tree, to which the shaman believes they are attached. The beech tree is one of the trees shamans consider to be sacred; they believe the beech tree descended from the sky with the gods Ülgen and Umay. The tree is also seen to play a crucial role in the legend of the descent from the tree in the legend of Oghuz Khan and the Uyghurs’ Türeyiş Destanı [Turkic creation myth]. Such issues as the Tree of Life, beliefs concerning the tree, and the kinds of trees that are considered sacred show Turks to have quite established cultic beliefs with deep meanings regarding trees. The poplar tree can also be said to be a sacred tree that is respected both in the Anatolian area as well as in other geographies of the Turkish world, with various beliefs having been developed about it. The poplar tree has attracted the interest of people due to its height, durability, and longevity. Poplars can be an image, symbol, or carrier for some other thing. According to one fairy tale, when people wanted to kill Sultan’s son, they cut down the poplar once the son was seen to have turned into one. While this type of transformation exemplifies the human-plant metamorphosis, it also concerns the need to harm an unwanted being when they are in its transformed state to get rid of it. Karagöz’s cutting of the poplar in Kanlı Kavak is indicative of the end of the djinn’s physical appearance with the tree as the carrier of the djinn’s soul more than the end of the tree.Another universal element that occurs in world mythologies similar to the tree is supernatural powers. The most well-known of these are the beings called ‘djinn’. Following the belief that the spirits find their place in the tree, there is a djinn that settles in the poplar tree in the play. In the first section of the study, the place of the tree, which is considered sacred in almost all cultures, in Turkish culture, the importance of the poplar tree, the elements with mythological meanings such as the djinn, the snake, the fountain (water) that are mentioned with the tree have been discussed. The second section of the study will analyze the Karagöz-Hacivat play Kanlı Kavak based on these materials. In the play, Hacivat warns Karagöz about the bloody poplar, which is known to be an uncanny tree. Karagöz pays no attention to this and attempts to cut down the tree. However, he gets punished by being struck by the djinns who inhabit the tree. At the end of the play, Karagöz, having turned back into his old self, cuts down the poplar tree and takes the wood to his house. Trees are considered to be symbols of the pillars of the universe and are often considered sacred through their association with the Tree of Life. In order not to harm trees, approaching them has at times and in places been prohibited. Protecting and respecting trees at the same time is a manifestation of the belief that the spirits who inhabit the tree should not be disturbed. In Kanlı Kavak, fear and divinity are seen to be intertwined, as the bloody poplar becomes famous for its cruelty, evil, and hurt that it causes people.One of the most common themes in mythology is transfiguration, which has been confirmed through examples of transformations among the forms of God, humans, animals and plants. These transformations are knitted with various cause-effect relationships and are generally associated with trees. Starting from this point of view, the bloody poplar (a tree) that identifies itself as a fairy exemplifies the human-plant metamorphosis because of having a human and human-like speech. The following sections show how meowing like a cat and taking the shape of a snake may also be interpreted a plant-to-animal transformation. In Kanlı Kavak, the mythical origins of superstitions appear in the sense of the divinity attributed to the tree. The cutting and destruction of the poplar tree might be read as the invalidation of certain values. Although the issue of considering the tree to be a djinn and haunted, which comes from the old Turkish beliefs, is not in harmony with Islamic beliefs, it is in line with folkloric belief. This situation as explained above can be said to stem from the tree being associated with the belief in the Tree of Life and to be considered sacred through the deep meaning attributed to the tree. The tree is also protected in this way. These issues that occur within folkloric beliefs, emotions, and thoughts, unsurprisingly find a place for themselves in shadow theatre, which is also nurtured by folkloric life. However, Karagöz as a realist and an ordinary man gradually displays a realistic attitude by going over these approaches, and this can be considered an extension of mythological and old religious beliefs. Another situation that is detected in the play involves Karagöz being punished twice, once by the djinn and once by the Albanians. While the first draw attention in terms of being a supernatural form of punishment (djinn strike) arising from folkloric beliefs, the second form of punishment can be considered a result of a legal requirement based on a concrete reason such as cutting down a tree that belongs to the public. While Albanian forest rangers are walking Karagöz around the people with a rope tied around his neck in the play, they also make a statement (this is the state of the one who has cut down a living tree) stating that it is a crime to cut down a tree, which is a living being. The tree and the elements related to the tree in Kanlı Kavak are similar to tree-related thoughts and tree-based beliefs that exist in Turkish culture and mythology. In this sense, some beliefs within the memory of the people are also seen to have found a place for themselves in the shadow theatre.&nbsp;

The Tree Motif in the Karagöz-Hacivat Play Kanlı Kavak [The Bloody Poplar] and  Aspects Concerning the Tree

Gül

Since Islamic glassmaking is an art form that emerged in Syria, Palestine, Iran, Iraq and Egypt, where pre-Islamic glass art had developed, the influence of Late Roman and Byzantine glass had a profound impact on its early period of development. The reflection of the unique style of Islamic culture on glass started with the Abbasid period and developed with Islamic the later states such as Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Great Seljuks that dominated this region. Glassworks brought to museums by donations, purchases and court decisions have an important place in glass studies. The subject of this study is 15 glass vessels, which were brought to Erzurum Museum in 2016 by a court decision. Since glass is a fragile material, it is hard to protect it in its complete shape. Since almost all of the Islamic glass in the Erzurum Archaeological Museum are complete, it would be an enormous contribution to glass research The glass examples examined in this study, similar to which can be seen in world museums, are greatly important to the richness of Turkish museums. The catalogue section was ordered according to the body forms.&nbsp;A cup with a cylindrical body kept in Erzurum Archaeological Museum, dated to the 9th-10th centuries, is among the most favored forms in Islamic glassmaking. Parallels of two squat cylindrical bowls were produced especially in the Iran-Iraq region especially and became widespread in the 9th-10th centuries. Similar examples of conical bowls are mostly known in Iran and date to the 10th-11th centuries. In the Islamic period, bottles vary widely in size and form, production and decoration techniques. The bottles kept in Erzurum Archaeological Museum are small bottles of different types including spherical, piriform, cubic bodies and molar flasks. Heights are varying between 4.4 cm and 9.9 cm. It is known that this type of bottle is used for cosmetics and medicines. Applique-impressed, and mold-blown decorated glass vessels in Erzurum Archaeological Museum were hot-processed group, and cut-decorated glass vessels were cold-decorated. Alternatively, there are four undecorated items. The only impressed glass (Cat.Nr.1) bears the inscription in Kufic script wishing “blessings upon its owner”. The closest parallel of this glass is in the Metropolitan Museum of New York today. Researchers, who cannot reach definite conclusions about the origin of such works, emphasize that they can be seen in Egyptian, Syrian and Iranian-Iraqi glassworks. This cylindrical cup was dated to the 9th-10th centuries, taking into account similar examples with its ornamentation and form features. There are five bottles (Cat.Nr.7-10, 12) decorated with appliques.&nbsp;&nbsp;The art forms of glass, which existed before Islam, continued into early Islamic times until the glass styles gained an Islamic character. Roman and Sassanid glass traditions continued in the early period. In this era, trail decorations are a characteristic feature of Eastern Mediterranean glasses. Glass threads with contrasting colors applied in the form of zigzags, parallel lines and rings on spherical bottles (Cat.Nr.7-10) and piriform bottles (Cat.Nr.12) (only in Cat.Nr.9 body and glass threads are in the same color). Glass bottles with a spherical body and applique decoration less than 10 cm in length are common in early Islamic glass. It is possible to date these appliques decorated bottles to the 7th-8th centuries, of which similar examples are seen especially in Syrian glass. In Erzurum Archaeological Museum, there are two bowls (Cat.Nr.5-6), and a bottle (Cat.Nr.13), both of which were produced by mold-blowing. The surfaces of the bowls are decorated with geometric motifs consisting of hexagons in the form of honeycombs. The ornamentation on these bowls is similar to Iranian glass. By considering the similarities, the work can be dated to the 10th-11th centuries. The mold- blown nine-sided bottle has an embossed eight-petal flower motif at the base. A mold-blown flower motif at the bases of bowls and bottles have been seen on glassware, thought to has been produced in the 10-11th centuries in the Iranian region, such as the Erzurum example. In the Erzurum Archaeological Museum, two bottles (Cat.Nr.14-15) were decorated with cut decorations. One of them is a spherical bottle that has been brought into a cubic form by cutting. The cutting technique was used not only for shaping the body but also to create intertwining circles on all four sides. Similar artefacts of this type are found in the 9th-10th centuries in the Iranian region. Another cut-decorated example is a molar-flask dating to the 9th-10th centuries. It is seen in the Islamic world in the 9th century and takes its name from its molar-like feet. In the study, a catalogue of 15 Islamic glassworks in the Erzurum Archaeological Museum has been organized and then evaluated according to their form and ornamental features. This study, which is significant for its value to Turkish museums, aims to contribute to the field of Islamic glass artistry.&nbsp;

Islamic Glasses in The Erzurum Archaeological Museum

Zahide

Kemal

Anadolu yerleşimlerinde anıtsal yapılar baskın karakterlidir ancak geleneksel dokuyu ve anıtların arka planını çok sayıdaki yerel nitelikli konut oluşturmaktadır. Konutların yerleşimi, biçimlenişi ve malzemesi yerel mimari ile yaşam tarzı hakkında en önemli bilgileri sunmaktadır. Yerel kimliğin somut ögeleri olan bu değerler küreselleşme ile birlikte hızla yok olmaya başlamıştır. Geleneksel mimarinin temel taşı olan konutların korunması ve sahip oldukları bilgi birikiminin geleceğe aktarılması amacıyla öncelikle belgeleme çalışmaları yürütülmelidir. Bu sebeple, geleneksel konut mimarisi üzerine sistematik şekilde çalışılmamış olan Bursa-Orhaneli ilçe merkezi ve bağlı köylerinde bir belgeleme çalışması gerçekleştirilmiştir.&nbsp;Günümüzdeki Orhaneli, 2. yüzyılda İmparator Hadrianus’un kurduğu ve antik kaynaklarda adı Hadrianoi (ad Olympum) olarak geçen dağlık yerleşimdir. Roma İmparatorluğu’nun dağılmasıyla Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu’na bağlı Adranos Tekfurluğu olarak yönetilmeye devam edilmiş, 1325 yılında Osmanlı Beyliği topraklarına katılmıştır. Orhaneli, kasaba görünümündeki ilçe merkezi ve ilçeye bağlı elli köyden oluşmaktadır. İlçe merkezindeki geleneksel doku, yerini betonarme ve çok katlı yapılardan oluşan kentsel dokuya bırakmıştır. Geleneksel yapı örnekleri yeni kent dokusu içinde, geçmiş yaşamın izlerini yansıtan parçalar olarak kalmıştır. Köylerin büyük kısmı ise ilçe merkezine göre daha az sayıdaki ve gabariyi aşmayan yeni yapılaşma sayesinde kırsal görünümlerini koruyabilmiştir. Bir köy meydanı ve köyün yerleştiği alanın eğimine uygun olarak gelişen yol ağı, yerleşim dokusunun temelini oluşturmaktadır. En yoğun yapı grubu, kırma çatılı ve iki katlı geleneksel konutlardır. Yol aksları üzerinde sıralanan ayrık nizam konutlarda yüksek bahçe duvarları yaygın değildir. Genellikle tek katlı olan samanlıklar, konutların ardından köylerdeki bir diğer yoğun yapı grubunu oluşturmaktadır. Köy fırınları, cami, okul, çamaşırhane, çeşme ve su deposu her köyde bulunan önemli ortak kullanım alanlarıdır. Birçok köydeki okul, nüfus azlığı sebebiyle kullanılmamaktadır ancak bayram, köy hayırı, düğün, cenaze gibi özel günlerde, tatillerde ve yaz dönemlerinde yerel halkın büyük kısmı köylere gelerek köy fırınları ve caminin aktif kullanımını sağlamaktadır. Günümüzde özgün işlevini yitiren çamaşırhanelerin bir kısmı terk edilmiş olsa da bazı köylerde farklı işlevler yüklenerek yeni ortak kullanım alanlarına dönüştürülmüştür.Ulaşım şartları, coğrafi sebepler yüzünden eskiden beri zor olan Orhaneli’de göç ile birlikte köylerdeki nüfus oldukça azalmıştır. Alan çalışması kapsamında belgeleme yapılan Sadağı, Serçeler ve Kusumlar köylerindeki konutların sürekli kullanım durumu sırasıyla %19, %33 ve %36 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu köylerdeki konutların çoğu dönemsel kullanımda veya boş durumdadır ancak köylerdeki yapıların strüktürel durumları incelendiğinde ortalama %70 kadarının iyi durumda olduğu görülmektedir. Strüktürel durumun iyi olması, yapıların çoğunun çok az müdahale ile yaşanabilir hâle gelebileceğine işaret etmektedir. Geleneksel yapıların korunmuşlukları ise köy genelindeki tüm yapılar içinde sırasıyla %42, %30 ve %27 oranında orta durumdadır. Bu durum, köylerdeki geleneksel konutların kritik eşikte yer aldığını göstermektedir. Korumaya ve sürekli kullanıma yönelik önlemler alındığı takdirde özgün dokuların çağdaş yaşama kazandırılma ihtimalleri henüz kaybolmamıştır.İlçe merkezi ve köylerdeki geleneksel evlerin özgün planları, Türk evi plan şemalarıyla benzerlik taşımaktadır. Zemin katlar genellikle dikdörtgendir. Üst katlar da zemin kat duvarlarını takip eden akslara göre inşa edilmiştir. En eski tarihli olduğu düşünülen konutlarda açık sofalara rastlanmaktadır. Kapalı sofalı yapılarda ise yan sofalı, iç sofalı (karnıyarık tipi), merkezi sofalı, köşe sofalı ve L sofalı plan tipleri tespit edilmiştir. İlçe merkezinde bulunan geleneksel konutlardaki helalar avlularda yer alırken, köylerde avluların yaygın olmaması sebebiyle üst katlarda cepheye entegre ahşap kutular şeklindedir. Plan biçimlenişi cephelere açık sofa, sadece odaların çıkma yaptığı yan çıkma, sadece sofanın çıkma yaptığı orta çıkma, tüm cephe boyu çıkma veya orta aksta yer alan bir balkon ile yansımıştır. Çıkmasız cepheye sahip yapılar da bulunmaktadır. Cephelerde bezemelerin olmayışı ve çıkmaların mütevazı boyutlarda olması, cephe tasarımında işlevselliğin ön planda olduğunu düşündürmektedir. Geleneksel Orhaneli evlerinin iç mekânlarında bezemeler tercih edilmemiştir. Bazı yapılarda ahşap bezemeli tavan göbekleri ve yüklük raflarında motifler mevcuttur. Ahşap bezemelere nadiren rastlanmaktayken cephe ve iç mekânlarda kalemişi süslemeler bulunmamaktadır. Türk evi tefrişleri olan ocak, gusülhane, yüklük, sedir ve raflar, geleneksel Orhaneli evlerinde yaygındır. Ocaklar, zemin kattan itibaren üst katta yığma olarak devam eden taşıyıcı duvarların içine yerleşmiştir.Geleneksel konutların zemin katları, yerel taş malzemeyle hazırlanan temel üzerine genellikle yığma taş veya daha az yaygın olan yığma kerpiç duvarlar ile inşa edilmiştir. Ekonomi tarım, hayvancılık ve bunlardan elde edilen ürünlerin işlenmesine dayanmaktadır. Bu sebeple zemin katlarda ana kapı ve arka kapının dışında ahır ve deponun konumuna göre birkaç havalandırma açıklığı bırakılmaktadır. Köylerde genellikle zemin katlar ahır, depo ve işlik, üst kat ise yaşam alanı olarak tasarlandığı için, pencere açıklıkları da üst katlardadır. Ahır ve depo işlevi olmayan, tamamen konut işlevli yapıların zemin katlarında da doğramalı pencereler bulunmaktadır. Bu durumda zemin katlardaki tüm duvarlar yığma yapım sistemi ile değil, gerektiğinde bazı cephe duvarları da bölücü duvarlar gibi ahşap iskelet sistem içi kerpiç dolgu olarak inşa edilmektedir. Ocakların yerleştirileceği duvarlar üst katlarda yığma olarak devam ederken diğer cepheler ve bölücü duvarlar da yine ahşap iskelet sistem içi kerpiç dolgudur. Geleneksel konutlarda tüm iç mekân ve cephe duvarları toprak sıvayla sıvanmakta, ancak bağdadi tekniği tercih edilmemektedir. Döşemeler, ahşap kirişler üzerine yerleştirilen taban tahtaları ile oluşturulmaktadır. Taşlık ve üst kat sofa tavanları genellikle kaplanmamakta, çatı strüktürü görünür hâlde bırakılmaktadır. Kullanılan üç ana yapı malzemesi olan taş, toprak ve ahşap yerel kaynaklı olup, ahşap için genellikle çevredeki çam ormanlarından yararlanılmıştır. Uludağ eteklerindeki dağlık coğrafyaya yayılan Orhaneli evlerinin biçimlenişini, çevresel faktörlerin olanak verdiği ekonomik faaliyetler büyük ölçüde belirlemiştir. Buna rağmen planlama ve malzeme kullanımı bakımından ciddi bir çeşitliliğe rastlanmamıştır. Sonuç olarak Orhaneli evleri; coğrafya, geçim kaynakları ve yerel malzeme kalitesinden kaynaklanan farklılıklar olmasına rağmen, Türk evinin yayıldığı coğrafyanın bir parçası olarak literatüre kazandırılmıştır.

An Example of Traditional Architecture in Western Anatolia:  Orhaneli Houses

Zülal

The ban in the Ottoman Empire on the construction of new churches except in special circumstances was lifted in the 19th century. The practices regarding church repairs that had required a sultan’s edict were also abandoned, and the fatwa requirement for church repairs was abolished. With the Edict of Gülhane, the principle was introduced of the equality of subjects, while the Imperial Reform Edict accepted all of Ottoman society into civil service. All communities were authorized to open schools under the control of the Education Council. For these reasons, restrictions against missionaries’ field of activity had been relaxed. These developments also laid the basis for the missionary activities carried out in Erzurum by Protestant missionaries. Protestants were able to take part in district councils as members and were able to engage in architectural activities using their ideas. This process at first led to the Armenian nation being singled out from different sects, with the initiation of an all-out Armenian revolt in 1895 being unpreventable. Missionaries’ activities were based on these social and political approaches. The only missionary campus of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was the hub station connecting the missionary stations outside of Erzurum, and as a result of its activities, this campus provides an important research environment that allows missionary studies to be observed from an architectural point of view.The practices of American architecture during the colonial period (1650-1715) took a revitalized place on the stage of history after the mid-19th century. The schools at the ABCFM campus also bear traces of this colonial revival period of American school architecture in terms of the formation of their facades, which emphasized triangular pedimented roofs, high chimneys, and a symmetrical layout, with a particular focus on the exteriors of entrances, some of which even having balconies above them. The parts of the campus facing the street were constructed with a symmetrical facade, this symmetry being provided by floor moldings, plaster applications, cornerstones and low semi-circular arched rustic jambs crowned with keystones over windows and doors. The main exterior entrances are emphasized with plaster designs on both sides, centered over the main door of the upper mission house and the recessed sections of the entrance to the girls’ school. Interior garden and courtyard designs were also effective in shaping the campus.Protestantism was seen to have emerged as a result of the Reform movement against authority under the leadership of Martin Luther and Jean Calvin and to be a different interpretation of the Christian faith, one that also developed various approaches to the field of architecture. Important Protestant figures had indicated the over-adornment of churches to be a sin, with simplicity in art instead being necessary. They stressed that great celebrations would make reaching out to and comprehending God impossible. These views show how Protestant society had adopted an architectural style approaching simplicity. Classical elements and wooden and stone materials were used in Erzurum’s Upper Mission House, thus serving as another example of how the Protestant community and missionary groups preferred simple classicism in their architectural activities, both economically and stylistically. The classical style was additionally used in both the boys’ and girls’ school buildings, and this can be considered as a way to study the visibility of the simple classicism that resulted from the missionaries’ architectural activities in the Western transition from wooden architecture to stone. Half of the facade of the Upper Mission House is seen to have been built from cut stone, while its other sections were built using rough-hewn stone or just rubble. The rustic arched window with keystones was used only at the entrance, with wooden-framed windows being preferred elsewhere. Meanwhile, the stone was used on all the facades of the boys’ and girls’ schools that were built after the Upper Mission House. The ABCFM campus can be evaluated as an architectural result of missionary activity and bears traces of the revivalist style practised both in America and around the worldwhile possessing a simple style more closely resembling the views of the Protestant sect. Although compatible with American and Protestant architectural styles, the indecision in the design of the Upper Mission House attracts attention. Perhaps this unstable style was not just the result of an architectural search but also something born from economic insufficiency. Therefore, the building should be evaluated not only in terms of style but also in terms of cost. The developments that occurred show how the American missionaries had a significant share in the events of the Protestant missionary activity in Erzurum both socially and architecturally and were also able to penetrate the city and leave an effective trace.&nbsp;

The Architectural Activities of Protestant Missionaries in the Ottoman Period: The  Erzurum American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) Campus

Rumeysa

Interacting with different civilizations from its foundation to its collapse, the Ottoman Empire, which has a military profile based on political, economic and social organization, made its name known with the wars for centuries. These wars, which occupy an important place in Turkish military history, have been an indicator of the fights put up against the enemies for many years. These wars sometimes brought victory and sometimes defeat as well, and made the Ottoman Empire a great power that dominated world history since the beginning of the 14th century. The best reflection of this can be seen in oil paintings on war, which are the representations of victories and defeats on canvas. Because the war scenes carry a narrative that emphasizes the monumentality of the struggle for the homeland. Most importantly, it aims to convey the message that victory is celebrated by the ruling groups to the audience. The best examples of this were given by Stanisław Chlebowski, who served as the court painter of Sultan Abdulaziz between 1870 and 1876. The works he produced at this time are very important for the development of Turkish war painting. Moreover, while these paintings were produced with a different understanding of description in the Ottoman lands, their impressions in the West are visual mediation of diplomacy that has turned into a modern one. But most importantly, they were introduced to the whole world as a part of the cultural interaction between Turkish and Western painters. According to an interview he gave to the Kraków Czas Newspaper in 1872, Chlebowski came to Istanbul in September 1864 to produce a series of paintings about the Ottoman-Polish Wars. Shortly after, he was assigned to paint military bases at the request of Keçecizade Fuad Pasha, the grand vizier of the time. When these works, which were presented to Sultan Abdulaziz, gained great acclaim, he began to work for the orders of the sultan. Most of the works he produced consist of oil paintings reflecting the Ottoman war history. These works are mostly the battles of I. Kosovo (1389) and Varna (1444), the Conquest of Istanbul (1453), Smederene (1459) Belgrade (1521), Mohac (1526), Vienna (1529), Budin (1541), Temesvár (1551), Eger (1596), Yanıkkale (1598) Baghdad (1638), it includes selected scenes from battles such as the Battle of Vienna (1683) and the Greek Revolution (1821). The painter’s war paintings brought many innovations to this field and sometimes pioneered the first. For example, the 1865 canvas painting named The Battle of Varna by Chlebowski, which is in the Istanbul Harbiye Military&nbsp;Museum Collection was determined as the earliest dated Ottoman war painting produced in this land by a foreign painter as a result of the examinations. Chlebowski’s oil painting Mehmet II’s Entrance to Istanbul, painted in 1874, is the earliest known example of the Conquest of Istanbul theme. French painter Jean-Joseph Benjamin Constant’s work on the same theme has been considered a pioneer until now. However, Stanisław Chlebowski’s painting, although it was completed in 1884 after Constant’s painting, is of great importance in terms of being the first idea on this subject.One of the features Stanisław Chlebowski brought to the iconography of the Ottoman wars was that he emphasized the union of patron-painter. The Ottoman text, which the painter added to the upper right corner of some war scenes, has been found only in Chlebowski’s paintings in the Turkish war painting tradition. Probably the artist worked with Sultan Abdulaziz on these lines. In these articles, information is given about when, with whom and where the war took place, and about the spoils captured during the war. This gave the Ottoman war tables a documentary value. In Chlebowski’s war paintings, the heroism of military and historical leaders, who played an important role in the war, was emphasized. Sometimes, the wars in which the Ottoman army was defeated or left without results are also depicted. For example, oil paintings on the Siege of Vienna are such works. In other words, in his composition, the painter depicted Suleiman the Magnificent with a victorious image from the battlefield. Moreover, historical records show that the siege ended without any results for the Ottoman army. A similar practice has emerged in the work in which he describes the Battle of Vienna. However, the fact that the work is dated to the years 1865-1876 in the collection it is in leaves a big question mark in mind. Because Chlebowski has been working as the palace painter of Sultan Abdulaziz in this process. Therefore, he cannot portray such a defeat in this period. As a result of the determinations, the artist created this painting, probably on order, when he lived in Kraków between 1881-1884. When all these are taken into account, it is understood that most of Stanisław Chlebowski’s Ottoman war paintings consist of scenes with political and military propaganda purposes. While these works were produced with a different understanding of description in the Ottoman lands, their impressions in the West served as a visual mediation of the diplomacy method. But most importantly, as a victory propaganda, they were introduced to the whole world from the Ottoman palace with heroic pride.&nbsp;

Some Findings on Stanisław Chlebowski’s Ottoman War Paintings

Muammer

Ayşe

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

The rûmî motif, one of the most important motifs of our ornamental arts, was applied in a new style in the 15th century, different from the ornamentation approach of the previous periods in Ottoman hand-drawn ornaments. Rûmî motifs are classified as plain, dendan, embroidered, senjide, hug and scrap in the sources. In 15th-century architectural decoration, it is seen that some forms included in this thought. There are examples of this motif in mosques and tombs in Bursa and Edirne, the ancient capitals of the Ottoman Empire. Exaggeration and intensity of the general decoration understanding of the period in the rûmî motifs in the hand-drawn embroidery draw attention. The motif is very detailed in the singular (sliced, dendan), and in the plural, it is designed in different ways (integrated, banded conjoined). Rûmî with animal characters, which we are familiar with from the Seljuk ornamentation, were made on various drawings, slices, dendans and munhanis in the applications of this period. The motif of the period moved away from its animalistic appearance and turned into a decorative form of almost unknown origin. One of the striking features of the period patterns is that the main structure of the designed Rumis never remains empty and almost all of them are made of internal structure. Another feature is that auxiliary elements such as wings and agraphia are not preferred much in designs created from rûmî motifs. The practical application of the motif also enabled the gradual coloring of the rûmî. A small number of wings and clips were used in the formation of the pattern in the composition. As a result of this, line distributions in the pattern were provided in the form of a fork over the rûmî line instead of a wing or agraphia or with a second line coming out of the body. Mostly, there is no concealment at the separation points of the lines.In our article, it was examined in detail the hand drawing of Bursa Yeşil Kulliye (1414-1419), Edirne Eski Mosque (1414), Edirne Muradiye Mosque (1436), Edirne Üç Şerefeli Mosque (1447) and ceramics altar of Edirne Muradiye Mosque which&nbsp;contains examples of 15th-century motifs. In addition, the tombs of Şehzade Mustafa - Cem Sultan (1479), Şehzade Mahmud (1507), Gülruh Sultan (1527) (1495) in the Muradiye Complex in Bursa and Mevlana Tomb were also analyzed. Some rûmî forms, which were used in the Seljuk and Principalities periods and the Ottoman classical art period and not included in the classification, are also seen in these structures, apart from rûmî motifs classified as plain, sencîde, hug and scrap in the sources. These are interesting rûmî designs that we call integrated and conjoined rûmîs, which have not been commented on until now. In addition, rûmî motifs with slices and dendan in differ their unusual use. Under the title “Integrated rûmî”, the rûmî motifs appear as a single rûmî motif by becoming integrated; Under the title “Striped Conjoined Rûmî”, the design of rûmî around a strip and attached to the strip; Under the title of “Rumites from Dilim and Dendan”, the density that occurs in the structure of rûmîs and therefore the likeness of rûmîs to vegetable motifs is explained. In addition, it has been determined that the Sufi understanding of the period affected this change in the structural design of the motif. As a result, it has been determined that the Bursa art style affects the transformation of the rûmî motifs in the 15th-century 1ornaments into an unusually different form. At the head of the Bursa art school, Ali b. There is Elias Ali. The Samarkand style, established by Timur, was synthesized by blending it with the contributions of Nakkaş Ali in Anatolian geography. This style thus 15th-century Ottoman hand-drawn ornaments found a place the Bursa style. In addition, it is seen that three different designs have been developed in the change in the rûmî motifs we mentioned in the penned pencils examined. These designs were used in period decorations. The first of these is the change in the structure of rûmî motifs. In the rûmî motifs applied, vegetable motifs were used more intensively in this period. The second of these is the state of rûmî being one with each other. In this formation, which we define as integrated rûmîs, plain, scrap and rûmîs with dendan were brought into a whole with each other and took their place in hand-drawn embroidery as the original motif of the period. The third striking feature of the ornament style of the period is the concept of designing rûmîs around a strip and adhering to the strip. The decorations examined, it was determined that the capital Edirne was an important decoration center and important designs were put forward in this period. It is understood from the pattern designs that the social and religious life of the period had a profound effect on the muralists. The vast knowledge of motifs and pattern designs of the artisans who produced works in the Anatolian geography was further enriched by the influence of the Samarkand school and the Mevlevi artisans in this process.&nbsp;

An Assessment on The Rûmî Patterns Used in The 15th Century Ottoman Painted  Decorations

Evren

18. yüzyılın başlarına dayanan Osmanlı-İsveç müzik ilişkileri, Osmanlı’nın modernleşme süreci boyunca devam etmiştir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin askerî alanda güç kaybeden mekanizmalarını sorgulaması üzere başlatılan modernleşme hareketinin tohumları, Sultan III. Selim’in Nizam-ı Cedid (Yeni Düzen) döneminde atılmıştır. Askeri alanda Batılı üslupla bir yenileşme amacıyla aralarında İsveç’in de bulunduğu çeşitli Avrupa ülkelerinden ​​subaylar getirilmiştir. Bu çabalar, Sultan II. Mahmud’un reform hareketlerine ve İsveç ile sağlam müziksel temasların kurulmasına öncülük etmiştir. İsveç’in Osmanlı modernleşmesi sürecinde müzik alanındaki etkilerine, her iki devletin kraliyet/emperyal müzik kurumlarının yapısal benzerlikleri bir gerekçe olabilir. 19. yüzyılda Osmanlı sarayında kurulan Muzıka-yı Hümâyûn’un askerî bandolar, saray orkestrası ve çeşitli müzik branşlarını temsil eden çalgı topluluklarını içinde barındırması gibi, İsveç Kraliyet Saray Orkestrası, Kraliyet Müzik Akademisi ve Kraliyet Askerî Bandoları birbiriyle ilişkili ve aynı krallık/saray kurumsal çatısı altında faaliyet göstermekteydi.Kurumsal yapılanmalarındaki benzerlik, Osmanlı-İsveç müzik ilişkilerinin çalgı tedariği ve askerî marşlar alanını işaret etmiş, ilgili belgeler arşivlerde tespit edilmiştir. Küresel modernleşme çabalarına yol açan sanayileşme hareketinin bir parçası olarak İsveç, çalgı imalatında öne çıkmıştır. Dönemin önde gelen İsveçli askerî bando çalgıları üreticileri Jacob Valentin Wahl (1801-1884) ve Ahlberg &amp; Ohlsson’dur. Wahl tarafından üretilen pirinç çalgılar Avrupa pazarında tipik İsveç çalgıları olarak tanınıp kabul görmüştür. 1850 yılında Ahlberg &amp; Ohlson’ın kurulması ise sivil ve askerî bandoların popülaritesindeki artış sürecine denk gelmiştir. 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına gelindiğinde İsveç askerî bando çalgıları Osmanlı Sarayı’nda da ilgi uyandırmış; 1890 ve 1907 yıllarında İsveç’ten askerî bando çalgıları satın alınmıştır. Osmanlı Sarayı’nın İsveç’ten askeri bando çalgıları siparişleri, iki devlet arasındaki ilişkilerin çok boyutluluğu ve Sultan Abdülhamid’in stratejik yönetim ve kültürel diplomasi anlayışı çerçevesinde yorumlanabilir.&nbsp;İsveç ile çalgı tedariği bağlamında devamlılık arz eden ilişkilerin yanı sıra, Osmanlı’da Batı Müziği’nin yeni bir müzik branşı olarak çalışmalarının başlamasıyla, iki devletin birbirlerinin marşlarına ilgi duyduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Batılı tarzda ilk Osmanlı devlet marşı olan Mahmudiye İsveç askeri bandolarınca icra edilmiş; İsveç marşı Tre Trallande Jäntor (Üç Şarkı Söyleyen Kız) ise melodisine Türkçe güfte yazılarak Osmanlı marş repertuarında yerini almıştır. Marşlardan beklenen işlevsellik emperyalizmden milliyetçiliğe uzanan sürecin dinamiklerinin stratejik yönetimiyle ve bu dinamiklerin birbirleriyle olan ilişkileriyle gerekçelendirilebilir. Milliyetçilik, emperyalizme bir yanıt olarak alternatif bir toplum yaratma ihtiyacı sonucu ortaya çıkmış, gelişmekte olan devletlerde reformların hızlandırılmasına yardımcı olmuştur. Diğer yandan, modernleşme ve sanayileşmenin her yerde eşit şekilde görülmemesi de milliyetçi hareketlere zemin yaratmıştır. Modernleşme, geleneksel toplumlardaki kültürel ilişkileri değiştirerek yeni bir kültür yaratırken, milliyetçilik hem bir ideoloji hem de bir hareket vasfıyla tamamen modern bir fenomen olarak tanımlanarak imparatorlukların/krallıkların sonunu hazırlamıştır. Osmanlı Devleti’nde müzikte modernleşmenin ilk temsilcisi olan Mahmudiye Marşı’nın, Kungl Skånska Dragonregementets Marsch (Scanian Dragoon Alayı’nın Kraliyet Marşı) adıyla yedi farklı İsveç askerî bandosu tarafından uzun yıllar çalınması, parçalanma tehdidiyle karşı karşıya olan İsveç’in emperyalist ideolojilerini korumak isteğinin müziksel bir sunusu olarak değerlendirilebilir. Zira Mahmudiye Marşı, yalnızca bir devletin modernleşmesinin Batı üslubundaki ilk müziksel sembolü olmakla kalmamış, aynı zamanda imparatorluk mirasını geri alma, Sultan temsilini Türk kimliğiyle sadece kendi topraklarında değil uluslararası arenada da Batılı bestecilerin ilgisini çekmede ve böylelikle sosyal istikrarı yeniden sağlarken imparatorluk imajını korumada hizmet etmiştir.Makalede, İsveç’in Osmanlı devlet marşını benimsemesinin sebepleri çoklu perspektif sunusuyla ortaya konulmuştur. Etkenlerden biri, İsveç ile Osmanlı Devleti arasındaki askerî ilişkiler, ittifaklar ve İsveçli subayların modernleşme sürecinde Osmanlı askerî kurumlarında istihdam edilmeleri dolayısıyla bando ile çok yönlü temasları ihtimali olarak tartışılmıştır. Diğer bir sebebin ise İskandinav ülkelerinden İstanbul’a seyahat eden Hans Christian Andersen gibi önemli şahsiyetlerin vesileleri ve krallık yapısını koruma ikilemindeki İskandinav ülkelerinin milliyetçilik ideolojilerinin olabileceği öne sürülmüştür. Burada Batılı bestekârların emperyalizmi temsil eden Sultan temalı ve milliyetçiliği benimseyen Türk kimliği vurgulu marşları etkisindeki bestelerine dikkat çekilmiştir. Makalenin Mahmudiye Marşı’nın İsveç Kraliyet bandolarınca icrasına dair son bir hipotez ise Sultan II. Mahmud’un annesinin kimliğiyle ilgili siyasi olarak icat edilmiş bir efsanedir. Sultan’ın İsveç Kralı I. Oscar ile akraba olduğunu iddia eden bu hikâye Mahmudiye Marşı’na İsveç ilgisini meşru kılabilir. Diğer yandan, 19. yüzyılın küresel kaosuyla mücadelesinde daha güçlü bir askeri savunma inşa etmek isteyen İsveç, eğitimde fiziksel egzersize özel önem vermeye yönelerek 1813 yılında spor alanında dünyanın en eski eğitim kurumları arasında yer alan Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet’i (Kraliyet Jimnastik Merkez Enstitüsü) kurmuştur. Aynı kargaşadan nasibini alan Osmanlı Devleti ise modernleşme sürecinin bir parçası olarak İkinci Meşrutiyet’in ilanının ardından Milli Olimpiyat Komitesi’ni kurmuş, 20.&nbsp;yüzyılın başlarında Türk öğrenci Selim Sırrı’yı (Tarcan) (1874-1956), askerî jimnastik üzerine araştırma yapmak üzere Avrupa’ya göndermiştir. 1909’da İsveç Kraliyet Okulu Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet’e devam eden Selim Sırrı, mezun olduktan sonra becerilerini ve kazanımlarını Türk spor eğitimine uygulamak için Osmanlı topraklarına dönerken İsveçli besteci Felix Körling’in Tre Trallande Jäntor (Üç Şarkı Söyleyen Kız) adlı İsveç marşını beraberinde getirmiştir. Mahmudiye Marşı’nın Osmanlıcılık ve emperyalizm temsilinden farklı olarak, Selim Sırrı’nın İsveç’ten melodisini beğenerek getirdiği ve arkadaşı, İstanbul Lisesi öğretmeni, şair Ali Ulvi (Elöve)’ye Türkçe güfte yazdırdığı Tre Trallande Jäntor, Gençlik Marşı adıyla, 1915-1916 akademik yılından itibaren spor etkinliklerinde ve ardından Kurtuluş Savaşı’nda Türk gençlerine motivasyon kaynağı olması hedefiyle benimsenmiş, Türk milliyetçi ruhunun, Osmanlı Devleti’nden Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’ne geçişin bir simgesi ve ilerleyen yıllarda 19 Mayıs Gençlik ve Spor Bayramı’nın resmî müziksel temsilcisi olmuştur.Osmanlı-İsveç müzik ilişkilerini konusundaki çalışmaların literatürde yetersiz temsil edildiği tespit edildiğinden bu araştırmada, arşiv bulgularıyla, uluslararası bağlamda alana katkı sağlamak, bugüne kadar yapılmış ekonomik, sosyal, tarihî, siyasi ve diplomatik ilişkiler araştırmalarıyla modernleşme ve milliyetçilik ideolojilerini temsil eden yaklaşımlara müzik alanındaki veriler üzerinden yapılan yeni bir okuma vesilesiyle yenilikçi bir perspektif sunmak hedeflenmektedir.&nbsp;

From Imperialism to Nationalism: Ottoman-Swedish Musical  Relations

Demet

This study, which presents the evaluation of a total of ten metal crosses existing in the Erzurum Archeology Museum, is an original research article. This scientific manuscript, which has not been partially or fully published elsewhere, is a work of Byzantine Art created within the discipline of art history. In Christianity, the cross is the most important religious-iconographic shape and symbol. According to the Christian belief, since Jesus, who died on the cross by being crucified, sacrificed himself to atone for the original sin of humanity, the cross is the representation of his sacrifice, a means of reconciliation between God and man, and the mystical symbol of union with Jesus. Cross motifs as a Christian symbol began to be depicted in Roman catacombs. This motif was placed on the flags by Emperor Constantine I from the Middle Byzantine era, some churches were built in the form of a cross. There are many ceremonies accepted by the church regarding the cross. During the religious ceremony, the cross was carried in front of the bishops in the Ceremonial procession.&nbsp;It is possible to mention that there are many types of crosses and some of them have special forms. For centuries, Christians have been placing the cross in their homes, churches and workplaces, wearing it on their necks and clothes, and sometimes engraving the cross form on different materials. This geometrical form, consisting of two intersecting lines, vertical and horizontal, has become a symbol that has spread widely in the Christian world and has very different meanings. More than three hundred and eighty-five different forms of crosses are mentioned today. But only a few of them have become widespread. The most striking of the commonly used crosses are; Antony Cross, Andreas Cross, Crux monogrammatica, Greek/Orthodox Cross, Latin Cross, Handled Cross, Yaba cross, Anchor Cross, Peter’s Cross, Patriarch’s Cross, Pope’s Cross, Slavic Cross, Baptismal Cross, Swastika, Maltese Cross, Jerusalem Cross, Staurogramm and Potent Cross. The Byzantine Empire was a state that accepted Christianity as the official religion and shaped its culture and civilization on the axis of this religious belief. The cross, which is the most important symbol of the Christian faith, has been widely used by both the Byzantine Empire and other Christian states and their believers.Erzurum was a strategically important garrison city during the Roman Empire. The name of the city in this period was Theodosiopolis, which was attributed to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Theodosios II (408-450). After the defeat of the Byzantine army in Malazgirt, the city was under the rule of Gregorios Bakurian, one of the Byzantine generals of Georgian origin, for a short time. However, after the victory, Sultan Alparslan gave the surroundings of Erzurum to Emir Saltuk as iqta, and with his conquest of Erzurum in the same year (1071), Turkish dominance started in the city, and the foundations of the Saltukid Principality of the Great Seljuk State were laid. After the gates of Anatolia were opened to the Turks with the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071, the Christian governments in the region continued to exist as vassals of the Turks. Anatolian geography has embraced many nations with different religions, cultures and ethnicities with tolerance, and the Muslim people and other peoples have lived together within the framework of unity and tolerance. Erzurum Archaeology Museum, which exhibits many artifacts brought from Erzurum and the surrounding provinces, was first opened in 1944 in Yakutiye Madrasah. The museum, which was moved to the Double Minaret Madrasah in 1947, continued to serve by moving to its new building in 1968. In 1994, with the opening of the Yakutiye Madrasah Turkish-Islamic Artifacts and Ethnography Museum, the newly constructed museum building was transformed into an Archaeology Museum. Today, in the museum halls operating in the new building under the modern museum understanding, works that provide information to the visitors on many subjects such as the cultural development, production, lifestyle, art, religious beliefs, and traditions of the societies that lived in the region are exhibited. Various fossils and stone tools, Early Bronze Age (Karaz Culture) artifacts, second-millenium Transcaucasian paintings, artifacts from the Urartian Period, and artifacts from the Roman and Hellenistic Periods are exhibited. The crosses that we discussed within the scope of our work in the Byzantine period artifacts section created in the new museum building will also be on display. The six metal crosses recovered from the Parmaksız Village Mound in the Hınıs District of Erzurum province are Byzantine crosses and are data that shed light on the medieval settlement in the region. Again, other crosses, which were examined within the scope of this study and brought to the museum by purchasing, appear as works made of bronze and iron belonging to the Byzantine period. The cross found at a depth of approximately 280 meters during the Erzurum Castle excavation is an extremely valuable artifact, but the fact that it was under the ground for a long time and the depth of the layer it was captured had a long history, causing it to undergo heavy deformation. Therefore, unfortunately, the material of this work could not be understood and its date could not be made.&nbsp;There are many crosses from different periods in many museums and personal collections in the world and Turkey. The works discussed in this article were compared in terms of form and decoration by finding similar examples both in museums and collections and in academic writings such as theses, articles, papers, books and book chapters. Dating has been made to the crosses we have by taking the works of which date is known or dated as reference. As a result of these dating studies, metal crosses were dated between the 6th and 13th centuries. While five artifacts were made of bronze and four of them were made of iron, the material of one artifact could not be fully understood. The ones made of iron material have corroded. One of the crosses (Cat. Nu 8) is oval and the others are flat-sectioned. Ceremonial and consecrated crosses and pendant-type crosses were produced by casting technique. While there are geometric decorations in the form of circles created with the scraping technique on the front faces of the crosses, figurative depictions or writing is not seen; the back faces are left plain and undecorated in all of the works.&nbsp;

A Group of Byzantine Metal Crosses Found in Erzurum Archaeology Museum

Gizem

After the declaration of the Republic, the modernization process in Turkey continued to swiftly take place. The 1930s were a period of modernization for Turkey that aimed to transform the traditional norms of society into new norms and to achieve a level of contemporary civilization. The modernization ideology had been shaped by Kemalist principles and affected all fields, particularly architecture and education, with education being given great importance in the Early Republican Period. Women were taken as a symbol of the new modern identity, and transformations began in spaces by increasing women’s roles in the public sphere. The first implementations involved schooling initiatives throughout the country, and the girls’ institutes that were founded for girls’ education were acknowledged by a large part of society. This study discusses girls’ institutes as examples of modern architecture and educational institutions in Turkey within the context of the modernization ideology of the Early Republican Era. Fifteen girls’ institutes were providing education between 1923-1938. While some of them provided education in existing buildings, new schools were also built for others. The study examines five separate schools in Ankara, Afyon, Bursa, İzmir, and Manisa within its scope. The motivations for this study are the facts that women’s education had been the main focus during the country’s modernization and that girls’ institutes were the type of schools that represented this. The study aims to examine the founding purposes and curricula of the girls’ institutes, to document these schools’ architectural features and current conditions, and to evaluate the similarities and differences of these institutes’ architectural features by using the parameters of location, plan, facade, and construction system. The aim of the girls’ institutes was to provide women with technical training regarding daily chores so that they could become good wives, mothers, and housewives and moreover to ensure that women became involved in production as businesswomen by acquiring a profession. Regardless of their economic status or the city in which they lived, girls were considered as representatives of the state at home through the education they acquired. Factors such as the content of the curricula, the schools’ location, and students’ economic status had an impact on the degree to which the girls’ institutes were able to achieve these goals. Despite these factors, these institutes met their targeted basic levels and were a significant breakthrough for girls’ education at that time.The Early Republic believed that modern women should be educated in modern buildings. For this reason, girls’ institutes became an essential medium for modernization. Due to the limited economic resources of the newly established state, some differences were found regarding the construction times, construction systems, and architectural language of the schools. While an Egli-designed building was constructed in the capital, projects prepared by the undersecretariat office were built in other Anatolian cities. Some problems also occurred, such as the budget for construction of the girls’ institutes being given to the governorships. Girls’ institutes were constructed in the hearts of the cities to emphasize the visibility of women in society. The schools generally have U- or I-shaped floorplans with a single public facade facing the main road and the facades for private areas such as courtyards being designed inward. This situation demonstrates the desire to develop a private space for girls to have also been present. The buildings have simple geometric forms and pure horizontal and vertical masses that attract attention. A modern architecture style combining horizontal and vertical masses was employed in the schools in Ankara, Manisa, and Afyon. The schools in Izmir and Bursa were built as single units. When considering the characteristics of the facades, the preference is seen for undecorated facades designed with a simple understanding, with windows forming a horizontal band or being rounded also being notable. As a consequence of the examinations, to claim that Ankara, Manisa, and Afyon had followed modern lines while these traces never were existed in İzmir, and Bursa would not be inaccurate. This indicates that not every girls’ institute had been built with a modern architectural approach. The architectural language of the signature school in the capital was distinct from the architectural language of the building constructed in Bursa with regard to certain economic conditions. However, in contrast to this attitude, a modern building must be stated to have been constructed in Manisa despite its various economic difficulties. This period presented itself with the aim of building modern buildings, during which significant reasons such as the variations in economic conditions from one city to another, the local rulers of the period, geographical location, and social structure of the cities had affected the architecture of these buildings.&nbsp;

Architecture for Girls’ Education During the Modernization Period: Girls’ Institutes

Malatya has been one of the gateway points of Anatolia and the Middle East since ancient times with its location. The oldest transportation route in the East is the road that connects to Erzurum via Malatya-Sivas and then to the Caucasus. With the excavations of Zafer Höyük, it has been determined that the history of Malatya goes back to the palaeolithic age. Malatya is home to the Hittites, Medes, Persians, Romans, Byzantines, Islamic Civilizations, Seljuks, Ottoman Empire and finally the Republic of Turkey today. The Ottoman Empire changed its understanding in the field of zoning, as in many other areas with the Westernization Period. This new understanding started to be applied in the late period buildings and structures with different functions were produced. These structures, on the other hand, brought about transformations in the urban structure. The understanding of change, which started in the Ottoman Empire Period, continued after the establishment of the Republic. Although studies on the evaluation of late Ottoman and Early Republican public buildings have increased in recent years, they are insufficient in terms of Anatolian examples. As a result of the literature review, it was determined that the architectural research of Malatya was made on civil and religious architecture; It has been determined that Malatya has not been studied enough in terms of public structures yet. Apart from these, although the sanjaks of Diyarbakir and Mâmüret-ül Aziz provinces, to which the Malatya sanjak was affiliated in different periods of the Ottoman Empire, were investigated in terms of public structures; Malatya sanjak has not been studied in this context. These identified deficiencies revealed the necessity of the study. The examples of the public buildings of the Late Ottoman and Early Republican Periods in Anatolia showed themselves more plainly than the examples in Istanbul. Traces of successful plain examples of Late Ottoman and Early Republican Architecture can be found in Malatya as well. The place and importance of public buildings in Ottoman architecture, which were built and designed in the Malatya sanjak in this period; how the architectural understanding of the newly established state manifests itself in the buildings have determined the fiction of the study. The effects of the changes and transformations that occurred within the scope of the study on the administrative structure and the reflections of these effects on the architecture were examined. In addition, the place and importance of Malatya examples of public buildings that emerged as a result of these changes in Ottoman architecture determined the course of the study. The research aims to examine the architectural features of the public buildings in Malatya in terms of plan, facade, decoration, style, construction technique and preservation status, as other researchers contribute.In the study, the public buildings in today’s Malatya province, which started with the Tanzimat Period and continued in the newly established state, were tried to be introduced in general. The post-Tanzimat development of public structures and their place in the newly established state are generally stated. The thesis includes the public buildings built between 1890-1940 and the public buildings in the districts were tried to be determined. By specifying the architectural features of the buildings, their place and importance in Ottoman Architecture and National Architecture were tried to be explained. The study was generally completed in three stages. In the first stage, books published by Malatya Governorate, Malatya Municipality, Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, and books, articles and unpublished theses published on Late Ottoman Architecture and National Architecture were collected and a resource search was conducted. In the second stage, the structures within the scope of the study were determined in situ. Some of the aforementioned structures have been registered and their prepared projects have been obtained from the Sivas Cultural Heritage Preservation Regional Board Directorate, the structures have been checked over the drawings and corrections have been made. The surveys of the buildings whose projects could not be reached were removed. General and detailed photographs of the buildings within the scope of the study were taken and detailed descriptions were made. In addition, oral interviews were conducted with the historical witnesses of the buildings and the on-site examination phase was completed. In the last stage of the study, all the data obtained were organized within the framework of a plan. Considering the data obtained, the architecture and preservation status of the buildings were analyzed. In line with this deficiency identified in the literature, it is aimed to give the city a historical identity. The public buildings identified within the scope of the study were generally built in the Centre of the city close to each other. Late Ottoman Period structures were built with masonry/masonry construction technique and Republican Period structures were built as reinforced concrete. The buildings are mostly two-storey and have a rectangular plan scheme. The buildings within the scope of the study have symmetrical facades according to the entrance axis, and the Ottoman Period buildings are neoclassical style; On the other hand, the rational-functionalist understanding is dominant in the structures of the Republican Period. Between 1890-1940, 14 public buildings were identified in Malatya, 7 of which have survived to the present day. The structures that have survived to the present day have been able to preserve their originality in terms of general plan, facade, and construction technique. The public buildings that have survived in the province of Malatya are important examples of the countryside in terms of showing their periodic characteristics. Preservation of buildings and transferring them to future generations is of great importance in terms of urban identity and memory. Through public structures, the city of Malatya has developed in an orderly manner. For Malatya, which started with the Late Ottoman Period and continued with the Republic Period, the urban identity was provided by public buildings. The study will help to evaluate public buildings holistically. It will be beneficial for future studies in terms of the evaluation of public buildings.&nbsp;

Examination of Late Ottoman and Early Republic Period Public Structures Through  the City of Malatya

Şeyma

Kırsal alanlarda değişen sosyal ve ekonomik koşullarla birlikte yapılı çevre de değişmektedir. Geleneksel kırsal konutlarda mekânların çok işlevli kullanılması yaygınken, zaman içinde farklı işlevler için farklı mekânlar oluşması ve ıslak hacimlerin ev içine alınmasıyla, birçok hayatsal eylemin aynı mekânda gerçekleştiği tek göz evler kullanılmamaya ya da değiştirilmeye başlanmıştır. Tek göz evlerde barınanlar bu evleri yıkıp yerine yeni evler yapmayı ya da yeni mekânlar ve ıslak hacimler eklemeyi seçebilmektedir. Bu sebeple özgün hâlini koruyan tek göz evlere ulaşmak zaman geçtikçe zorlaşmakta, bu evlere dair bilgi kaybolmaktadır. Barbaros, İzmir ili Urla ilçesine bağlı kırsal bir yerleşimdir. 2016 ve 2017 yıllarında yapılan Barbaros kültürel peyzajını belgelemeye yönelik alan çalışmaları sırasında iki adet tek göz evin mimari elemanlarının ve bu elemanların oda içindeki dizilimlerinin oldukça benzer olduğu fark edilmiştir. Bu gözlem, yerleşimdeki tek göz evlerin mimari eleman organizasyonunda tekrar eden bir düzen olup olmadığı sorusunu ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu araştırma sorusu çerçevesinde bu çalışma tek göz Barbaros evlerindeki mimari elemanların (kapı, pencere, ocak, yunak, dolap, raf, sedir ve trabzan) özelliklerini, bu elemanların mekân içindeki dizilimlerinde tekrar eden biçimlenmeler olup olmadığını, gündelik yaşamdaki kullanım biçimlerini ve bu elemanlara ait yerel terminolojiyi açığa çıkarmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bununla birlikte, Barbaros tek göz evleri ile yakın çevresindeki kırsal yerleşimlerde bulunan tek göz evlerin mimari elemanları arasında benzerlik ve farklılıkların ortaya konması hedeflenmiştir. Barbaros’ta 2016, 2017 ve 2020 yıllarında gerçekleştirilen alan çalışmasında özgün mekânsal özellik ve mimari elemanlarını büyük ölçüde koruyan 14 ev ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiştir. Bu evlerin plan ve mimari elemanları eskiz ve fotoğraflarla belgelenmiştir. Her evin mimari elemanları biçim, malzeme ve mekân içindeki düzenleri açısından değerlendirilmiştir. Mimari elemanların gündelik yaşamla ilişkisini ortaya çıkarmak için 13 kişiyle sözlü görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Bu görüşmeler, tek göz evlerin ve bu evlerdeki mimari elemanların kullanım biçiminin ve yunak, ocak başı, ocak kulağı, direk başı gibi yerel terminolojinin ortaya çıkmasını sağlamıştır. Barbaros ve çevre yerleşimlerin mimari elemanlarına dair benzerlik ve farklılıkların ortaya konması için Çeşme, Karaburun ve Urla kırsal yerleşimleri ile ilgili literatür taranmış ve karşılaştırmalar yapılmıştır. Literatürde tek göz evlerle ilgili bilgi bulunan yerleşimler: Çeşme ilçesindeki Ildırı; Karaburun ilçesindeki Çullu, Hisarcık, Kösedere ve Küçükbahçe ve Urla ilçesindeki Bademler, Balıklıova, Kadıovacık, Kuşçular, Nohutalan, Ovacık, Özbek, Zeytineli ve Zeytinler yerleşimleridir. Bu yerleşimler Barbaros ile karşılaştırılmıştır.İncelenen 14 adet Barbaros evinin tümü yığma taş yapılardır. 14 evin 13’ü kullanım dışıyken, yalnızca bir tanesi günümüzde emlak ofisi olarak kullanılmaktadır. 11 adet ev avludan giriş alırken, üç eve doğrudan sokaktan girilmektedir. Avlu içindeki yapılar avlu duvarından bağımsız olarak avlunun ortasında ya da avlunun bir ya da birden&nbsp;fazla duvarını kısmi olarak oluşturacak şekilde avlu sınırında olabilmektedir. Yapılan görüşmeler tek göz evlerde çok çocuklu kalabalık ailelerin yaşadığını göstermiştir. Bu tek yaşam alanı, uyuma, yemek pişirme, yemek yeme, ısınma, yıkanma gibi farklı işlevlere ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Yapılardaki mimari elemanlar, birbirinden farklı gündelik yaşam pratiklerinin tek bir mekânda çözümlenmesine olanak sağlamaktadır. Bu mimari elemanlar kapı, pencere, ocak, yunak, dolap, niş, sedir ve korkuluktur. Tek göz evlerin kapıları çoğunlukla tek kanatlı ve ahşaptır. Ocakların iki yanında ocak kulağı denilen raflar vardır, ocağın üzerinde ise ocak başı denilen raf bulunmaktadır. Ocaklar hem ısınmak hem de yemek pişirmek için kullanılmıştır. Isınma için kullanılan başka bir araç mangallardır. Ocaktan alınan közlerin mangala konulmasıyla ısınma sağlanmıştır. Ocak başı ve ocak kulağına yemek pişirmek için gerekli malzemeler ile, mum, fener gibi aydınlatma gereçleri konmuştur. Odanın bir köşesinde bulunan yıkanma kabinleri olan yunaklar; duvar içindeki bir girintide ahşap kapılı ya da oda köşesinde ahşap bölücü duvarlarla oluşturulmuş yine ahşap kapılı elemanlardır. Dolaplar, gömme, yüklük ya da duvara monte biçiminde oluşturulmuştur. Nişler, raflı, rafsız ve testi koymak için özel formlu nişler olarak sınıflandırılabilir. Yapı duvarlarının iç ve dış yüzeylerinde raflar bulunmaktadır. Dış yüzeylerdeki raflar için kayrak taşı, iç yüzeylerdeki raflar için kayrak taşı ya da ahşap kullanılmıştır. İç raflar kısmi olabilir ya da duvar boyunca devam edebilmektedir. Odaların ortasında bulunan dikmelerin üst sevisinde bulunan raflar direk başı olarak adlandırılmaktadır. İncelenen evler arasında yalnızca bir evde ahşap sedir ve ahşap korkuluk görülmüşken incelenen diğer evlerde bu iki elemana rastlanmamıştır. Evlerin girişinde bulunan korkulukların ayakkabı çıkartırken destek almak için kullanıldığı belirtilmiştir. İncelenen Barbaros tek göz evlerinde ocaklar ve kapılar çoğunlukla aynı duvarda bulunmaktadır. Testilik kapının yan duvarında ve kapıya yakın konumlanmıştır. Yunak kapının karşı duvarındaki bir köşededir. Ocakların yanında kibrit koymak için sıklıkla küçük nişler yer almaktadır. Barbaros tek göz evlerinin mimari elemanları ile yakın coğrafyadaki tek göz evler mevcut literatüre dayanarak karşılaştırılmıştır. Barbaros yerleşimindeki evlerin hiçbirinde iç merdiven görülmezken, Ovacık, Özbek, Kuşçular ve Küçükbahçe’de iki katlı, tek göz, içten ahşap merdivenli yapılar mevcuttur. Benzer şekilde, Barbaros evlerinde aynı duvarda yan yana iki pencere bulunmazken Balıklıova, Birgi, Kadıovacık, Küçükbahçe ve Ildırı’da bulunduğu görülmüştür. Tahtaboş, pencere girintisinde lavabo, dinî ikonalar için süslemeli ahşap raflar, zeminde testilik ve taş sedir de Barbaros’ta görülmeyen fakat civar yerleşimlerde bulunan mimari elemanlardır. Barbaros tek göz evleri çoğunlukla kullanım dışı olduğundan ve bakım yapılmadığından kaybolma tehdidi altındadır. Evleri kullanan insanların kaybıyla yapılara dair bellek yok olmaktadır. Bu çalışma ile tek göz evlerin mimari elemanları, dizilimleri ve kullanımlarına dair bilgi kayıt altına alınmaya çalışılmıştır.&nbsp;

Characteristic Architectural Elements of Traditional Barbaros Houses  with a Single-Living Space and Their Relationship with Daily Life

Fatih

As an architectural term, alam [finial] means feast in Arabic and is the complementary shaped element made of various materials such as marble, brass, and/or copper that is placed on the roofs of buildings. The use of alams dates back to prehistoric times. In wars, ceremonies, and rituals, the alam was used as a symbol of prominent communities, on the tip of spears that were tall enough for people to see. Alams, which were viewed in different ways by pagans, took the form of a cross with the spread of Christianity. The use of the first alam in Turkish art emerged in the period of the Huns, which was established in Central Asia and accepted as the first Turkish state. The alams used on the top of the tent of the khan and the ends of the long war tools consisted of various animal figures. The alams used in this period were believed in shamanism to be a protective talisman against evil spirits. Examples of alams were first seen in Turkish-Islamic art during the Kara-Khanid Khanate and reached Anatolia through the Great Seljuk Empire. The use of alams showed parallel development with the architectural structures of that period. The use of alams made of marble was common in the early Turkish-Islamic architecture of Anatolia. During the period of the Anatolian beyliks, alams were known to have been made of bronze and copper, as well as of marble. Shortly after the Ottomans conquered Istanbul, they declared the city the capital and began to place alams with crescent-shaped points on the tops of the structures they built in the new capital. These alams were made of stone or metal and differed according to the type of structure and the diameter of the qubba. The alams seen on the tops of tombs, founts, and public fountains built in the 17th and 18th centuries were arranged differently from the crescent-shaped forms that are described as classical. The upper sections of the alams had spaces resembling palmette motifs and are known as safha in the terminology.With the changes in Ottoman architectural design in the 19th century, structures are seen to have built in the same period but with different styles. Differences were seen in how the alam was used in structures built during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II especially. The metal orifice atop the Nakşidil Valide Sultan Mausoleum, which was built in the baroque style, is in harmony with the structure and the baroque style with its curved lines on top. The Cevri Kalfa Primary School was built in the Ottoman style&nbsp;and has a pear-shaped body that rises atop a square base. The top of its alam, which is arranged with convex and concave grooves, ends with a convex circular form. Similar usage is also seen in alams atop the Justice Tower and Regiment Mansion, which were built in the same period. A crescent is found atop the Tomb of Sultan Mahmud II, which was built by Sultan Abdulmejid; this alam has an ellipse with a radial arrangement on the crescent. Iconographically, this arrangement is accepted as indicating the reforms made in the military, political, and social fields during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II and is also referred to as the Sun of Mahmud. The alams on top of the public fountain located near his tomb have not survived to the present day. The original state of the alam can be observed in old photographs. The crescent and star motif on the main qubba of the Grand Mecidiye Mosque built by Sultan Abdulmejid in Ortaköy is similar to the alam of the public fountain. This similarity gains meaning with the fact that the architect who built the Grand Mecidiye Mosque is the same as the one who built the Sultan Mahmud II Complex. The alam located above the gate that provides passage to the third courtyard in Topkapı Palace is important. A circle with a radial arrangement is placed inside this crescent-shaped alam. This arrangement is reminiscent of the sun in the sky and symbolizes the Ottoman Sultan. This design can also be seen in the alams of Pertevniyal Valide Sultan’s tomb and the Tomb of Keçecizade Fuad Pasha, which have important places in the Ottoman state. In the second half of the 19th century, foreign influences increased in Ottoman architecture. During this period of intense changes in architectural design, no specific architectural style was prominent. This situation affected the alams as well as the architectural structures. At the end of the century, a unique cone-like globe made of the same material was placed on the copper qubba of the octagonal-planned German Fountain, which was built to commemorate the second coming of the German Emperor Wilhelm II to Istanbul.&nbsp;

Examples of Alam 19ᵗʰ-Century Ottoman Architecture Found in Suriçi

Jamaleddin

Zeynep

Some French artists and thinkers felt that the influential onset of modernism in European art was too tempestuous and saw it as an attack on the noble art of France. Instead, they proposed to base modern art on an order. This idea began with the “Section d’Or” (1912) (Golden Section) exhibition of Cubist painters. The choice of the name of the exhibition (Golden Section) shows that they wanted to find their art in the classical values of the old eras, especially in geometry. Parallel to this exhibition, the book “Du Cubisme” by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger is published as a cubist manifesto, emphasizing the role of geometry in cubism. Continuing the exhibitions of the Cubists between the two world wars, Roger Bissière wrote in a response to Braque’s exhibition “L’Effort modern” on April 26, 1919, that in the last fifty years, Cubism had brought the painting back to its traditional means. He declared that Cubism was a “call to order” and contributed to the salvation of modern art. In June 1919, André Lhote, a Cubist painter, wrote as a critic in La Nouvelle Revue Francaise [NRF] and described this concept in his article. Thanks to his works and writings, Lhote’s name later became known as the forerunner of Cubism. According to both Lhote and Bissière, Cubism took on new meaning through the “call to order” or the “return to order,” as it followed the tradition of harmony, clarity, and plastic intelligence that had its origins in the works of the French classical painters. In this sense, the term “classical” was intended to revive these values in Cubism, and the most important of these were the geometry and the golden section of classical painting. While these debates and art movements were continuing in Europe and World War II was beginning, significant modernization efforts had already begun in Turkey and Iran. Shah Reza in Iran and Ataturk in Turkey initiated fundamental changes in their countries by embracing the developing industries and cultures of Western countries, and the educational system, culture, and arts changed dramatically. The tradition of sending students to Western countries increased during this period. Thus, artistically talented students were sent abroad to learn about European art. Upon their return home, students were appointed by the state to important institutions. Nurullah Berk from Turkey and Jalil Ziapour from Iran were two of these students. They went to Paris to learn about artistic developments in Europe. Both artists began their education in the Beaux-Arts, but they did not like the boring and outdated education, so they also studied in different artists’ studios. Lhote had founded his studio in 1925, and since his curriculum seemed more flexible, creative, and modern than that of the Beaux-Arts or other academies, it was more attractive to them. In his writings and training, Lhote taught students and artists to study the fundamentals of classical French painting. He rejected pure “abstract cubism” and held that all paintings were based on geometry and therefore were already abstract. The artists of the Parisian avant-garde did not recognize Lhote as avant-garde because of his revivalist thoughts. But Lhote defended this idea throughout his life.Lhote’s ideas were exciting to artists like Berk and Ziapour, who came to Paris from countries striving to become a new, modern nation, in search of identity in their art. This article looks at Berk’s and Ziapour’s understanding of Lhote’s “classicism,” which they based on their own national and local characteristics and an East-West synthesis. In this context, it also examines the visual elements that the painters refer to as “national” or “local.” Nurullah Berk’s early paintings have a Parisian atmosphere, but after the 1940s he explored the traditional and local visual elements of Turkey in his writings and paintings. Berk went to Paris three times to study art and worked twice in Lhote’s studio, in 1933 and 1947. Berk also studied in Léger’s studio and was inspired by contour lines. These lines later took on a unique feature, “Çizgi Arabeski (the oriental line arabesque)”, as critics called it. This was perceived as a classical feature based on traditional Turkish miniatures. Other elements in Berk’s artworks include ornamental geometric fragments, Anatolian carpets, and textural motifs that can be perceived as “classical” Two types of geometry can be found in the paintings of these artists: Western geometry in the compositions and local motifs and embroideries as visual elements. This use of geometry in conjunction with the subjects of their paintings led them to describe their paintings as national, local, or East-West synthesis. Impressed by these ideas, Ziapour suggested that Iranian artists study traditional Iranian art in depth. Ziapour found the fundamental values in Iranian folk art, local art, miniature and calligraphy, just as Lhote had found them for himself in French classicism. Consequently, he drew inspiration for his paintings from the square ceramic tiles of the old buildings in Iran, calling this the “national style.” He described cubism as a style called geometric painting, which has a history of six thousand years in Iran.&nbsp;Like his teacher André Lhote and the modern art movements he witnessed in Europe, Ziapour elaborated a manifesto for Iranian painting. This manifesto gave the painting a more abstract meaning. However, Ziapour did not apply the manifesto to his paintings but turned to figurative painting, in which the colors, the grid, the calligraphy, and the traditional clothing of the Iranian regions visually convey the meaning of classicism. This article attempts to compare the understanding of the term “classical” as introduced by Lhote in the writings and artworks of Ziapour and Berk. Another goal is to compare the understanding of art by these artists to see to what extent their claim of the local/national can be fulfilled.&nbsp;

“The Concept of Classic” in the Quest for National Identity in Art: André Lhote,  Nurullah Berk, Jalil Ziapour

@JOURNAL_BOX_CURRENT

@JOURNAL_BOX_EARLYVIEW

İlkay Canan

Women as the Object and the Subject of Art in the 2nd Constitutional Period

Seda

First thirty years of the 18th century was a milestone for the Ottoman society, culture, and architecture because when the Treaty of Passarowitz was signed, a long period of peace started between the Ottoman and Western civilization. Besides, the superiority of Western societies was accepted by the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the first envoys were sent to Europe. Yirmisekiz (twenty-eight) Mehmet Çelebi is the first envoy sent to France. Mehmet Çelebi observed a lot of palaces, gardens, cities, military postures, press housings in France, and on his return to the homeland, he brought with him the plans of these structures in his travel guide. He even had the plans of some important French palaces and gardens. When Sultan Ahmed III and his Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha read this travel guide, they were impressed a lot. Therefore, they immediately commissioned public works in Istanbul. For this reason, new palaces, kiosks, pavilions, medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, and sebils (Sebil is a public donation, for the distribution of cold drinking water, sweet drinks or fruit juice to passers-by in cups) were started to be built. Instead of grand mosques and social complexes of the 16th and 17th century’s Ottoman architecture, in 1718-1730, the so-called Tulip Era, public structures were built. Until the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire’s economy was in good condition. However, in the 17th century, it entered a recession. Therefore, only medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, kiosks, and summer palaces could be built in the first thirty years of the 18th century. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex, built in 1722 or during the Tulip Era, was one of these buildings. Eminzade Haci Ahmed Aga, a chamberlain of the navy yard in the Ottoman Empire, commissioned Ahmediye Complex. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex consists of a mosque, primary school (Islamic monastery), madrasah, library, two fountains, WC, tomb, burial area reserved for special people, and a room to show azan times. These units are located around a court. The court has a small pond, as well. If we look at the location plan, we can see that the Uskudar Ahmediye Complex has an asymmetrical composition. Buildings of the complex are built according to specific geometrical shapes like square, octagon, and polygon. Almost all the buildings are covered by domes. In addition to this, vaults are used in some places, as well. Although Uskudar Ahmediye Complex generally shows classical Ottoman architecture features, some parts exhibit Western and Eastern styles. For instance, the sebil has a polygonal plan like Early Baroque style. Besides, Uskudar Ahmediye fountain and minbar of the mosque have some flower motifs from Eastern cultures. Also, the Ahmediye fountain and the sebils have multifoil arches coming from the Antiquity and Early East culture. We know that Uskudar Ahmediye Complex have neither entirely Western nor Eastern architecture features. It is a classical Ottoman architecture example but, in some parts of this complex, the reflections of the Eastern and Western architectures can be seen. Indeed, the first thirty years of the 18th century were a transition period for the Ottoman architecture. During the first thirty years of the 18th century, there was the Baroque and Rococo style in Europe. Notably, the Baroque style was the most prominent style in France during Louis IV’ time, which is famous for the palaces built. The exterior facades of these palaces are generally plain, but the interior design is more elaborate. In the decorations, which bears traces of the Baroque style, is seen botanical patterns like leaf Frisians, seashells, and flyaway figures. After the Baroque style, the Rococo style, which was a decorative art, emerged in Louis V’s period in France. The number of columns and pilasters, which had been used as exterior architecture, had decreased. The rococo style includes S and C crimped branches, toothed medallion, seashells, and acanthus leaves. Versailles Palace is the most notable example of Baroque and Rococo style in France. The baroque and rococo styles did not enter in the Ottoman Architecture until after the transition period called the Tulip Era, which began in 1718 and continued until 1730. Indeed, it could be said that the effects of this era can be seen in the Ottoman architecture until 1740. The Tulip Era brought some novelties (such as wide eaves and more decorations) to the Ottoman architecture. These new decorations were from Persian and especially Indian and Mughal cultures. Another novelty was polygonal buildings which were generally seen at the sebils of this period. This was coming from the West and called the Early Baroque style. Although some parts of Uskudar Ahmediye Complex reflects Eastern and Western architectures, the architectural elements and details of the buildings in the complex are traditional. In other words, the buildings in the complex generally have Classical Ottoman architecture features. Also, some details and decorative motifs of the complex are from the Eastern and Western architectures. In conclusion, Uskudar Ahmediye Complex is a building that displays the features of the transition period from the classical Ottoman architecture to the Baroque style.

Uskudar Ahmediye Complex & Its Place in the Architecture of the Tulip Period

@JOURNAL_BOX_MOSTREAD

The Art-Sanat Journal is an international academic refereed e-journal that is published semi-annually. Original articles and studies in Archaeology, Art History, History of Architecture, Restoration-Conservation and other related areas are considered for publication.

Owner: Istanbul University Research Institute of Turkology (on behalf of Director of the Institution Prof. Dr. Mustafa Balcı)

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Art-Sanat

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The aim of Art-Sanat Journal is to support, publish and develop scientific studies related to the art, history of art, archaeology and other art fields of Turkish, Turkic communities and other communities related to Turkic communities.Academic researches and publications on Archeology, History of Art, History of Architecture, Conservation-Restoration, Museology and performing arts about Turkish, Turkic communities and other communities related to Turkic communities.

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Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)EBSCO Art &amp; Architecture Source TÜBİTAK-ULAKBİM TR DizinIslamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)SOBIAD Social Sciences Citation IndexAkademik Araştırmalar Index (Acar index)ArastirmaxJournalTOCs ResearchBibIndex of Turkish EducationDOAJScopusErih Plus<ul> </ul>

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Art-Sanat Journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

The journal adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation. Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.Short presentations that took place in scientific meetings can be referred if indicated in the article. The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors. Refused manuscripts and graphics are not returned to the author. The copyright of the published articles and pictures belong to the Journal.

Peer Review

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation. Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-in-chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts. The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by editor-in-chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Editor in chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review. - Does the manuscript contain new and significant information? - Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript? - Is the problem significant and concisely stated? - Are the methods described comprehensively? - Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results? - Is adequate references made to other Works in the field? - Is the language acceptable? Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side. A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process. The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

LanguageThe language of the journal is both Turkish and English.Publication Rules and Writing StylesArt-Sanat Journal is an international, academic, refereed, electronic journal published twice a year (January and July). The Art-Sanat Journal is published on Dergipark Open Journal Systems and only original and scientific and scholarly articles about Archeology, History of Art, History of Architecture, Conservation-Restoration, Museology and Performing Arts about Turkish, Turkic and Turkic-related communities are accepted.Our e-mail addresses for the communication and article submission:<a href="mailto:art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr</a>   Websites:<a href="https://art-sanat.istanbul.edu.tr/tr/_" target="_blank"></a><a href="http://istanbul.edu.tr:8080/en/journal/art-sanat/home" target="_blank">http://istanbul.edu.tr:8080/en/journal/art-sanat/home</a> The author has the legal and scientific responsibility for the contents of the articles. The visiul materials (figures, photographs, pictures, drawings, plans, etc.) used in the articles should not be used without reference and the author has to obtain permission for the copyrighted material. The legal responsibility for these issues belongs to the authors.The articles submitted for publication in the Art-Sanat Journal should neither have been published elsewhere nor have been submitted to another journal. The IThenticate (Plagiarism Prevention Program) is used to ensure plagiarism control for each submission.Articles in Turkish and English are accepted for the journal. After the submitted article has been reviewed by the editors and editorial board, it is sent to three referees and published when at least two referees make positive decisions. The names of the authors are not sent to the referees.The articles submitted to Art-Sanat Journal must be in Microsoft Word format. Under the title of the article, the author's name and surname should be included. After the name of the author, the star (*) should be used as a footnote sign and the job title, the institution and the e-mail address of the author and the submission date of the article should be specified at the bottom of the first page. ORCID number should also be written under the author’s name. (If you don’t have an ORCID number please register: <a href="https://orcid.org/" target="_blank">https://orcid.org/</a>)Articles should have Turkish and English titles, abstracts (150-250 words) and 3-5 keywords.  After the English abstract, the Turkish articles should contain an English extended summary of 800-1000 words. The English articles should contain an Turkish extended summary of 800-1000 words.Each of the visual material must be in jpeg format with a resolution of at least 300 dpi (images with a poor image quality will not be used). For the visual materials used in the article, numbering should be done with the abbreviation bold F. (F.1., F.2., F.3., etc.). The description of the visual material should be specified below the material in parentheses. If visual material belongs to the author, it should be indicated.Article should be written in Times New Roman, 12 pt., 1.5 line spacing, before 6NK-after 6NK spacing and both side justified. Footnotes should be written in Times New Roman, 10 pt., 1 line spacing and both side justified. Words that need to emphasized should be written in italic. The Quotations less than five lines should be written in quotation marks in the same paragraph and the quotations longer than five lines should be written separately 1 cm inside from left and right sides of page, blocked and in 8 pts. The article should not exceed 25 pages, the visuals used in the article should not be more than the number of text pages and also maximum 25 images are allowed. The visuals which are directly related to the subject should be preferred with reference to comparison images. Images should be numbered in the text and used in the relevant place.

Author Guidelines

Before beginning the online submission process please read the Information for Authors and make sure you have the followings available:Article submissions should be submitted Dergipark or directly to the e-mail address <a href="mailto:art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr</a>Cover letter to the editor<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li>Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li> <li>Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li>Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with Chicago Manuel of Style.</li> </ul> </ul><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a> Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/E21E2F4BAC3A4E809A6AC8ADD1E81106" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the languge of the manuscript and in English</li> <li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li> <li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li> </ul> </ul>Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of manuscript and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (150-200 words) both in the language of manuscript and in English</li> <li>Key words: 3-5 words both in the language of manuscript and in English</li> <li>Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (for the articles which are not in English)</li> <li>Grant Support (if exits)</li> <li>Conflict of interest (if exits) </li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exits)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul>

Art-Sanat complies with Chicago Style of Manual 16th Edition for referencing and quoting.Authors who would send proposals to the journal are kindly invited to follow the examples given below when writing the footnotes and compiling the bibliography. These examples are borrowed from the Chicago Style of Manual (http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-1.html).Further information and numerous examples about the “notes and bibliography” system are available at the 14th and 15th chapters of the Chicago Manual of Style (16th edition).Examples:FF first footnote, NF next/short footnotes, B bibliographyThe Books (one author)FF  Laurie Bauer, A Glossary of Morphology (Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 2004), 55.NF Bauer, A Glossary of Morphology, 55.B  Bauer, Laurie. A Glossary of Morphology. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 2004.The Books (two authors)FF   A. Nazarov Bakhtiyar and Denis Sinor, Essays on Uzbeks History, Culture and Language,  Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1993), 55.NF   Bakhtiyar and Sinor, Essays on Uzbeks History, Culture and Language, 55.B     Bakhtiyar,  A. Nazarov and Denis Sinor. Essays on Uzbeks History, Culture and Language. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1993. The Books (Three authors)FF  E.R. Tenişev, A.M. Şçerbak and D.M. Nasilov, V.M Nadelyayev, Drevnetyurkskiy Slovar, XXXVIII, (Leningrad:  Leningradskoe Otdelenir, 1969), 60.NF Tenişev, Şçerbak and Nasilov, Nadelyayev, Drevnetyurkskiy Slovar, 25.B Tenişev, E.R., A.M. Şçerbak and D.M. Nasilov, V.M Nadelyayev, Drevnetyurkskiy Slovar. XXXVIII. Leningrad:  Leningradskoe Otdelenir, 1969.For four or more authors, each of them is cited in the bibliography, only the first author’s name is cited in footnotes and “et al.” is added next to it, which stands for “and the others”.The abbreviation op. cit. which is used in some referencing styles is not used in the Chicago Style.If there is an editor/translator in addition to the authorIf there is an editör or a translator then one should cite it as “ed.” or “trans.” in footnotes; as for the bibliography “Edited by” or “Translated by”.FF  Peter B. Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, trans. Osman Karatay, (America: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1992), 36. NF Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, 36.B Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Translated by Osman Karatay. America: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1992.VolumesFF  Robert Dankoff and James Kelley, Mahmûd al-Kashgarî, Compendium of the Turkic Dialects-Dîwân Lugât at-Turk, (Harvard: University Printing Office, 1985), 4: 100.NF Robert Dankoff and James Kelley, Mahmûd al-Kashgarî, Compendium of the Turkic Dialects-Dîwân Lugât at-Turk, 4: 90.B Dankoff, Robert and James Kelley, Mahmûd al-Kashgarî, Compendium of the Turkic Dialects-Dîwân Lugât at-Turk. 4 vols. Harvard: University Printing Office, 1985. A chapter/section in a bookFF Beatrice Forbes Manz, “Timur”, The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 90-120.NF Manz, “Timur”, 90-120.B Manz, Beatrice Forbes.  “Timur”, The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane, 90-120. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1989.If the book is published in multiple formats, the one that is used is cited. URL is given for the online books that are cited. The access date can be added on prefence. If the page number is missing, either the title of chapter or another number can be added.  FF Peter Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (America: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1992), Accessed September 18, 2019.<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281319978_An_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Turkic_Peoples" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281319978_An_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Turkic_Peoples</a>NF Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, 206.B Golden, Peter. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. America: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1992. Accessed September 18, 2019.   <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281319978_An_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Turkic_Peoples" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281319978_An_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Turkic_Peoples</a>Journal article, copyrightFF John E. Woods, “The Rise of Tīmūrid Historiography”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 46/2 (1987), 81-108.NF Woods, “The Rise of Tīmūrid Historiography”, 81-108.B  Woods, John E. “The Rise of Tīmūrid Historiography”,  Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 46/2 (1987), 81-108.Journal article, translationFF  Michiko Kakutani, ”Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges,” trans. Zadie Smith, Review of Swing Time, New York Times, (2016), 69-90.NF Kakutani, ”Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges,” 69-90.B  Kakutani, Michiko. ”Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges.” Translated by Zadie Smith, Review of Swing Time. New York Times. 2016: 69-90.Newspaper article, publishedFF Rebecca Mead, “The Prophet of Dystopia,” New Yorker, April 17, 2017, 2.NF Mead, “The Prophet of Dystopia,”, 2.B Mead, Rebecca. “The Prophet of Dystopia.” New Yorker, April 17, 2017.Newspaper article/report, electronicIf the author of an article or report is not specified, then the citation should begin with the title of article/report.FF “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera.” New York Times, March 8, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html.NF “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera.” B “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera.” New York Times, March 8, 2017. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html</a>.Book ReviewFF Michiko Kakutani, “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges,” Review of Swing Time, by Zadie Smith, New York Times, 7 (2016), 67.NF Kakutani, “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges,” 67.B   Kakutani, Michiko. “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges.” Review of Swing Time, by Zadie Smith. New York Times, November 7, 2016.ThesisFF Cynthia Lillian Rutz, “King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues,” (PhD diss. University of Chicago. 2013), 90. NF Rutz, “King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues,” 90.B  Rutz, Cynthia Lillian. “King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013.Encyclopedia entryFF Ahmet Temir, “Mongol (or Turko-Mongol) Khanate,” Encyclopedia of Turks, v. 8, (Ankara: Yeni Türkiye Publications, 2002), 416-432.NF Temir, Mongol (or Turko-Mongol) Khanate”, 416-432.B Temir, Ahmet. “Mongol (or Turko-Mongol) Khanate.” Encyclopedia of Turks. 8: 416-432. Ankara: Yeni Türkiye Publications, 2002.  Unpublished anouncementFF Erdal İnönü and Harun Doğan, “Some Discoveries that are Named After Turkish Scientists” (The anouncement that was presented in the II. National Symposium of History of Science and Philosophy Work Group, Assos, 18-20th June 2004).NF İnönü and Doğan, “Some Discoveries.”B İnönü, Erdal and Harun Doğan. “Some Discoveries that are Named After Turkish Scientists.” The anouncement that was presented in the II. National Symposium of History of Science and Philosophy Work Group, Assos, 18-20th June 2004.Manuscript FF Salih b. Nasrullah, Ghayat al-itqan fi tabdir badan al-insan, İstanbul, Süleymaniye Library, Ayasofya 3682, 26a.NF Salih b. Nasrullah, Ghayat al-itqan, Ayasofya 3682, 23b.B Salih b. Nasrullah, Ghayat al-itqan fi tabdir badan al-insan, Istanbul, Süleymaniye Library, Ayasofya 3682, 1a-311a, Copy date 10 Rebiülevvel 1135 (19th December 1722).Archive documentFF The Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry (OAPM), Cevdet Askeriye (C.AS.) 71/3352, 9 Şevval 1211 (April 07, 1797).NF OAPM, C.AS. 71/3352.B The Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry (OAPM). Cevdet Askeriye (C. AS) 71/3352, 9 Şevval 1211 (April 07, 1920).FF Topkapı Palace Museum Archives (TPMA), E. 3202-2=597-2-7.NF TPMA, E. 3202-2=597-2-7.B Topkapı Palace Museum Archives (TPMA). E. 3202-2=597-2-7.WebsiteFF Yale University. n.d. “About Yale: Yale Facts.” Accessed May 1, 2017. https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts.NF “About Yale: Yale Facts.”B Yale University. n.d. “About Yale: Yale Facts.” Accessed May 1, 2017. <a href="https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts" target="_blank">https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts</a>.

Ensure that the following items are present:●    Cover letter to the editorü    The category of the manuscriptü    Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.ü    Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.ü    Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.ü    Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.ü    Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.ü    Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with CMOS 16.●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>●    Permission of previously published copyrighted material if used in the present manuscript●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/9A6C642AF6B244E3B07BD89275AFFD2B" target="_blank">Title page</a>ü    The category of the manuscriptü    The title of the manuscriptü    All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addressesü    Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax numberü    ORCIDs of all authors.●    Main Manuscript Documentü    The title of the manuscriptü    Abstract (150-200 words)ü    Key words: 3 to 5 wordsü    Extended Summary (800-1000 words) in Englishü    Main article sectionsü    Grant support (if exists)ü    Conflict of interest (if exists)ü    Acknowledgement (if exists)ü    Referencesü    All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)

<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/5B820430CF434608828BEA928A53D3BF" target="_blank">Title Page</a>

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