Gülberk

Assoc. Prof.

Ömer

Masraf Defterleri Işığında Topkapı Sarayı III. Ahmed (Enderun) Kütüphanesi

Sedat

Assist. Prof.

Hartmann Schedel’in İstanbul Görünümleri

İlkay Canan

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Resim Sanatında Nesne ve Özne Olarak Kadın

Uğur

Öğretim Görevlisi

Prof.

Çankırı Merkez İlçe Geleneksel Konutlarının Cephe Biçimlenişi

Ayşe

Silivrikapı Hadım İbrahim Paşa Camii’nin Plan Özellikleri ve Klasik Dönem Osmanlı Mimarlığı İçinde Benzer Örnekler Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme

Nurdan

Op Art Sanatının Modaya Yansımaları ve Örnek Bir Uygulama

Emre

Frig Tipi Fibulalarda Tanrıça Sembolizmi Üzerine Bazı Düşünceler

Özlem

Sanatçısını Aşan Yapıt Bağlamında Necla Rüzgar’ın Fauna Sergisine Bakış

Müjde Dila

Res. Assist.

II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi’nde V. Murad’a İade-i İtibar: Mimar Vedad (Tek) Bey’in Türbe Düzenlemesi

Banu Hatice

Nursel

Assel

Bir Suzeni Sanatçısı Zeynelkhan Mukhamedzhanuly

Alpaslan

Müze Saraylar İçin Önleyici / Pasif Koruma

Arash Kazemivand

İran’da Birinci Pehlevi Dönemi Mimarisinde Fars-Zerdüşt Milliyetçiliği

Vedat

Sebahattin

Dilek

Enkhbat

Ahmet

Üzüür Gyalan Mezarında At Kurban Edilmesi: Bir Altay Dağı Kurganı

Veysel

Duygu

Unesco Dünya Miras Listesi’ne Doğru Anavarza Antik Kent

Işıl

Bir Bizans Teknesinin Anatomisi: Yenikapı 8 Batığı

Ashkan Rahmani

Majid Reza

Anadolu, Kafkasya ve İran’da Zili Dokuma Tekniği

Fatma Selva

İstanbul Feriköy Latin Katolik Mezarlığında Neoklasik Yapılar

Anıl

Bilge Kağan’a Atfedilen Taç ve (Doğu) Gök Türklerin Budizm’e Yaklaşımı

Mustafa

Prof. Dr.

Generally, rectangular khachkars (cross-stone) having a cross motif on the front face are peculiar to Armenian art. Between the 4th and the 7th centuries, khachkars were produced as a symbol of the spread and strengthening of Christianity. From the end of the 9th century to the 12th-13th centuries, the protective features of the khachkars produced are at the forefront. The khachkars became the symbol of the cross on which Jesus died for the sake of forgiveness of sins that have been going on since Adam and for the salvation of the soul obtained through this cross. Produced for such purposes, the khachkars were located on the facades of religious buildings, on the courtyard walls of these buildings, and in places with various functions within the monastery complex. Khachkars are made to commemorate military victories and martyrs, make important historical events permanent, or honour the completion of churches, fountains, bridges and other structures. Generally, the name of the donor and the master, and its building purpose are inscribed, with the historical information, on the khachkars. Starting from the 12th century, the name of the master is seen.The stones with cross depictions are sorted into two groups by the researchers. The first of these, the cross depicted stones, so-called Amenaprkitsch, meaning “The Stone of the Saviour”, features a crucifixion scene with its figures. In the other group, the cross is depicted as the Tree of Life.In this group, which is also described as true khachkars by some researchers, there are leaves that develop from the lower part of the vertical cross arm to both sides. The cross with the mentioned feature is also called the cross of life. Armenian artists interpreted the cross as a cosmic Tree of Life in khachkars, under the influence of the Apocrypha in which Adam’s life is told. Two important elements of this tree were represented as Golgotha, where Adam’s tomb is located, as a stepped pedestal, on which a cross is placed. In khachkars, generally, the arms of the cross end with palmette or oval or circular motifs. Realistic or stylized herbs and/or fruits stick out from the ends of the arms.&nbsp;There are four khachkars in Adana Museum. Of these, khachkar number 1 is applied to half of a column body from Proconnesian marble. The arms of the cross on this khachkar expand from the centre outward, forming a triangle and ending with two circles at the corners. There is a small cross on each side of the cross. In khachkar number 2, the upper and side arms of the Latin cross consisting of intertwined braids, end with palmette motifs. Below the horizontal arms of the cross, there are cross rosettes. In khachkar number 3, the upper part of which is in the form of forty triangles, the cross in the centre is represented in two forms. The contour of the outer cross is in the form of a triangle expanding from the centre outward. The cross arms end with palmettes. The inner cross consists of intertwined braids. In khachkar number 4, the&nbsp;arms of the cross expand from the centre outward, creating a triangular form. The contour of the cross is designed with borders in the form of a string of beads. The tips of the arms of the cross end with intertwined braids, and stylized palmettes with five leaves. According to the stylistic features of their decoration program, khachkar number 1 and 2 are dated to the 11th-12th centuries, number 3 to the 12th-13th centuries, and number 4 to the mid 13th century, all made of marble.&nbsp;Within the borders of the Cilicia region, no khachkars were detected in the museums, except those in the Adana Museum. There are few khachkars in the Cilicia region. In terms of size, the khachkars in Adana Museum and the Cilicia region differ from the other large-sized Armenian khachkars. Khachkars in situ in the region seem to be used on the facades of castles, churches and tombs. The use of khachkars on the castle walls, which is not a practice in Armenia, seems to be peculiar to Cilician Armenians.&nbsp;Armenian art broadly must have been influenced by the art of their contemporaries, which existed before them in the same area and with whom they interacted, where the khachkars were located. Through trade, in the 10th-13th centuries, following the cultural features and richly decorated objects transferred from the East to the West, the arrival of the Turks in Asia Minor, the Mongolian invasions and the contacts with the Ilkhanid; geometric and floral motifs became the new elements that joined the Armenian decorative art. A similar development can be considered for Cilicia. Khachkars in Adana Museum, which can be dated to the 11th-13th centuries, are generally a part of the Armenian tradition, in terms of decoration program. The connection between geometric decoration designed with the principle of infinity, and the similarity of the palmette motif also took place in the Anatolian Seljuks of the same period seems to be explainable by interaction.&nbsp;In the production that started from the end of the 9th century, the place where the khachkars were made, the diversity and differences in their forms and styles cannot be determined as the characteristics of a certain period, as can be seen in this study. Classification of khachkars according to certain art schools, taking the political and socio-cultural structure of the region where they are built into account, the special demands of the donor, the innovativeness of the master as well as his commitment to tradition, or his influence from the multicultural structure will provide fiducial outcomes. Taking into account the political and socio-cultural structure of the region where they are produced, the special demands of the donor, the innovativeness of the master as well as his commitment to the tradition, or his influence from the multicultural structure; classification of the khachkars according to certain art schools will provide fiducial outcomes. It does not seem possible to talk about a khachkar school in the Cilicia region, where a limited number of khachkars are to our current knowledge, in this sense.

Khachkars in Adana Museum

Ümit

Çilem

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Dağlık Kilikia kentlerinden biri olan Diocaesarea, Helenistik Dönem’de bir Rahip Krallık Hanedanlığı tarafından yönetilen ve Olba olarak adlandırılan bölgenin idari ve dinî merkezi rolünü üstlenmiştir. Helenistik Dönem’de Zeus Olbios Kutsal Alanı, buradaki Tapınak Devlet’in merkezidir. Bu dönemde rahip-krallar, geniş bir bölgeyi bir tapınak-devlet olarak yönetmişlerdir. Erken İ mparatorluk Dönemi’nde hanedanların egemenliği sona ermiş, Zeus Olbios Kutsal Alanı’nın etrafında gelişen kent, Roma I ̇ mparatorluk Dönemi’nde anıtsal karakterine kavuşmuştur.Zeus Olbios Kutsal Alanı’nın yaklaşık 400 metre kuzeydoğusunda Kule yer almaktadır. Kulenin rahip hanedanıyla bağlantısı, giriş cephesindeki Tarkyaris’in oğlu Teukros adlı bir rahibin adını taşıyan bir yazıttan açıkça görülmektedir. Dikdörtgen planlı yapı 12.50 x 15.70 m ölçülerinde ve 5 katlı inşa edilmiştir. 2021 yılında yapının içinde kazılar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Oda 4’te yüksekliği 4 metreyi bulan dolgu içerisinde makale kapsamında değerlendirilen takı grubu ele geçmiştir. Odanın KD köşesinde bir arada tespit edilen grup içerisinde 1 çift küpe, 4 adet bilezik, 4 adet kolye, 6 adet kolye sarkacı, 1 adet kolye kopça süsü, 1 adet dört yapraklı yonca formunda kolye parçası/aplik yer almaktadır. Kolye sarkaçlarından 2 tanesi haç biçimli, 2 tanesi ise kapsül formlu, 1 tanesi quartz taşlı, 1 tanesi bikonik formlu olup iç kısmındaki taşı düşmüştür. Bir arada düzensiz biçimde ele geçen takılar olasılıkla organik bir materyalden yapılmış kese vb. bir muhafaza içerisine konulmuştur. Kentin varlıklı ailelerinden birine ait olan takılar, Mersin/Zephyron hazinesi ile Soli/Pompeipolis Sütunlu Cadde kazılarında ele geçen takılardan sonra Kilikia Bölgesi’nin Erken Bizans Dönemi takı koleksiyonunun üçüncüsüdür. Soli/Pompeipolis ve Diocaesarea takıları kazı buluntuları olmalarıyla Mersin/Zephyron takılarından ayrılmaktadır.&nbsp;Kule takı grubu içerisinde boru biçimli 4 bilezik yer almaktadır. Bileziklerin ayırt edici özelliği birleşim yerinin bikonik formda sonlanmasıdır. Bileziklerden sonra sayısal açıdan en yoğun grubu yarı değerli taşlarla kombine edilen boyun takıları oluşturur. Grupta 4 adet kolye ve kolye dizininden kopmuş 6 adet kolye sarkacı ve bir adet kopça süsü ile 2 adet de kolye parçası bulunmaktadır. Kolyeler, metal zincirlere ametist ve cam boncukların eklenmesiyle dizayn edilmiştir. Yuvarlak, silindirik ve su damlası formunda biçimlendirilen cam ve yarı değerli taş boncukların arasına metal boncuklar da eklenmiştir. Sarkaçlarda haç en çok tercih edilen motiftir. Yatay kapsüller, konik boncuklar ve dairesel ya da oval kesilmiş yarı değerli taşlar diğer sarkaç formlarıdır. Buluntu grubu içerisindeki delik işi tekniğiyle yapılan hilal formlu bir çift küpe sağlam olarak ele geçmiştir ve küpe gövdesinde krater etrafında iki tavus kuşu işlenmiştir. Gövdenin bitimine eklenen beş adet altın kürecikle tasarım sonlanmaktadır.&nbsp;Kule’de ele geçen takılar MS 7. yüzyıla tarihlendirilen Mersin/Zephyron Hazinesi, Dumbarton Oaks, Metropolitan ve Kıbrıs Müzesi koleksiyonlarında yer alan&nbsp;modellere ek olarak Lesbos Adası kazı buluntularıyla benzerdir. Tasarım birlikteliği gösteren takılardan yalnızca Lesbos adasında ele geçen grup MS 7. yüzyıl tarihlendirmesini destekleyen buluntularla birlikte ele geçmiştir. Bizans takıları açısından oldukça zengin olan Dumbarton Oaks koleksiyonundaki eserler ise analoji yöntemiyle bu tarihe verilmiştir. Diocaesarea örneklerinin koleksiyonda tekil takıların yanı sıra grup olarak tanıtılan takılarla da benzer oluşu günümüzdeki “takı seti” tanımlamasına karşılık gelen satış tekniğini akla getirmektedir.Kule’de ele geçen takıların üretim yerlerini belirlemek imparator mührü taşıyan liturjik objelere kıyasla daha zordur. Tarihlemede takının model, teknik ve bezeme kompozisyonunu dikkate alarak çıkarım yapılmalıdır. Mersin Hazinesi başta olmak üzere Dumbortan Oaks ve Kıbrıs Müzesi koleksiyonlarındaki benzer örneklerin Konstantinopolis atölyesiyle ilişkilendirilmesi Diocaesarea takılarının da burada üretildiğini düşündürmektedir. Epigrafik verilerle de varlığı bilinen yerel metal ustalarının ürettiği eserlere kıyasla başkent modasını ve tekniğini yansıtan bu eserlerde daha nitelikli işçiliğin izlenmesi de bu görüşü desteklemektedir. Takılar gerek analoji gerekse beraberinde ele geçen Herakleios sikkeleri doğrultusunda MS 6. yüzyıl sonu ile 7. yüzyıl başlarına tarihlendirilmiştir. Gümüş/bakır alaşımının yapılan takılar delik işi (opus interrasile), kazıma ve kakma teknikleriyle süslenmiş ve altınla kaplanmıştır. Delik işi tekniği büyük madalyon sarkaçlı kolye ile boncuklu kolyelerin kilit süslemeleri ile hilal formlu küpe çiftinde uygulanmıştır. Palmet, yaprak ve çiçeklerden oluşan bitkisel süslemeler geometrik ve çizgisel motiflerle kompoze edilmiştir. Madalyon ve küpede Hristiyan inancında cennetle ilişkilendirilen refrigerium sahnelerinde sıklıkla karşımıza çıkan krater ya da hayat ağacı etrafında antitethik kuşlar şablonu görülmektedir. Takıların gerek zengin betimleme kompozisyonu gerekse kaliteli işçiliği Konstantinopolis atölyelerinde üretildiklerini düşündürmektedir.Kilikia bölgesinde, MS 3. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından sonra Sasaniler, Palmyralılar, Gotlar ve İsauralıların isyanları görülmüştür. Bizans İmparatorluğu sürecinde de bölgeye saldırılar devam etmiştir. 7. yüzyılın başında Sasaniler, Tarsus’u ele geçirmiş ve akabinde İmparator Herakleios, Kilikia’yı tekrar kontrol altına almıştır. Son dönem kazılarında elde edilen veriler yaklaşık olarak MS 7. yüzyıl ortalarında yaşanan bir tahribe ait kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Bu durum bölgede görülen Arap akınlarıyla bağlantılı olmalıdır. MS 7. yüzyılın ilk yıllarındaki Sasani ve aynı yüzyılın ortalarına doğru yaşanan Arap akınlarının Kilikia Bölgesi’nin kentlerinde oluşturduğu hasar izlenebilmektedir. Bölge kentlerinden Elaiussa Sebaste’de MS 7. yüzyılın 2. yarısından sonraya tarihlenebilecek arkeolojik malzemenin olmaması ve bölgeye Arap akınlarının yapıldığının bilinmesi sebebiyle kentin tahliye edildiği düşünülmektedir. Benzer bir süreç Diocaesarea’da da görülmüştür. Bugüne kadar, arkeolojik malzemenin olmaması sebebiyle kentin fethedildiği veya terk edildiği ileri sürülmüştür. Kule’de tespit edilen arkeolojik buluntular ise bu süreçteki bir fethin kanıtlarını sunmaktadır. Kule’deki tahribat ve yangının bu süreçle ilişkili olduğu buluntularla kanıtlanmaktadır. Bunlar arasında Kule’nin son kullanım zamanına ait 10 sikkenin Seleukeia Isauriae darphanesi basımı Herakleios sikkesi olması, MS 7. yüzyılın ilk yarısında yaşanan tahribatın bir kanıtı olmasının yanı sıra Kule’de tespit edilen ve yukarıda değerlendirilen takılar için de bir tarihleme kriteridir. Kulede Herakleios sikkesinin Konstantinopolis üretimi değerli takılarla birlikte ele geçmesi Diocaesarea’nın da bu süreçte Bizans hâkimiyeti altında olduğunu doğrulamaktadır. Takı grubunun buluntu yeri ve buluntu grubundan Diocaesarea’nın en varlıklı ailesinin kentin en güvenli yapısını yaşam alanı olarak tercih ettiği sonucunu çıkarmak mümkündür.

Early Byzantine Jewelry from Rough Cilicia”Diocaesarea Treasure”

Hasan

The ancient settlement, known as “Perili Castle” or “Peri Settlement”, is located on a hill with an altitude of 410 m and on its slopes, in the Döşeme locality, within the borders of Eskikabasakal village, in Kozan (Sis) district of Adana province. The name of the settlement, which is known as Perili Kale or Peri Castle by the residents today, is not known in the Byzantine or Armenian periods. There are two churches, three chapels/baptisteries, rock tombs, a water well, a fountain and many ancient buildings’ remains and traces in the settlement.The churches numbered 1 and 2 in the settlement are in harmony with the churches of the Cilicia region with their general arrangements and basilical plan schemes and show common features. Particularly, the column fragments seen in the ruins of Church No. 1 located in the center of the settlement appear as important evidence in terms of showing that the separation of the naves was provided by columns. It is known that the separation of the naves is usually provided by columns in the churches of the Cilicia and Isauria regions. The lack of capitals of the columns made of limestone shows itself as a major deficiency in terms of dating and periodization. We believe that these pieces, which are likely to be found in the cleaning work to be done in the churches in the future, will fill a big gap.Churches, chapels, burial structures, fountains, water wells and other buildings in the settlement were built with cut stones obtained from limestone cliffs peculiar to the region. Churches and other structures in Cilicia, especially in Kozan, Anavarza, Kadirli, Hierapolis Kastabala, Ferhatlı and Akören, which are close to the settlement, were built of large and small cut stones made of the same material. While large hewn stone rows were used in the apses of churches No. 1 and 2, smaller serrated worked stones were used in other places, especially on the inner sides. It is seen that the same smooth block stones were used in the corner connections of the chapel adjacent to the church No. 2. Since the walls of both churches and chapels have largely collapsed, it does not seem possible to get an idea about the formation of the vault.In both churches, the apse is single and built outward. While the apse in Church No. 1 is half-round inside and outside, in Church No. 2 it is half-round inside and five sections on the outside. In the chapel of Church No. 2, the double apse was cut by a flat wall in the east. It is possible to see the apse arrangement of church No. 1 and the chapel structure next to it in the Anavarza rock church and the Lykia Region Andriake A, B, C, and D churches. The apse form of Church No. 2 can be followed in the Anavarza Apostles Church, Anavarza Southwest Church, Kozan Ferhatlı Church, Kozan Yetçakırı Church, Hierapolis Kastabala Church, and Meryemlik Zenon Church. Again, we see the double chapel plan application located next to Church No. 2 in the Lycian/ Kydna Basilica, Stage 1 Early Period plan. The mouldings seen on the outside of the apse of Churches No. 1 and 2 appear in the apses of these churches with a similar processing style. Similarly, cross motifs are seen in the Kozan Ferhatlı church apse.It is not known whether there was a gallery floor application in the narthex and interior of both churches. As similarly, the presence of two opposing doors opening to the bema part in both churches is seen in Anavarza Apostles Church and Southwest Church. The dense rubble material accumulated inside, the wooded area prevents us from obtaining information about the flooring of both churches.The ruins found in the Peri Settlement show that the settlement existed during the Roman Period and spread over a very large area. It is understood from the religious buildings that life here continued in the Byzantine Period. The materials used in churches, the plan forms of churches, the cross and “Christogram” motif decorations, wraps, cornice lines, etc. features, especially neighboring settlements, Anavarza, Ferhatlı, Çarakırı, Akören, Kadirli and Hierapolis Kastabala settles. It is known that the churches of Anavarza were built towards the middle and end of the 6th century, and the churches of the fairy settlement make them built at the end of the 6th century and the early Christian Period.It is not known exactly when the settlement was abandoned. In order to determine this situation, it is necessary to look at the history of the region, but this will lead us to uncertain possible results. It is known that two earthquakes in the region during the reign of Justin in 525 and in the time of Justinian in 561 caused great damage to the settlements in the region. Again, the plague epidemic, which started in 542-543 years, caused the region to be abandoned and desolate. As a result of the Sassanid attacks that began before and the Arab raids seen since the mid-seventh century, the population of the region almost emptied, the economy collapsed, and the cities were evacuated in a war. Arab domination in Cilicia covers the years 650-965. In the first 50 years of the Abbasid period (750-800), Arabs began to settle in Cilicia. During this period, it could be a potential scenario that the settlement was left deserted. When the Byzantines recaptured the region in 965, they began to fill the region, which was completely depopulated, with people of all races. Taking advantage of this situation, Armenians began to settle in the region. In 1375, the Mamluks put an end to the existence of Armenians, who settled in the region and established administration.It is thought that the settlement, which was thought to have been abandoned during the Arab invasion period, and the churches there, may have been revived by the Armenians, who settled here as a result of Byzantine policies, even if not due to earthquakes. Because the settlement is very close to Kozan and considering that Kozan was the capital of the Little Armenian Kingdom, the possibility of keeping this place empty decreases. As a result, it is highly probable that these churches and chapels, which are thought to have been built in the Early Byzantine Period, were used by Armenians who settled in the region after being idle for a while. It would be more correct to discuss what kind of changes the churches and chapels might have undergone by the Armenians due to all the above-mentioned reasons. Scientific excavation and cleaning work to be carried out in the settlement in the future will enable us to reach more reliable information.

Kozan Eskikabasakal/ Peri Settlement and Its Christian Architecture

Lale

Ceylan

This hagiographic research evaluates the phenomenon of smelling the therapeutic relics and finding healing with its spreading scent through the texts of Martyrologium. The miracle collections have been determined the holy cure formulas of martyr-saints, in which discussed through the Greek terminology of the Late Roman-Byzantine Period of the hagiographic texts by examining the relationship between the scent and the relics of the saints. Among the saints thaumatourgoi anargyroi St. Cosmas and Damian, St. Cyrus and John, and St. Artemios who have a strong healing cult in the capital Constantinopolis and Anatolia. In the cult of the physician-saints, some Byzantine saints have been produced divine medicine for humanity from their miracle-working relics. The myroblytis (μυροβλύτης) saint, who produced myron, played a major role in this research. Myroblytes St. Panteleimon, St. Demetrios, and St. Eugenios (and a few more myroblytes saints) have performed healing miracles with extraordinary therapeutic prescriptions with ordinary organic substances in the vitae of saints. Under favour of their tombs and relics, the saints provided health services with their miraculous healing methods in the locus sanctus centers. Myron liquid was pouring from the relics of St. Nikolaus of Myra, St. Luke, and St. Achilles of Larissa. As seen in the example of St. Gregorios of Mesampela, myron was also able to emanate from icons and even from the tombs of Byzantine emperors. Gregory of Nazianzus has anointed the altar with myron. In the miracle collections have investigated the descriptions of the scented oils, unguent, or ointments. The word myron has been etymologically studied in scriptures and hagiographic texts; was aimed to clarify the myroblytes (μυροβλύτης) saints, the meaning, and the Turkish translations of the word myron. It has been understood that myron is an adulterated ointment, described as a gift of God, and has a sweet scent. Another sacred medicine has been seen among the healing practices, was the wax-covered ointments. A scented ointment covered by honey wax and stamped with the image (ektypoma) of the healer-saint, is depicted similar to pilgrim tokens. Various cult-related elements such as wax-covered ointments for later use, hnānā, dust, soil, blood, and oils were transported by eulogiai containers to the different regions. Pilgrims believed that they could recover from their illnesses by contacting holy relics in various ways. As Theodore Studios stated baldly, the Byzantine people embraced “with faith and awe the full of divine grace of holy relics”. Whether commoner or emperor, it has been seen those prayers from&nbsp;all social stratum consult the healer saint in the cult of saints; pilgrims have filled the locus sanctus and for the dream-divination (incubation) stayed overnight in the sanctuaries. Among the many examples featured in miracle collections are: A pilgrim who entered the tomb of St. Menas and wanted to smell the relics; another has seen that the body of St. Artemios was opened and a scent came out for him to heal. In favour of a sweet smell that emerged when protomartyr St. Stephen’s tomb was discovered, many people there were healed at the same time. In this context, the reliquaries have been examined: pyxis and reliquary in the shape of a sarcophagus with holes were used for scented relics. It has also been studied the lamp oils used as a part of the cult of saints. The heavenly treatment was realized by anointing, rubbing, or drinking the lamp oils, as is the case with the lamp burning in the crypta of Theodora of Thessalonica. In between the miracles of St. Eustratius, has been learned that these burning lamps emit odour from the holy relics. The scent emanating from burning lamps has been discussed in our context. Fragrance fumigation is another way of gaining health through sacred figures by being covered with scent and/or intermingled with odour. Known to be a verb derived for this purpose, apomyríso (ἀπομυρίζω) was produced by the Byzantines. The pilgrims came to inhale the scented blessings from the icons and relics in the monastery of St. Eugenios, the patron saint of Trebizond. In the cult of saints, it has been seen that the way of pervading the scent within the areas of usage differed. Although the elements in these usage patterns, which emerged because of the relationship between scent and relic, are different, it has been seen that the meaning of the scent has not changed. The eulogia functions of the cult-related objects, the classification of holy oils based on their time-spatial properties and the iconography of the fragrance have been defined. The results obtained from this study, it is aimed to lead to a deeper understanding of how scented relics perform healing and the function of scent. Due to the miracle-working substances in the healing prescriptions used by the divine medicine carrying symbolic expressions, the analysis of iconology of the substances in question is more important for the believer who awaits a cure from heaven, rather than the chemical analysis on this earthly life.&nbsp;

On the Sweet Fragrance of Healing in the Cult of Relics: Scented Oil Lamps, Holy myron and Myroblytes Saints

Azize

Nuran

Jerusalem, which has a very long historical past, has hosted many civilizations. The first exodus of Jews to the city, which was founded by the Canaanites in 3000 BC, took place during the reign of Abraham (21.- 20. centuries BC). King David succeeded in taking Jerusalem (1000s BC) and made it the capital after he took it. During his reign, the Israelites settled down. During the reign of King David and his son, King Solomon, the Israelites, and Jerusalem enjoyed their most prosperous days. King Solomon, who ascended the throne after his father’s death, had the temple that his father wished to be built on Mount Moriah outside the city walls.With the capture of Jerusalem by the Roman leader Pompeius in 63 BC, Roman domination began, which would last for about seven centuries. During the reign of King Hirodes/Herod, appointed by Rome in 37 BC, the city and temple were repaired, and an amphitheater and a hippodrome were added to the city’s zoning plan. Turning into a Roman colony with the construction of the Tenth Legion Camp (2nd century AD), Jerusalem has been reshaped in line with Roman soldiers and their beliefs since the 2nd century. As a result of the rebellion (AD 135) that broke out during the reign of Roman Emperor Hadrian (AD 117-138), the city was destroyed and restructured. In this new urban setting, a planned street network led to a greater density of settlements in the northwest. Temples built at this spot created an entirely new city center. Hadrian continued his plans to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan Roman city. Hadrian gave his name to the city he founded after himself, just as Alexander the Great did centuries ago. Thus, the appearance of the city radically changed.One of the most important features of Roman city planning is that it was created parallel to two main artery/road axes in the north-south (Cardo Maximus) and eastwest (Decumanus Maximus) directions. In the literature: it is the plan called grid/ hippodamos/chessboard. This plan has been known since Hippodamos of Miletus in the Hellenistic period. After coming under Roman domination, Jerusalem was shaped according to this plan like other Roman cities.The city of Jerusalem is very vividly depicted on the Madaba mosaic map discovered in the late 19th century. The most striking detail on the Madaba Mosaic Map dated to the 6th century is the cardo maximus with colonnades on both sides. The first paving stones of Cardo were reached during the excavations carried out in 1976. Today, the southern part of the Cardon, the colonnaded road can be partially seen. In addition, a part of the Eastern Cardo (Cardo Valensis) was unearthed in the following years.The Madaba Map is very important in that it depicts the state of Jerusalem in the 6th century and shows the location of Cardo. Except for the Madaba Map, which shows that Jerusalem has a Roman road texture, the Crusader Period maps of Jerusalem are important data. Cardo Maximus and Decumanus Maximus can be seen clearly on the Crusader Maps depicting Jerusalem surrounded by circular fortifications. Two main streets; Cardo and Decumanus form a cross in the center of crusader maps. These streets, one in the north-south direction and the other in the east-west direction intersecting each other at right angles, are still the main roads of the city.The two main streets, Cardo Maximus and Decumanus Maximus (today’s names Suq Khan A-Zeit (Beit HaBad) St. and David St.), which are the distinguishing features of the Roman city plan, left their mark on the shaping of the city. The influence of Rome, which has an advanced architectural and urban planning experience, on Jerusalem, can be seen even today.Jerusalem, which preserved its pagan identity for nearly two hundred years, turned its face in this direction when Constantinus adopted Christianity. Jerusalem is no longer a pagan Roman city and has become a Christian Roman city.&nbsp;Constantinus had the Church of the Holy Sepulcher built on the place believed to be the tomb of Jesus according to Christian belief. Thus, the city of Jerusalem became an important center for the Christian world. The new focal point of the city has shifted to the area where the Church of the Holy Sepulcher is located. During the reign of Emperor Justinianus, reconstruction movements continued.Jerusalem was transformed from a Pagan Roman city into a Christian city, with churches built between the 4th and 7th centuries. Between the 7th and 11th centuries, Jerusalem took on the appearance of a city where the Roman road network and parcellation, Christian and Islamic structures were seen together, together with the Islamic structures added to the Christian city.The article focuses on the historical process of Jerusalem during the Roman Empire period and the shaping of the city plan according to the Roman period road texture, traces of which can still be read today. Readings were made on the Madaba Mosaic Map and the Crusader Maps, the oldest visual source where the Roman period road texture can be seen. The oldest known period of today’s urban texture of Jerusalem has been tried to be revealed with original sources and period readings.

As A Roman City Aelia Capitolina/Jerusalem

Derya

Res. Assist. Dr.

Apiculture and honey collection practices have existed in various forms and methods since ancient times and have survived to the present day. Bee fossils found in amber are accepted as the first ancestors of bees. Important evidence related to bees and beekeeping has been achieved in the cave paintings of prehistoric periods. The honey collection scene in a wall painting in Eastern Spain, the honeycomb and beehouse depiction found in Çatalhöyük and the honey harvest depiction in Castello are some of them. A wall painting in the Nile Delta dating 2400 B.C. is important since it reflects the first beekeeping activity carried out by man under control and systematically. Honey appears in all religions and cultures. The fact that the symbol of royalty was a bee in Egypt, the vapor pots unearthed in Macedonia dating Bronze Age that depict Minos people presented honey to God by fermenting and transforming it to liqueur and the presence of the information about beekeeping on a cuneiform of Hittites are the evidence of the existing of apiculture from ancient times. It is known that honey that was produced in Lycia in Hellenistic Period was exported to Egypt.Honey was a multipurpose nutrient in Ancient Greek and Roman cultures. It has been claimed that beehives were started to be used in Athens in the last quarter of the 5th century B.C., and the practice started after the immigration of Athenians living in rural areas in order to escape from Spartans in the Battle of Peloponnesus. It is known that they brought the beehives with them and most probably, they placed the hives in the present structures such as city walls horizontally. A great number of clay hives unearthed during the agora excavations have confirmed that honey production was conducted in the city. The earliest evidence of rural apiculture is from the farmhouse dating Classical Period in Vari, Attica. Solon, assigned as archon between the years of 639-599 B.C., emphasized that one who newly started beekeeping should place his hives 300 meters from the hives set by others, and this reveals that the issue was so important as necessitating an arrangement. Many authors living in Roman Period mentioned honey. It is known that there were horizontal beehives in Rome. Varro referred in the 2nd century A.D. that some were round and made of wicker, some made of carved logs, and some were rectangular and made of cane. Undoubtedly, honey was valuable for the Byzantine world. Therefore, it appears as the most preferred agricultural activity both in monasteries and in private life. Honey, is known to be used in monks’ monastic diet, torture of martyrs, rituals, cooking, enhancing the flavor of wine, protecting clothing, healing wounds and trading. It can be found in the anthology collections of the 10th century, in Byzantine church music, in hymnos praising the bee, in the vitas of saints who are considered the protectors of the hive and honey, and in Byzantine-influenced roll miniatures. Bees have also entered iconography in painting. Bees accompany the “Birth of Jesus” scene in three miniature paintings dated between the 9th and 12th centuries, prepared in the Southern Italy Monastery. Bees come out of their hives and greet Jesus. In doing so, their main purpose should be to&nbsp;obey Jesus and Mary and celebrate the birth. They appear as symbols of cleanliness and purity. Honey was also important in the old Turkish States and Ottoman Period. Beekeeping and the taxes received from beekeeping were among the important public revenues in Ottoman Empire. It is known that steps were taken to increase honey and bee wax production in Turkiye in the early Republic Period. Concerning that, the tith was waived, reports for executing modern apiculture were presented in the 1st Agriculture Congress, participating in training activities held abroad and increasing the allowance allocated from the budget of the Ministry of Agriculture every year regularly.The topographic structure and appropriate climate conditions of Turkiye ensure an appropriate environment for apicultural activities. One of the important regions providing this environment is Cappadocia. Since the structure of Cappadocia was suitable, honey production was tried to be made in the apiaries carved by hand in the rocky structure. Today, this type of apiculture continues. “Rock-carved apiaries”, which are the subject of our research and that we can date to the Byzantine Period, are located in the Keşlik, Soğanlı, Uçhisar, Göreme, Kızılçukur and Güllüdere 2 valleys in the Cappadocia Region in their original form. The apiaries, which are as high as being reached by a ladder, consist of a human-sized entrance door to collect honey or to control the bees, small holes coplanar sorted and thin parallel vertical slits that allow the bees to enter the hives. Inside, there are niches with or without shelves carved into the rock with 30-40 cm width and 85-100 cm depth suitable for these holes and slits. Rock-carved apiaries in the region can be classified in four types those with holes and vertical shelves in niches, with holes and horizontal shelves without niches, with thin parallel vertical slits in the niches without shelves and with both holes in the niches with shelves and with thin parallel vertical slits in the niches without shelves. Some apiaries having both plan types but there are also some having only holes and vertical or horizontal shelves, or some having only vertical slits. The apiary located at the entrance of Soğanlı is in the first plan type with holes and vertical shelves in niches, the one in Keşlik is in the second type with holes and horizontal shelves without niches, the one in Uçhisar is in the third type with thin parallel vertical slits in niches without shelves and the apiary in Güllüdere 2 is in the fourth type with both holes and shelves in niches and with thin parallel vertical slits in niches without shelves. It is seen that the apiaries in Cappadocia were built with local elements like all rural architectural elements, namely by carving in rocks, and located in generally high places getting sunlight above the valley. It is believed that a two-hive system of fixed hives and movable basket hives was used and fixed hives were placed on holes and basket hives placed in vertical slits. Beekeepers could treat honeycombs from behind without damaging the arrangement of the bees. It is thought that the architectural forms of the rock-carved apiaries, which are an important agricultural structure type, meanly the holes and vertical slits on the rock surfaces might have arisen peculiarly to the region in order to fulfil the needs, and it is seen that holes were generally located towards west or east to receive maximum sunlight. Rock-carved apiaries, which were designed together with the structures of the valley they were located in Cappadocia during the Byzantine Period, are among the local architectural examples presented that the society provides and the important agricultural structures of rural context. Based on the history of the valleys and the rock structures around them, the apiaries coincided with the Middle Byzantine Period and continued in the form of changing built structures in modern rural areas, as in the 10th or 11th century has also been found to be actively used.

A Local Architectural Example of Cappadocia Region: Byzantine Period Rock Carved Apiaries

Filiz

Selçuk

The aim of this study is to determine the Byzantine glazed pottery recovered during the 2019 season of the excavations in the settlement known as Çobankale in the Altınova district of Yalova Province. The most comprehensive study on the construction history of the castle before the excavation belongs to Clive Foss. He suggests that the castle was built in 1087. The first archaeological excavations in the region were initiated in 2017 under the direction of the Bursa Archaeology Museum, In 2018, excavations were carried out in the cistern and its surroundings and were carried out in the north of the castle and the upper level of the cistern in 2019.This paper analyses the Byzantine glazed pottery unearthed during these works. The study includes 110 potsherds which are evaluated in detail in the catalogue. Among these, a ring base is grouped in Glazed White Wares (Cat.no: 108). 105 of them are classified under “Zeuxippus Family Ware” (Cat.nos: 1-105). Of these, 47 are ring bases and 52 are rims. 4 bowl forms were fully identified (Cat.nos: 66,67,68, 105). In addition to these, 2 closed vessels were also recovered during the 2019 season (Cat.nos: 69-70). There are 3 ring bases and 1 amorphous body sherd with incised decoration, which share the form and ornamentation with the ceramics of this group, but their paste is coarser and more coarse limestone tempered (Cat.nos: 106, 107, 109, 110).In the 2019 season of Çobankale Excavations, a significant increase was observed in the amount of Byzantine Period glazed pottery. Most of the finds of this season were recovered from the areas around the city walls. Except for a very small number of sherds, almost all of the findings are “Zeuxippus Family Ware”. Therefore, only this group could be analysed in detail. The most intense glaze colour among the finds is yellow and its shades. Green-glazed examples are less common. All ring base fragments have tripod marks.The common forms of ceramics are small, deep bowls or bowls (Cat.nos: 66,67,68, 105). Closed vessels were also found (Cat. nos. 69, 70 (G. 16)). The most common profile among the ring bases is the slightly flared low ring with or slightly rounded or slightly sharpened ends. This form is particularly preferred on small-sized vessels with monochrome glazes (yellow and green), Cat. nos. 1-9 (G. 4), Cat. nos. 11-14 (G. 5), Cat. nos. 15-21 (G. 6), Cat. nos. 22-23 (G. 7), Cat. no. 28-29 (G. 8), Cat. no. 33 (G. 9), Cat. nos. 66-68 (G. 15), cat. nos. 77-83 (G. 18), cat. no. 91 (G. 19), Cat. no. 93-96 (G. 20), cat. no. 102-103 (G. 21), Cat.no.107 (G. 23) are fragments of this type of base. High ring base forms are relatively rare. Cat. no. 92 (G. 19), Cat. no. 97 (G. 20), Cat. no. 101 (G. 21), Cat. no. 104 (G. 22) have examples in which the high ring base is widened by flaring expanded and the rounded end. Cat. nos. 85, 86 (G. 18) are goblet ring bases. The rim forms were analysed and it was found that there were no&nbsp;examples other than the common forms of Zeuxippus Family Ware, but the common profiles, which can be categorised in three main groups, are rounded, simple-ended, vertical-edged and narrow-flat rims. On the simple rounded rims, it is observed that the rim of the vessel is slightly curved inwards. Cat. no. 27 (G. 8), Cat. no. 32 (G. 9), Cat. no. 49 (G. 12), Cat. nos. 57, 58 (G. 13) belong to this group.The second main group consists of rims with vertical edges. In this form, the vertical rim ends with a rounded and framed appearance or slightly inverted e.g. Cat. nos. 24, 26 (G. 8), Cat. no. 31 (G. 9), Cat. no. 41 (G. 11), Cat. nos. 71, 72 (G. 17). However these forms are few. The third main group includes profile examples with a slightly concave table. This form could be seen on Cat. no. 34 (G. 10), Cat. no. 89 (G. 19); Cat. nos. 43, 44 (G. 11). And different variations of this form are also available (Cat. Nos 43, 44 (G. 11). As discussed in detail in the catalogue, there are differences in some details within all these forms. For example, Cat.no. 36 (G. 10), Cat.no. 64, 65 (G. 14), Cat. no. 75 (G. 17), Cat. no. 87 (G. 19), have different characteristics from other rims. The decoration compositions of the Çobankale-Zeuxippus Family Ware represent that the characteristic decorations of the family, such as two, three or more concentric circles, uninterrupted-wavy incised line arrangements with concentric circles, spiral and spiral change into circles, various floral and geometric compositions, “♯” (hashtag motive or arms or monogram, human and griffon figures were used. During the excavations in Çobankale in 2018 and 2019, no data on ceramic production was found. In this case, it is thought that the findings unearthed from the castle are the products of an unknown local production centre. It is possible to enlarge the list of similar examples of Çobankale-Zeuxippus Family Ware findings however findings from nearby settlements were prioritised.&nbsp;In the light of our preliminary assessments, the similarities between some Çobankale finds and Iznik and Dasklyeion findings and local products (?) have attracted our attention. Iznik (Nicaea), which shares some of the form and ornamental characteristics of the Çobankale findings and is considered to be the local production centre. Besides this, Balıkesir-Daskyleion excavations, Bursa, Nilüfer Districts and Bursa, Zindankapı excavations are among the nearby ancient settlements. We also should note that Polychrome glazed sherds in our catalogue (Cat. nos. 98-103 (G. 21), Cat. nos. 104-105 (G. 22) ) are less than half of the monochrome pottery and they share some characteristics of both Zeuxippus Ware and Polychrome Ware. It is possible to suggest that this group of ceramics can be considered as transitional period pottery or to open this issue for discussion. However, this argument requires more findings.&nbsp;&nbsp;In addition to all this, no data that can help us to date these ceramics. Therefore, these ceramics dated between the 12th century and early 14th century by considering similar examples.

Byzantine Glazed Pottery From the Excavations of Cobankale in Yalova: 2019 Season

Neşe

Aynur

Historical cities have multi-layered characters composed of the physical traces of previous civilizations. The preservation and presentation of archaeological values in historical cities require good planning. Whether the archaeological values are indoors or outdoors, it is necessary to protect them and make them visible to demonstrate the historical process. The preservation of archaeological values encountered during the restoration works of historical buildings affects both layers. The decision on how visible an archaeological value should be, for documenting and demonstrating the historical process, needs to be clarified within the restoration efforts. The harmony, accessibility, and visibility of both periods should be ensured in the interventions for the protection and presentation of the existing historical buildings and archaeological values.In this study, the İbrahim Pasha Palace (Turk and Islamic Art Museum) and the Beyazıt Imaret (Beyazıt Manuscript Library) buildings are used. The restoration work at Ibrahim Pasha Palace began in October 2012 under the title “Turk and Islamic Art Museum Restoration Merchandising and Landscaping Project.” Concrete cleaning works started in the courtyard of the existing historical building on March 28, 2013. During this cleaning work, remains of graves and a hippodrome from the Byzantine period were encountered at the basement level of the museum. Approximately two years later, on December 25, 2014, the landscaping project, which included architectural interventions for the archaeological value, was approved.At Istanbul Beyazıt Imaret, excavation work began in the inner garden under museum supervision based on the decision of the preservation committee. This excavation work was not part of the restoration project but was included as a functional need for the proposed technical rooms. During survey drilling in an area of approximately 55 square meters, an archaeological value in the shape of a semi-circle with a diameter of 2.3 meters, a width of 60 cm, and a depth of 25 cm made from cut stone-Khorasan mortar was found at a depth of 2.2 meters from the ground. For the archaeological values discovered during the excavation, the related preservation committee approved the restoration project on May 22, 2013, and the project was completed in 1 year. The&nbsp;discovery and preservation efforts for the archaeological values combined took about 2 years. On December 16, 2016, problems related to the archaeological value were determined by the regional conservation council.In both examples of archaeological values, some problems were identified in the preservation of archaeological values and their compatibility with the existing historical buildings. After the decision of The High Council for the Historical Real Estate and Monuments in 1966 to use Ibrahim Pasha Palace as the Turk and Islamic Art Museum, it was suggested that the heating system could be placed underground in the inner garden in 1975. The heating system remained buried where the archaeological value was discovered, above the remains of the hippodrome, until 2012. Even in a historical building used as a museum and being public property, architectural presentation efforts began in 2013 for an archaeological value that was discovered in 1975. At Beyazıt Manuscript Library, which does not have a museum function, a correlation between Byzantine art and the registered historical building was not achieved, and access and awareness of visitors to the area where the archaeological value is located were very limited.In both examples, the archaeological values were covered from the top with glass structures. However, at the Turk and Islamic Art Museum, the guardrails surrounding the glass enclosure for safety purposes prevent visitors from observing the archaeological values. Additionally, the designed glass enclosures do not allow the values to be sufficiently perceived. Furthermore, the glass slab structure built to enable observation at Beyazıt Imaret experienced structural deformations after a short time. The physical conditions of the structure were not adequately considered when making additions for urban archaeological values, leading to heavy moisture and moss development on the remains and walls of the new construction.&nbsp;Archaeological values presented with the help of modern technology should have observation systems in place, and changes should be constantly tracked. However, archaeological values that have undergone preservation and architectural presentation efforts often lack plans for administrative inspections at certain intervals following completion. At Beyazıt Imaret, preservation and architectural presentation work was carried out on archaeological values discovered in 2012 during excavations for the construction of technical spaces. Problems were discovered during inspections conducted three years after the completion of the preservation work. In both cases studied in this research, no informative boards were found outside the structure related to the Byzantine period archaeological values found within. This impacts the awareness of these values and creates the risk of them being “forgotten.”&nbsp;In conclusion, achieving the co-occurrence of archaeological values from the Byzantine period with the historical buildings they are situated in is an important tool for&nbsp;displaying the historical continuity of cities. Therefore, in multi-layered structures, the togetherness, accessibility, and visibility of different periods should be evaluated together during preservation planning. This planning process should be inclusive of all parties involved, and participation from all parties should be encouraged. In addition, related institutions should be included in the development process. Emergency preservation methods to stabilize the current condition of archaeological values, which were buried underground and have material deformations and structural problems, should be developed. The design process should focus on preserving archaeological values with minimal interference.

Conservation and Presentation of the Byzantine Period on the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul: Urban Archaeological Values in Ibrahim Pasha Palace and Imaret of Beyazıt Complex

Metin

Abundance has been an important concept in every period of human history since the period of Homo Erectus (1.5 million years ago). We encounter this concept frequently in the Old Testament, which may also have a theological basis for the use of the cornucopia motif in Christian art.It is understood that the cornucopia motif, which originated in Ancient Greece has influenced the art of many civilizations until today, especially the Roman, Byzantine, early Islamic, European and Ottoman (especially the early 18th-early 20th century ranges) artworks, and it was used for the same meaning and purpose since the beginning. In addition, the studies revealed that the description of this motif as empty or full does not cause any difference in meaning, however, it is generally depicted as filled with fruits.An example of the cornucopia motif in Byzantine art for the early period appears in a spiral form in the decoration of the porphyry sarcophagus (354-260), which is considered to belong to Rome Santa Constanza in the Vatican Museum in Rome. A similar piece is present on a sarcophagus in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. This motif can be seen in the mosaic decoration we have encountered in the portico vault of the Santa Costanza Mausoleum. In the Great Palace Mosaics (450-550), the spiral acanthus emerging from the stylized cornucopia connects with the hair and beard of the Oceanus figure. Studies have been indicating that the cornucopia motifs are present on the impost headings of the Church of St. Polyeuktos (524-527) displayed at the Istanbul Archeology Museum today. And some other pieces as; cornice decorations on the column headings, pedestals and banister slabs that date back to the 6th century are also displayed at Istanbul Archeology Museum.In the research we have carried out it has been detected that the cornucopia motifs seen in the aniconic decoration of the wall paintings of the Cappadocia region, which is our main subject, are seen in a monastery monk cell and nine rock churches date back to the 9th century.The finding of cornucopia motifs in; “Göreme Avcılar Kelebek Church No. 8 (9th century), apsis of Göreme Karşıbucak (Karşıbecak - Theotokos - Göreme Avcılar No. 3) Chapel (9th century), Kızılçukur Yohakim and Anna Church (9th century) south chapel barrel vault surface, Ihlara Agacaltı Church (9th century) western cross arm barrel vault south half, Meskendir St. Paul-Pierre Church (9th century) flat ceiling cover, in Kızılçukur Monastery Monk Cell arch, Kızılçukur Üzümlü Church (Hermitage Niketas the Stylite) (9th century) nave barrel vault surface, Ürgüp/Mustafapaşa Hagios Basilios Church (9th century) south apse, Güzelöz No. 3 (Mistikan) Church (9th century) in the center of the barrel vault surface, and Cemilköy Keşlik Monastery H. Stephanos Church (9th century) apse front, flat ceiling cover wall” was carried out by us. Among these examples, the motif was used in combination with the heartshaped stylised palmettes curving inside only in the Ihlara Ağaçaltı Church (9th century). It is understood that there is a change in the use of color on cornucopia motifs depending on the color scale of the churches in which they are depicted.In Kızılçukur Üzümlü, the motif found on all four sides of the cross in the middle on the narthex and naos barrel vault surface of the Nicetas Church`s (9th century) cornucopias is slightly cracked. Just at the tip of a cornucopia, a stylized vine leaf appears in a spiral form with vine branches and grape bunches. The tips of the stylized vine leaves on a yellow background are dark reddish brown with black contours.Unlike the examples we have encountered so far, in the Ihlara Ağaçaltı Church (9th century), the motif seen on the surface of the western half of the barrel vault south half of the exempt cross plan structure consists of two cornucopia motifs slightly curved on both sides and a single cornucopia extending down from the lower part of the intersection of the two cornucopias. This motif is unlike what we have used to see in wall painting motifs in the region. It has a unique appearance with its style. There are two intertwined circle motifs in red-brown on the tips. It is white with black contours on a light blue background.Among the examples we can identify, the motif is used as a decoration element in the Byzantine period wall paintings of the Cappadocia region and mainly applied with spiral vine leaves and grape bunch motifs, it is preferred on large surfaces (the only example in the border is in the Kızılçukur Monastery Monk Cell arch) and it is mostly in a spiral form, except for the example in the Ağaçaltı Church (9th century). Therefore, it is understood that when painting the church, the artist or artists tried to fill the space, they didn’t want to leave empty, in addition to aesthetic concerns, and even painting the spiral cornucopia in architectural structures such as the barrel vault, flat ceiling covers and semi-dome apse makes us think about the possibility of trying to expand the size to cover large areas. In addition to all of these, the fact that the cornucopia motifs are depicted in the region in high locations, in the areas we have mentioned above is also related to its sacred and symbolic meaning.As a result, the cornucopia motifs we encounter in Byzantine art are a reflection of the Byzantine art traditions. The cornucopia, which was used fondly in decoration with or without figures in ancient Greek and Roman art, found its place especially, in the aniconic decoration of the early Byzantine period.In this article, we have identified the cornucopia motifs in the aniconic decoration of the wall paintings of nine rock churches and a rock-cut monastery monk cell, which we have examined in detail with their definitions and descriptions, and different usage examples in Byzantine art connected to their chronological framework. In addition&nbsp;to all these, regarding the examples we have encountered in the region, we have also emphasized how the cornucopia motif is positioned in the buildings, its decoration features, its sacred and symbolic meaning, and the relationship between architecture and the wall painting program.

Studies on the Importance of the Cornucopia Motif in Byzantine Art and the Aniconic Decoration of the Wall Paintings of Cappadocia Region

Oğuz

Lecturer

Özden

Assist. Prof. Dr.

Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi’nin bulunduğu Myra kenti, günümüzde Antalya ilinin Demre ilçesinde yer almaktadır. Myra, Teke Yarımadası’nın güneyinde yer alan; kaya mezarlarından edinilen verilere göre tarihi İÖ 5. yüzyıla kadar uzanan bir antik kenttir. Myra, liman kenti Andriake’nin Akdeniz’in önemli limanlarından birisi olmasının da etkisiyle Roma Dönemi’nde ticaretle zenginleşmiş ve İmparator II. Theodosius (408-450) tarafından Likya bölgesinin başkenti ilan edilmiştir. Bizans döneminde de Likya bölgesinin metropolitliğini 5-15. yüzyıllar arasında sürdüren kent, dinî bir merkez olmuştur.4. yüzyılda Patara’da doğduğu bilinen Nikolaos’un, Myra’da piskoposluk yaptığı, ölümünden sonra da Myra’da gömüldüğü bilinmektedir. Aziz’in adına burada bir kilise veya şapel yapılmışsa da 529 yılındaki depremde yıkıldığı ve daha sonra aynı yerde bazilikal bir yapı inşa edildiği düşünülmektedir. 12. yüzyılda yapıya ekler yapıldığı, 13. yüzyılda da yapının büyük bir onarım gördüğü bilinmektedir. 13. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında veya sonrasında da Myra kentinin kuzeyinde yer alan Myros Çayı’nın taşması sonucu kilise galeri seviyesine kadar alüvyonla dolmuştur.&nbsp;&nbsp;Bu çalışmada, Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi’nin Batı Avlusu’na geçiş mekânında bulunan, tonoz ya da kemerin iç kısmında olduğu düşünülen duvar resmi parçalarına ait boya ve sıva tabakalarının malzeme analizleri gerçekleştirilerek, kullanılan hammaddelerin karakterizasyonu ve yapım tekniklerinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Önümüzdeki dönemlerde yürütülecek konservasyon ve restorasyon çalışmaları ile toprak içinden kırık ve dağınık bir biçimde açığa çıkarılan söz konusu duvar resmi parçaları birleştirilerek sahneye ait süsleme programının anlaşılması planlanmaktadır. Dolayısıyla bu makale kapsamında gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar, konservasyon ve restorasyon uygulamalarına temel oluşturmaya yönelik bilgiler de içermektedir.Çalışma kapsamında, Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi’nin yukarıda belirtilen kısmından açığa çıkarılan duvar resimleri arasından seçilen 3 boyalı sıva ve sıva üzerinde bulunan 7 pigment örneği, fiziksel ve kromametrik belgelemeler, petrografik ince kesit optik mikroskop (stereo ve polarizan ışık altında), X-ışını difraktometresi (XRD), Raman spektrometresi ve X-ışını floresan spektrometresi (μ-XRF ve PED-XRF) ile incelenmiştir.Örneklerin renk analizleri el tipi spektrofotometre cihazı ile yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar CIE L’a’b’ sistemine göre verilmiş olup, gözlemci açısı 10° ve ışık kaynağı D65’tir.&nbsp;Petrografik analizler kapsamında sıvaların ince kesitleri (reçine ile sertleştirme yapılarak) hazırlanmış, stereo ve polarizan mikroskop altında, farklı sıva tabakalarının sayısı, bağlayıcı/agrega oranları, agrega türleri ve dağılımları ile mineral/kayaç içerikleri belirlenmiştir.Duvar resimlerinin sıva tabakalarının faz analizleri, X-ışını difraktometresi ile 2θ:10-80° arasında, 2°/dk tarama hızında Cu-Kα radyasyonu kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Duvar resimlerinde kullanılan pigmentlerin kimyasal içeriği ve olası bozulma ürünlerinin karakterizasyonu için Raman spektrometresi analizi uygulanmıştır. Analiz, dispersif Raman mikroskop ile 785 nm dalga boylu lazer ve 20x objektif lens kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışma süresince uygulanan lazer gücü, en iyi spektrumu elde edecek şekilde 10-25 mW aralığında değiştirilmiştir.&nbsp;Raman spektrometresi ile sonuç alınamayan sarı renkli boya örneğinin kimyasal analizi için μ-X-ışını floresan spektrometresi cihazı kullanılmıştır. Analizler, μ-XRF spektrometresi ile molibden X-ışını tüpü kullanarak, 60 kV voltaj ve 400 μA akım şartlarında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Analiz üç farklı noktadan, 45 saniyelik ölçümler ile gerçekleştirilmiş ve ortalamaları alınmıştır.Duvar resimlerinin sıva tabakaları PED-XRF analizi için yetersiz olduğundan, yalnızca bir sıva örneğine ait katmanların kimyasal bileşimi belirlenebilmiştir. Agat havanda toz hâline getirilen sıva tabakaları, 32 mm’lik diskler oluşturularak X-Lab 2000 PED-XRF spektrometresi ile analiz edilmiştir. Temel ve az elementler oksit yüzdeleri hâlinde, iz elementler ise milyonda bir (ppm) derişimle verilmiştir. Birleşik Devletler Jeolojik Araştırma (USGS) standartları ve referans olarak GEOL, GBW7109 ve GBW-7309 kullanılmıştır. Sıva tabakalarının hidroliklik özelliği Cementation Index (CI) verileri yardımı ile değerlendirilmiştir.&nbsp;&nbsp;Boyaların sıva tabakalarıyla olan etkileşimi duvar resimlerinde kullanılan tekniği göstermektedir. Boyama tekniği stereo mikroskop kullanılarak belirlenmiş ve tek katmanlı olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Sıva ile boya tabakası arasındaki sınırın oldukça keskin olması duvar resmi örneklerinde secco tekniğinin kullanıldığını, boyaların kuru sıva üzerine uygulandığını düşündürmektedir. Kuru sıva üzerine boyama yapılmasının bir gereği olarak pigmentin sıvaya tutunabilmesi için kullanılan organik veya inorganik bağlayıcı ortamının tespit edilmesi ise ilerleyen dönemlerde yapılması planlanan başka bir çalışmanın kapsamı içinde tutulmuştur.Antik çağ kaynaklarında duvar resimlerinin üç katmandan oluştuğu belirtilmektedir: Arriccio, intonaco ve boya tabakası. Arriccio olarak adlandırılan en alttaki katman, doğrudan duvara uygulanmaktaır. Arriccio, duvardaki düzensizlikleri gidermek ve intonaco adı verilen ikinci katın yapışmasını da kolaylaştırmak ve yüzey alanını artırmak için genellikle kireç ve kaba agrega karışımından oluşmaktadır. Intonaco tabakası ise boyama için çok pürüzsüz bir yüzey elde etmek için daha ince parçacıklar içermektedir. Bu çalışmada incelenen tüm örnekler, bağlayıcı alanları ve agrega türleri bakımından benzer olup iki tabakalı sıvalardır. Sıvaların kireçtaşı, çört, kuvars, opak mineraller ile kayaç parçalarından oluşan, çok düşük oranda (&lt;%10) agrega içerdiği tespit edilmiştir. Sıvalar üzerinde gerçekleştirilen&nbsp;XRD analizlerinde kuvars ve kalsite ait karakteristik piklerin tespit edilmesi de bu sonucu desteklemektedir.Boya örneklerinin analizlerinden elde edilen veriler şu şekilde özetlenebilir:&nbsp;Yeşil renkli boya örneğinin Raman spektrumunda tespit edilen pikler, yeşil toprak pigmentinin varlığını göstermiştir. Kaynakları, killerin de eşlik ettiği glokonit, seladonit ve klorit gibi mineraller olan yeşil toprak boyaların spektroskopik yöntemlerle ayırt edilmesi zor olmakla birlikte, Raman spektrumundaki bazı farklılıklar bu çalışmada incelenen yeşil rengin seladonit kaynaklı olduğuna işaret etmektedir.Siyah renkli boya örneğinin Raman analizleri ile, duvar resimlerinde karbon siyahı kullanıldığı belirlenmiştir. Eski çağlardan beri kullanılan karbon siyahının elde edilmesinde bitkisel kaynakların yanı sıra, kalsine kemik veya fildişi kullanımı da görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada siyah boyaların Raman analizlerinden elde edilen sonuçlar, karbonun bitkisel kökenli kaynaklardan elde edildiğini göstermiştir.&nbsp;Duvar resimlerinde kullanılan kırmızı renkli boyaların Raman analizleri, kullanılan mineralin kırmızı toprak pigmentinin/okra (Hematite / α-Fe2O3) olduğunu göstermektedir. Aynı spektrumlarda, kalsit minerali renk tonunu açmak için kirecin kullanıldığını, kuvars ise pigmentin öğütülmesi sırasında kumun katılmış olabileceğini düşündürmektedir.&nbsp;Sarı renkli boyanın Raman spektrumlarından sonuç alınamamış olup, XRF analizlerinde yüksek demir içeriğinin tespit edilmesi, sarı okranın varlığını işaret etmektedir.Duvar resimlerinde kullanılan beyaz rengin elde edilmesinde kireç (kalsit) kullanılmıştır.

Characterization of Wall Painting Fragments from the West Courtyard Passage at St. Nicholas Church in Demre

Taner

Yenikapı kurtarma kazıları, İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri başkanlığında, 2004-2013 yılları arasında sürdürülmüştür. Derinliği 12 m olan dolguda gerçekleştirilen kazılar sırasında, Neolitik dönemden son Osmanlı dönemine kadar aralıksız bir tabakalanma tespit edilmiş; İstanbul’un kültür tarihini zenginleştiren yüz binlerce eser ve mimari kalıntı ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Theodosius Limanı’nın ve 600 yıllık süreçte farklı zamanlarda batmış olan 37 gemi kalıntısının keşfi ise denizcilik tarihi ve gemi yapım teknolojisi hakkında eşsiz bilgiler sunmaktadır. Yenikapı batıkları kullanımlarına göre ticaret gemileri ve kadırgalar olarak iki grupta ele alınmaktadır. 5.-11. yüzyıllar arasına tarihlenen ticaret gemileri, yaklaşık 7 m uzunluğundaki küçük teknelerden 40 m’ye ulaşan açık deniz gemilerine kadar çeşitli boyut ve özelliktedir. Kürekli küçük savaş gemileri olan Yenikapı kadırgalarının tahmini orijinal uzunlukları ise yaklaşık 30 m’dir. Bu kadırgalar, Bizans dönemine tarihlenen arkeolojik örneklerinin ilk kez Yenikapı’da ele geçmiş olması sebebiyle ayrı bir değer taşımaktadır.&nbsp;2008 yılında kazı alanının doğu tarafında keşfedilen YK20 batığı, gövde bütünlüğünü koruyarak günümüze ulaşmış ticaret teknelerinden biridir. Batık, bir tarafının ikinci çapa tahtasına kadar korunmuş olması; yelken yatağı, iç kuşakları, kemere parçası gibi kazılarda nadir ele geçen ahşap elemanlarının in situ olarak ele geçmesi gibi sebeplerle gemi inşa teknolojisi çalışmaları açısından önemli verilere sahiptir. Batığın arazideki in situ belgelemesi Total Station® cihazıyla 3 boyutlu olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ayrıca, kaplama yüzeyleri asetat kâğıdına 1:1 ölçeğinde çizilmiş; fotoğraflanmış ve foto-mozaikleri oluşturulmuştur. Belgeleme sonrasında batık gövdesi sökülmüş, “L” profiller ve destekler yardımıyla ahşaplar kaldırılmış ve İstanbul Üniversitesi Yenikapı Batıkları Uygulama ve Araştırma Laboratuvarı’ndaki havuzlara taşınmıştır. Laboratuvarda, YK20 batığının her bir ahşap elamanı, 3 boyutlu temaslı ölçüm cihazı ile tam ölçekli olarak çizilmiş ve ayrıntılı olarak fotoğraflanmıştır. Ahşap elemanlar üzerinde yapılan detaylı analizler sonucunda, geminin yapım teknolojisi, inşasında kullanılan aletler, ustanın işaretleri ve konstrüksiyon özellikleri hakkında detaylı bilgilere ulaşılmıştır. Dokümantasyon ve teknoloji çalışmaları tamamlandıktan sonra, batık ahşapları üzerinde bozulma durumuna yönelik analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. PEG (polietilen glikol) emdirmesi ve dondurarak kurutma olarak karar verilen konservasyon süreci İÜ Yenikapı Batıkları Projesi Uygulama ve Araştırma Laboratuvarı’nda devam etmektedir.&nbsp;Akdeniz gemi inşası, kabuk-ilk ve iskelet-ilk olarak tanımlanan başlıca iki yöntem ve bu yöntemlerin gelişimi üzerinden ele alınmaktadır. Kabuk-ilk yöntemi önce omurga ve iki yanına yerleştirilen kaplama tahtalarının inşası ile başlamaktadır. Bu inşanın temel özelliği geminin tasarım ve şeklinin kaplamalar tarafından belirlenmesidir. Döşek ve postalar kaplamalardan oluşan kabuk tamamlandıktan sonra inşaya eklenmektedir. Günümüzde de uygulanan iskelet-ilk tekniğinde ise bunun tam tersi bir metodoloji bulunmaktadır. Birbirine bağlanmış döşek ve postalardan oluşan iskelet omurgaya sabitlendikten sonra kaplamalar bunların üzerine monte edilmektedir. Bu yöntemde gövdenin tasarım ve dayanımı iskelet sistemi tarafından sağlanmaktadır. Gemi inşa tarihinde iki uçta bulunan bu tekniklerin arasında bulunan geçiş dönemi uzun bir sürece yayılmıştır. Bu dönemde gerçekleştirilen yapım yöntemi “karma inşa” olarak isimlendirilmektedir. Gemi arkeolojisinden gelen kanıtlar, MS 2. yüzyıl ortasından sonra gevşeyen ve aralıkları artan zıvanalı geçmelerle başladığı öne sürülen teknolojideki değişim sürecinin 13. yüzyıla kadar devam ettiğini göstermektedir. Yenikapı batıkları bu uzun geçiş dönemindeki karma inşa sürecinin 5.-11. yüzyıllar arasındaki gelişimini örnekleyerek gemi inşa teknolojisinde dikkate değer bir boşluğu doldurmuştur. Bu batıklardan biri olan YK20 karma inşanın özelliklerini taşıyan bir gövdeye sahiptir. Alt gövdesinde, kaplama tahtaları omurgadan birinci çapa tahtasına kadar kenar kavelaları ile birbirine düzenli aralıklar ile bağlanmıştır. Bu kenar kavelaları gövde içindeki eğrilerin alt hizalarına denk gelmektedir. Uzun kaplama tahtaları boyuna birleşimlerinde ise S-biçimli parileler ile birbirine eklenmiştir. Bu yapım özellikleri, teknenin alt gövdesinin kabuk-temelli felsefeye göre inşa edildiğinin kanıtlarıdır. Bununla birlikte, birinci çapa tahtasından sonra boyuna elemanlar arasında kenar birleştirmeleri tespit edilmemiştir. İnşanın bu aşamasından sonra gövdenin şekillendirilmesinde ağırlıklı olarak eğriler rol almıştır. Diğer çoğu Yenikapı batığında ve bu yöntemle inşa edilen Akdeniz gemilerinde rastlanan bu durum karma inşanın en karakteristik özelliklerinden biridir. Teknenin inşasında altı farklı ağaç cinsi tespit edilmiştir. Kaplamalarda Anadolu kestanesi, döşek ve postalar meşe, omurga elemanları ve yelken yatağında ise kayın ağaçları kullanılmıştır. Sayıca az olan karaağaç, karaçam ve çınar ağaçlarının ise inşadan farklı zamanlarda gerçekleştirilen onarımlarda gövdeye eklendiği belirlenmiştir. Elemanların şekillendirileceği ağaç türlerinin, gövdedeki kullanım yerlerinin özelliklerine göre seçilmesi, Yenikapı batıklarında tespit edilen karakteristik inşa özelliklerindendir. Meşe, Anadolu Kestanesi ve Kayın ağaçlarının doğal yayılım alanlarının Karadeniz ve Marmara çevresinde olması, inşada kullanılan ağaçların Anadolu’nun kuzey coğrafyasından sağlandığına işaret etmektedir. YK20 ahşaplarının Oxford Üniversitesinin Radyokarbon Hızlandırma Ünitesi’nde gerçekleştirilen radyokarbon analizleri, MS 687-975 yılları arasını göstermektedir. Batık bu analizler ve bulunduğu tabaka doğrultusunda 9.-10. yüzyıllara tarihlendirilmektedir.Ön rekonstrüksiyon çalışmalarına göre YK20, yaklaşık 10,76 m uzunluğunda ve 2,66 m genişliğinde küçük bir ticaret teknesidir. Tek direkli, büyük olasılıkla Akdeniz’deki Bizans gemilerinde yaygın olduğu gibi, Latin/Settee yelken donanımı ile sevk ettirilmekte ve döneminin karakteristiği olan bir çift çeyrek dümenle kontrol edilmektedir. Kıç tarafında kapaklı bir depolama bölmesine sahiptir. Orta kısmında gövde altı açısı olabildiğince düşük ve düz diplidir.

Characteristic Features and Construction Technique of Shipwreck Yenikapı 20

The northwestern part of Anatolia has been named Troad in antiquity and Hellespont in the Byzantine era. Today, this region has an important museum called Çanakkale - Troy Museum, which focuses on the preservation and display of the cultural heritage of the region. There is a considerable number of Byzantine artifacts in this museum and an important group of these are Byzantine lighting devices. While a small group of them consists of terracotta, the majority are metal works and most of these lighting devices belong to the early Byzantine period. Of these metal objects, which are in the Troy Museum collection and whose total number is twenty-three, fourteen of them belong to the F. Calvert collection and they were delivered to the museum in the 1930s, and the others were included in the museum collection through purchase and donate. And this short study aims to contribute to some general opinions about the common methods and studies used in lighting in the Byzantine period, and how the lighting problem was solved in the Byzantine period, through a small group of lighting tools in the Troy Museum.The metal oil lamps in the museum collection were produced in the mold casting technique, mostly using bronze. The first of these artifacts is belong to the flat-round body class of single-nosed lamps, and it is standard with its handle that can be evaluated as a curved branch. In addition, there is a very distinctive cross on the handle, which rises upwards from the body and splits into two and joins in the middle by making an arc. This lamp can be counted among the typical examples of the early Byzantine period with its spherical shape discus lid, conical handle and a high ring base. And, we can say that this lamp, whose similar examples can be seen in many museums and collections is dated to the 5th and 6th century AD. In addition, there are two more metal oil lamps, which are like to this oil lamp, in the collection and again belong to the flat-round body class of single-nosed oil lamps because of their form and shape features. However, their handles and discus lids have not survived. These lamps have a high ring and conical bases and have holes at the bottom that narrow towards the body so they can sit on the lampstands and they can be dated to the 5th or 6th century AD. Another metal lamp in the collection is included in the round body group of single-nosed lamps and stands out with its short, rounded nose. The lamp has a high shoulder with a low ring base and is separated from the discus by two grooves. After we evaluate all these features and similar ones it can be dated to the 5th - 6th centuries AD such as others. In addition, we can state that there are examples of different types and shapes of bull-head-shaped, mask-shaped and palmette leaf-shaped discus caps, which are understood to be used in these metal lamps, belonging to the same period.&nbsp;This kind of metal oil lamps were used by lamp stands or legs called candelabrum, which seem to have been used for a long time and can be bronze or silver depending on the condition of the lamp on which they are placed. So, there are some bronze examples of these artifacts in the Byzantine lighting devices of the museum collection, and the total number of these lamp holders is four, in which the legs of two and the tabletops of two have survived to the present day. Among these, the two examples, which we can evaluate in the group of three-legged carriers are typical with their lion claws, intact with the gnarled body part extending towards the table with the feet, while only the foot part of the other has survived, and both two artifacts are dated to the 5th or 6th century AD. It can be said that these lamp holders with lion’s claws are similar to the furniture of the period, and similar ones can be seen in some ivory works with throne depictions.In addition, there is a small group of lamp hangers that allow glass oil lamps to be used by hanging with some complementary metal evenings that may belong to various lighting devices in the collection. They were formed because of connecting three wires with bent two ends to a wire that is understood to have been made into a ring by bending both ends similar examples of these glass oil lamp hangers date back to the 5th-6th centuries. Some metal objects seem to belong to polykandilions in different shapes and forms. The first of these metal parts is made of iron and it is part of a chain in the form of a Latin cross, which is understood to carry a large polykandilion. The other one is similar in the form of a Latin cross but is made of bronze. It is understood that these crosses, whose arms end by expanding from the center to the ends, are connected to the chain by making a hole at the ends of the lower and upper arms, belonging 6th or 7th century.&nbsp;As a result, this study focuses on the lighting matter, which has an important place in Byzantine daily life, based on the metal lighting devices, most of which belong to early Byzantine, in Çanakkale - Troy Museum. It also aimed to contribute to the subject by evaluating the problems such as what could be the common practices and techniques - methods used for lighting in the Byzantine era, through a small group of lighting devices.

Byzantine Era Metal Lighting Devices from the Troy Museum

Gülgün

Çobankale in the Yalakdere valley of the Altınova district of Yalova is frequently mentioned during the Crusades and the establishment of the Ottoman Empire. Due to the historical and geographical importance that the castle has, archaeological excavations were started in 2020. The bread seals unearthed during the excavations in Çobankale, which is the subject of this article, were found in the chapel area in 2020.Bread, which is the basic food of human beings, and the wheat from which bread is made are considered sacred in most polytheistic and monotheistic religions, given different names and given special meanings. It is known that the Hittites, Egyptians, and Greeks made offerings to the gods by pressing seals and decorating their bread in animal or traditional forms for religious ceremonies, thus increasing their healing properties.This bread called Hygeia in connection with abundance, fertility, and health, was produced and sealed in the Asklepions, where the God of Health Asclepius and his daughter Hygeia were worshiped together and were also the health centers of the period, and were distributed to the visitors with the intention of healing. In addition, it is known that bread was included in the Greek Eleusis and Orphic rituals, and in the Roman periods Adonis, Demeter, Persephone, Isis, and Helios rituals. Bread was not only offered to the gods but also to those who participated in religious ceremonies. It is stated that bread is made to protect from diseases and that there is a seal stamp with “Hygeiai” written on them. The belief in the relationship of bread with health and its healing power continued throughout the Early Christian and Byzantine periods. The Greek inscriptions ZOH /ZOE (Life), PHOS (Light), and YΓIΑ (Health) are frequently encountered on crosses, jewelry, seals, and stone artifacts. In addition to wishing a healthy life to the person who eats the bread, the wish here must also have the meaning of being purified from sins and finding eternal life in Jesus.Bread, especially sealed bread, carries more religious meanings than others in Jewish and Christian beliefs. Symbolic and unleavened bread, such as the sacrificing of the lamb, the prayer of thanksgiving, the blessing of the wine, and the sharing of matza, are celebrated in Passover (Pesah/ Fısıh/ Hag ha Matzot), which is the most important religious holiday of the Jews, which is organized to commemorate the liberation of the Israelites from the bondage of Egypt with the help of God. There are ceremonial practices.&nbsp;In Christianity, on the other hand, it is stated many times in the Bible that the eternal and true bread that came down from heaven is Jesus himself (John 6: 27, 32–35, 48, 51, 53–58), symbolizing his body that he sacrificed for humanity (Luke 22:19), Corinthians 10:11 ve 16–17). Thanksgiving ritual, which is the ceremonial reflection of eating the bread symbolizing the flesh of Jesus, and drinking the wine symbolizing his blood, means union with Jesus, and the Eucharist, which is one of the basic religious ceremonies such as baptism for the Christian faith, means gratitude. The eucharist, which exists in all Christian denominations and is held at regular intervals in the church, is also a sacrificial ceremony. It is held to commemorate the last supper where Jesus announced that he would be sacrificed on the cross for the sake of humanity, and his death on the cross for humanity. It is synonymous with Abel’s willingness to sacrifice the lamb, Abraham’s son Ishmael, as described in the Torah, and Melchizedek king of Salem offering fine flour (bread) and wine (Genesis 14:18; Leviticus 2:23, 13). Jesus did not offer an animal, a son, flour, or wine like the others, but himself as a sacrifice to God.In the development of the Eucharist doctrine lies the commentaries of Paul, Cyrill of Jerusalem, John of Chrysostomos, Basileos the Great, Gregorios of Nyssa, Cyrill of Alexandria, Ioannes Damascenos, Theodoret, Ambrose, and Augustine.In the search for the source of the eucharist, it is believed that it originates from the bread prepared to serve in religious ceremonies for nature, fertility, and health in Greek and Roman beliefs, and from unleavened bread prepared for the Passover feast of the Jews. Christians in the 1st century, including Jesus and his apostles, continued to celebrate the Jewish Passover. At the beginning of the 2nd century, it is known that the Eucharist took the place of Passover.During the Byzantine period, the rite of bread and wine was organized especially on Saturdays, Sundays, and feast days. Although there is information in the sources that this ritual was performed on other days of the week since the 8th century, it probably became a daily practice only in monastic churches.Today, eucharistic services are held in churches only on Sunday mornings and in the evening on special feast days. The eucharistic bread, called prosphora which represents the body of Jesus as a metaphor and the birth of God in human form, is a large loaf baked by adding first-quality white wheat flour, yeast, salt, and water in accordance with the Orthodox tradition. Catholics, on the other hand, do not put yeast on their bread. Orthodox eucharistic bread, which is prepared by the clergy accompanied by prayers and incense, consists of two dough balls. One of them represents the divine side of Jesus and the second represents his human side.&nbsp;Bread prepared for feasts other than the Eucharist rite, the days of commemoration of holy persons, and the funeral meals held especially on the third day after the deceased are also sealed, just like the prosphora. There is also consecration (eulogia) bread, sealed with seals with the image of the saint and religious writings, prepared to be presented to the faithful in shrines or churches where saints were martyred or containing holy relics associated with them. It was believed that the spiritual power of the saint would pass to the person who shared the bread, thanks to the depictions and inscriptions on the bread.The final stage of the preparation of both eucharistic and eulogia bread is the sealing of the bread with seals with Christian-related depictions, writings, and figures. While the eucharist bread symbolizes Jesus, the eulogia bread mostly has depictions and inscriptions related to a saint or feast. It is believed that the sealed bread becomes more sanctified, turning into the body of Jesus.Bread seals made of stone, terracotta, or wood are mostly conical or flattened hemispheres and bronze seals are rectangular or cruciform. The printing surfaces of the seals are round, oval, rectangular, or cruciform, and their dimensions generally vary between 4 and 10 cm. Behind the seals, there are handles, rings, or conical-shaped handles for ease of use. Among the sacred bread seals used in the Byzantine period, the number of samples that can be dated is quite low.The depictions and subjects on the printing surfaces of the seals have not changed much over time.It is seen that the Byzantine period sacred bread seals in museums and collections often have similar patterns, shapes, and writings. Five, six, and eight-pointed stars, knot shapes, plant and flower patterns, crescents, triangles, vases, and other symbolic and decorative shapes and animal figures were also embroidered. The cross is frequently encountered in bread seals of all periods, as it is believed to be the most important symbol of Christianity, as it is believed to protect all animate and inanimate things from all kinds of evil, as well as the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross in the name of humanity. Depictions of the cross are usually enclosed in a round or polygonal frame or an arch based on two columns. On both terracotta seals unearthed in Çobankale excavations, a Greek cross is engraved inside a medallion and its surroundings are shown gradually. Thus, when the seals are pressed on the dough surface, it must have been aimed for the dough to enter the space inside the cross and for this part to appear prominently as a relief when the bread is baked. It is noteworthy that compositions with only the cross depiction on the sacred bread seals of the middle and late Byzantine period were preferred.It is seen that the depiction of the cross is predominantly preferred in the Orthodox Christian bread seals from the early Byzantine period to the present day, which were unearthed in archaeological excavations and exhibited in museums and private collections.It is not always easy and accurate to date the seals made of different materials, which are understood from the specific shapes, writings, and compositions on the sacred bread of the Byzantine period if they do not come from a specific context in archaeological excavations. It is also possible that sacred bread seals, like other liturgical items, were used for many years or were copies of older models in later periods.In this context, bread seals made of terracotta with cross engravings unearthed in the Çobankale excavations are highly valuable as they are the samples of sacred bread seals that can be dated in the context of the middle Byzantine (11th-12th century) period, thanks to other finds.

Two Sacred Bread Seals from Yalova/ Çobankale Excavation

Monograms are symbols that are unique to and identify a person or group, consisting of a combination of letters that indicate a name, title or prayer. Monograms, which have taken an important place in Byzantine symbolism since the early Christian world, have been found most intensely as signs of state power such as coins, seals, and weights, or as property markers in personal works such as jewellery, accessories, and manuscripts. The purpose and function of using monograms on ceramics, such as accessories and monumental structures, is still debated. Recently, new ideas have been put forward. In this article, the function of the Palaiologos monogram is discussed in light of the example of the underglaze monogram found in the İzmir Kadifekale Byzantine Cistern by including these new views.In Byzantine glazed ceramics, monograms are seen on the inner surface of small glazed pottery such as bowls and plates. The monogram is in the center of the composition in the examples seen in the tondo part of the monochrome vessels, which are usually created with sgraffito or sometimes wide engraving technique under yellow or green glaze. Examples of monogrammed glazed pottery have been recovered from archaeological sites on the Black Sea and Aegean coasts, as well as in Balkan countries such as Bulgaria and Greece, especially in Constantinople. Sirkeci’s excavations revealed data on the production of monogrammed ceramics. In these monograms; Names of saints such as Mikhail (ΜΙΧΑΗΛ), Demetrios (ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟC), Prodromos (ΠΡΟΔΡΟΜΟC), Andronikos (ΑΝΔΡΟΝΙΚΟC), Georgios (ΓΕOΡΓΙΟC) or dynastic names such as Palaiologos (ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΟC) were read.The Palaiologos monogram, which first appeared on the coins of Andronikus II (1282-1328), is one of the monograms formed by juxtaposing two or more letters. The Palaiologos monogram consists of four letters, P and A adjacent, and Λ and Γ side by side. In buildings, architectural plastic pieces and small artifacts dating to the Palaeologan period, can be seen either alone or with the accompanying Solomon knot, swastika motif, double-headed eagle or the symbol (#) where two horizontal bars intersect with two vertical bars. The similarity of the monogram to Western heraldry, which was revived during the Paleologan period, helps us to understand why heraldic images accompany the monogram so often.The Palaiologos monogram, which was seen during the monogramming fashion of household names popular in the late Byzantine period, is one of the most common monograms on ceramics. The monogram, which offers quality workmanship and is&nbsp;usually found in the tondo of yellow or green monochromatic glazed ceramics, is made with the technique of engraving under the glaze. The capital city of Constantinople, Heraklion, Bulgaria, Nessebar, Varna, Kaliakra, Rusokastro Castle, and Crimea are the centers where finds have been concentrated until today. The only reliable data on the production of the Palaiologos monogram came from the Istanbul Sirkeci excavations. While the finds of Palaiologos monogram sgraffito specimens are mostly seen on the Black Sea coasts, the İzmir Kadifekale Palaiologos monogamous sgraffito specimen is important in that it is a rare example (single example?) found on the Aegean coasts.It is now accepted by many researchers that the monograms found in the tondo of the monogrammed Late Byzantine sgraffito ceramics are not pottery’s marks. In modern literature, a point of view has emerged that monogrammed vessels are used mainly for liturgical purposes, regardless of their content. Among these monograms, which are related to Christian liturgy and ritualism, the Palaiologos monogram, which encodes the dynasty, can be considered to have a different function, since many of them undoubtedly encode the names of saints. Heraldic monograms, evoking features of privileged social status, patronage, and property, developed in the West in the mid-12th century, and by the 13th century, these monograms appeared prominently in art. In other words, heraldry, which spanned medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, became part of developing a visual “language of power” for an increasingly elite society. Social conditions in 12th-century Byzantium were in many ways similar to those in Western Europe. The Byzantine dynasty may also have wanted to create a language of power with the heraldic symbol. The Palaiologos dynasty must have discovered the fact that the loyalty to the city of Constantinople and the Byzantine state, which was lost with the Crusades but was taken back in 1261, can be maintained by being united, and must have wanted to make the power of the government feel more often through symbols and to create an environment of trust. The appearance of the Palaiologos monogram on the castle walls also supports the idea that it points to a strong and reliable empire and its apotropaic function. For the Byzantine society to feel that they lived in unity and a strong empire, monograms were also used on the most widely used objects in Byzantine daily life. However, the fact that the number of finds is less than the other monogrammed samples and the distribution area is narrower shows that these samples are not from daily-use containers. These vessels were kept in homes, perhaps as ornaments or as a religious symbol, with an apotropaic function. Finding finds in places beyond the political control of the Byzantine emperors may suggest that it was designed as a gift to high-ranking or deserving people. Given the empire’s precarious financial situation, it is conceivable that skillfully crafted ceramic pots might be offered as presents. In this case, it can be thought that it may have been given to successful military members as a gift as a symbol of political unity and trust. However, each theory needs more data and more discussion as it decodes the meaning of monograms.

A Underglazed Monogram from the Palaiologos Dynasty in İzmir Kadifekale (Smyrna Acropolis)

Zeynep

Metropolis is located between the cities of Smyrna and Ephesus and has been in an important position. The city was also inhabited during the Byzantine period. During the late Byzantine period, the population of Metropolis declined considerably due to the Arab raids that preceded it. The strengthening of the Turks in Western Anatolia forced the population to settle in a more protected area and to build defensive structures. For this reason, fortification buildings increased in Metropolis, especially during the Laskarids Period (1204-1261). The city walls of Acropolis, which had been the most protected part of the city since the Hellenistic period, were additionally strengthened after the Arab raids in the 7th and 8th centuries, and this area was completely fortified and used as an inner fortress. Remains of walls probably belonging to residences built with mud mortar and rubble stones showing Byzantine life were found on the early building layers within the inner fortress. A new fortress was built on the eastern slope in front of the Acropolis. The fortification walls built with brick and stone materials based on the Hellenistic walls surrounding the Acropolis extend along the eastern slope.Apart from the acropolis, the theater area was inhabited during the Byzantine period. Traces of settlement was found in the upper layers of the theater. Remains of walls were built with spolia blocks and rubble stones including rooms of various sizes formed by these walls were unearthed during excavations. The Byzantine settlement continued in the city on the structures after the end of the use phase of the ancient buildings. Thanks to this multi-layeredness, it is possible to trace the continuity of life in Metropolis from the antiquity to the end of the Beylik period with the ceramics and many small finds found during the excavations. Many glazed and unglazed Byzantine ceramics were recovered from Metropolis. Glazed ceramics were produced with different techniques and various styles. The Zeuksippus Family group ceramics, which are also the subject of this article, constitute most of the glazed examples.Zeuxippus Type Ceramics, which have an important place in the production of glazed ceramics in Byzantine ceramic art, were found in the Zeuxippus Baths unearthed during the Hippodrome excavations in Istanbul. The examples, which were characterized by their high- quality bright olive-green colored lead glaze and thin walled, very hard and well-fired clay structure, were called Zeuxippus Ware. In the following years, it was observed that these types of ceramics found in many excavations especially in Western Anatolia were different from the Istanbul productions. In order to demonstrate this difference, the ceramics found in various centers, especially in Western Anatolia were named Zeuxippus Family Ware. It is understood that these ceramics were mostly produced by local craftsmen in certain centers and spread to many centers, especially in Western Anatolia.The Zeuxippus Family Group ceramics found in Metropolis draw attention with their various motifs and ornamental repertoire. The ceramics have red clay and are mostly mixed with mica and lime. In fewer examples, sand and grit are also added. All samples are white- slipped. Glaze was applied on the slip in various colors. Mostly bright green glaze in light and dark tones, but also bright mustard yellow, bright yellow, beige/pale yellow, matt green and dark brown glaze were used. In a group of ceramics called Green stained and Green and Orange stained, green and orange stains were painted on the glaze. The Zeuksippus family group is decorated with the sgraffito technique. In addition to the sgraffito technique, the champléve (deep carving) technique was also used, especially in the repertoire of geometric motifs.The ornamental repertoire includes examples with geometric and floral motifs as well as animal figures in a few examples. Among the geometric motifs, the decoration consisting of concentric circles, which is the most characteristic application of Zeuksippus-type ceramics, appears to be prominent. The ornamental composition of concentric circles is also applied in combination with various geometric and floral motifs. The rim borders are decorated with wavy lines, spirals, diagonal line sweeps and guilloche motifs. In geometric motifs, the interlace motif, which forms a decoration like the number eight, is also frequently used. Another interlacing-like motif used in the ornamental composition is the decoration known as Suleyman’s Knot. Similar to this application, knotted interlacing was also used in compositions. Decorative compositions with floral motifs are also frequently preferred on Zeuksippus family ware. The most common of these is the use of palmette decoration. In the most common application, a palmette motif with a top leaf and curled side leaves placed at the end of a stem and Rumi-like curled leaves on both sides of this motif are seen. Tree and leaf motifs are also frequently found in the ornamental compositions in which floral ornaments are used. Small trees with rounded sliced edges, branches branching into three from one branch and large leaves at the end are frequently used. Animal figures are seen in ornamental compositions in a few examples among the ceramics. Stylized lion figures and bird figures in various styles are among the examples. A single example shows a human figure.The Zeuksippus family ware, which was produced in different styles in various centers such as Pergamon, Sardes, Ephesus and Anaia/Kadıkalesi in Western Anatolia, especially during the 13th century, also found extensively in Metropolis. The fact that there is no data on ceramic production within the scope of the excavations so far indicates that these ceramics were brought to Metropolis from other centers. Together with the other glazed ceramic groups found during the excavations, the Zeuksippus family group ceramics, which have an important place in Byzantine ceramic art with their production, shed light on the Late Byzantine settlement in Metropolis.

Zeuksippus Family Ware Byzantine Pottery from Metropolis Excavations

Mehmet

Zeytinliada is located in Erdek District of Balıkesir Province, approximately 250 m off the coast. Zeytinliada, one of the many islands around the Kapıdağı Peninsula, covers an area of approximately 9 decares. In Antiquity, the island was mentioned as Artake and Arteceon. Meksaniota and Kera Panagia are among the names used in the history of the island. The island was named Zeytinliada because of the olive trees on it today. The first scientific excavations in Zeytinliada started in 2006 and continued uninterruptedly until 2013, and the excavation of the island was partially completed in 2016 with the latest studies. As a result of the excavations, the presence of the Virgin Mary Monastery on the island was determined. In addition, with the excavations, 3 churches, 2 holy springs, chapels, cisterns, baths, harbor, open-air worship area and many structures for daily needs were unearthed in the monastery. As a result of the excavations, finds belonging to the 4th century AD were found as archaeological finds, although the architectural structure did not come to the present day. In addition, archaeological evidence has shown that life on the island continued until the 14th century AD.The 2010 season of Zeytinliada excavations were carried out in the open-air temple, stepped altar, latrina, Güney Church, chapel, Patriarch’s Bath and magazine (supply warehouse). In addition to the architectural structures, many small finds are among the archaeological artifacts unearthed on the island during the excavations carried out this season. Ceramic pieces, metal artifacts and coins are the most numerous of these artifacts. The floor of the island, which is one of the areas where the 2010 studies were carried out, was obtained by carving the bedrock and the area where the marble slabs were paved was exposed. It was determined that the area showing a complex building complex was an octagonal chapel. Therefore, although we do not have information about the superstructure of the chapel, it is thought that it is covered with a dome-shaped roof due to similar examples and because it is located at the highest point of the island. In addition to architectural and ceramic pieces, 108 coins scatteredm at different levels were found in the chapel.Of the coins recovered in the chapel, 57 were identified, while 51 could not be identified due to excessive corrosion. The catalog of the identified coins was created and the inventory numbers and measurements of the unidentified coins were listed at the end of the catalogue. While 44 of the identified coins were identified as emperors and mints, the mint of 2 coins and only the emperor of 3 coins were identified. It was seen that 8 coins were dated to the Byzantine Period due to their partially defined types on them. Considering the metrological characteristics of 51 unidentified coins, the coins in the catalog number 58-84 were dated to the Byzantine Period. The coins grams and diameters. Thus, while 52.78 per cent of the coins found in the chapel were identified, 47.22 per cent could not.All of the coins described were minted during the Early Byzantine Period. The coins identified as emperors belong to 7 different emperors. The earliest coins are dated 498- 518 AD during the Anastasius Period, and the latest is 613-614 AD during the Heraclius Period. The emperor represented with the most coins in the catalog was II. Justinus and there are 14 coins belonging to the emperor. Two different types are seen on the obverse of the coins examined. The first of these types is the emperor and his family members are monogamous belonging to the second emperors. The emperor and the members of the dynasty are depicted holding a cross, a crossed globus, and a crossed scepter, dressed as consuls, wearing helmets, armored, wearing diadems, shields, etc. There are symbols such as the value sign of the coin, the number of the year, the mint symbol and the letter officina, which are among the reverse types of coins.The coins, all minted in bronze, are in follis, half follis, decanummium and pentanummium units. Follis is the most common unit with 19 coins, while decanummium is the most common unit with 7 coins. The coins, of which the mint was determined from the coins, were minted in 5 different mints of the empire. These mints are in the form of Constantinople, Thessalonica, Nicomedia, Kyzikos and Antioch. While Constantinople is minted with the most coins in the catalog with 30 coins, Thessalonica and Antioch are the mints that minted the least with 3 coins. The coins in the catalog are important in terms of showing the intensity of Byzantine coin circulation. Especially the fact that the coins belonging to the mints, which are quite far from each other, are found together, reveals this density. In addition, when we look at the ancient Mysia Region, where the island is located, and the Troas Region, which is the closest region to Mysia, it is seen that there are close similarities between the coins found in the excavations in the cities of the region. Especially, it is seen that the coins recovered in these regions decreased towards the end of the Early Byzantine Period and were cut in some cities. This situation is also seen in the coins of Zeytinliada.The coins found in the chapel played an important role in the dating of the building When the finds unearthed in the chapel were examined as a whole, more precise results emerged. The ceramics and coins discovered in the chapel indicate a time frame that aligns closely with the 5th to 7th centuries AD. Thus, the coins are compared with the ceramics, revealing the construction and usage periods of the building From this point of view, it is stated that the chapel was built around the 5th century AD and that it was built in the 5th-7th century AD. It has been determined that it has been used for centuries. It could not be determined whether the structure continued to be used after this date, as there were no findings.

Coins Found in the Early Byzantine Chapel of Zeytinliada

Kasım

Ersin

Paphlagonia Hadrianopolis’i olarak adlandırılan antik kent, günümüzde Karabük ili, Eskipazar ilçe merkezinin 3 km batısında “Viranşehir” olarak adlandırılan mevki ve çevresindeki arazi üzerinde dağınık bir şekilde konumlanan Budaklar, Büyükyaylalar, Çaylı ve Beytarla köylerini kapsamaktadır. Antik kente ait kalıntılar, günümüzde Budaklar köyü ve Hacı Ahmetler Mahallesi’nde yoğunlaşmaktadır. Hadrianopolis’te, günümüze kadar yapılan kazı çalışmalarında ortaya çıkarılan yapıların büyük bir bölümü Geç Roma ve Erken Bizans dönemlerine tarihlenmektedir. Günümüze kadar yapılan kazılar sonucunda kentin merkez bölgesinde Geç Roma-Erken Bizans Dönemi’ne ait olan üç adet kilise, iki hamam, domus, İç Kale ve Vaftizhane kalıntıları ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bizans Dönemi’nde dinî açıdan önemi artan Hadrianopolis, Honorias Eyaleti’ndeki beş piskoposluk merkezinden biridir. I. Nikaia Konsili (325),Khalkedon Konsili (451), Konstantinopolis Sinod’u (518), III. Konstantinopolis Konsili (680-681) ve son olarak II. Nikaia Konsili’ne (787) Hadrianopolis kentinden farklı seviyelerdeki din adamları katılmıştır. Antik dönemin önemli din adamlarından biri olan Aziz Alypius Stylites’in (MS 522-640) bu kentte doğması ve hayatının önemli kısmını burada geçirmiş olması da oldukça önemlidir. Aziz’in Hadrianopolis kentindeki bir sütun üzerinde yaklaşık 50 yıl yaşadığına inanılmaktadır. Hristiyanlığın güçlü yaşandığı kentlerden biri olan Hadrianopolis’te günümüze kadar gerçekleştirilen arkeolojik kazı çalışmalarında temel seviyesinde kalıntılarına ulaşılan üç kilise ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Ayrıca kentte yapılan Jeofizik-Arkeojeoradar çalışmaları sonucunda bazilikal planlı bir kilisenin de varlığı tespit edilmiştir. Söz konusu kiliseler dışında Hadrianopolis’te 2013 yılında yapılan Jeofizik-Arkeojeoradar sonuçlarına göre yapı kalıntılarının olduğuna dair verilere rastlanan İç Kale’de arkeolojik kazılara 2022 yılında başlanmıştır. Yapının merkezinde haç planlı bir havuzun varlığı, zemindeki mozaiklerdeki figür ve motiflerin dinî anlamlar içermesi, yapının kare planlı olması ve içerisinde ele geçen küçük buluntular ışığında yapının ilk evresinin vaftizhane olarak hizmet ettiği anlaşılmıştır. Dolayısıyla 2022 kazı çalışmalarında Hadrianopolis’te İç Kale Vaftizhanesi olarak adlandırılan yeni bir dinî yapı ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Çalışmanın konusunu oluşturan Bizans kurşun mührü de İç Kale Vaftizhanesi 2022 kazılarında bulunmuştur. Bizans Dönemi’nde kurşun mühürler yaygın olarak iki farklı amaç için kullanılmıştır: İmparatorlar, askerler, kilise görevlileri ve devlet memurlarının yazışmalarının gizliliğini korumak veya evrakın sahte olmadığını ispat etmek.İç Kale Vaftizhanesi’ndeki arkeolojik kazı çalışmalarında bulunan kurşun mührün kanal girişi ve çıkışında kırıklar olup belirli bölümleri korozyona uğrayıp bozulmuştur. Buna karşın mührün, ön ve arka yüzü tanımlanabilecek durumdadır. Mührün ön yüzünde noktalı bordür içerisinde Baş melek Mikail’in sanki bir imparator gibi betimlenmiş büstü bulunmaktadır. Baş melek Mikail kıymetli taşlardan süslü kıyafetiyle, diademli kıvırcık saçlı, sağ elinde asa ve sol elinde globus tutarken betimlenmiştir. Büstün sağında ve solundaki dikey yazıtta baş meleğin ismi yazmaktadır. Mührün arka yüzünde ise, noktalı bordür içerisinde dört satır hâlinde ilk satırının haçla başladığı bir tanrıya hitap yazısı bulunmaktadır. Mührün arka yüzünde Grekçe “Tanrım, kulun Basileios’a yardım et” yazısı mevcuttur. Mührün arka yüzünde sadece sahibinin ismi bulunduğundan mührün sahibinin makamı konusunda kesin bir bilgiye ulaşılamamıştır. Bu tür mühürler üzerlerinde sadece sahibinin isminin yazması, unvan ve görevlerinin yer almamasından dolayı araştırmacılar tarafından özel yazışmalar için kullanıldıkları düşünülmekte ve özel mühürler olarak sınıflandırılmaktadır. Hadrianopolis İç Kale Vaftizhanesi içerisinde ele geçen Basileios adlı bir kişiye ait kurşun mührün hem ön yüz hem de arka yüzünde yer alan noktalı bordürlerin bazı bölümlerde birbirine oldukça yakın işlendiği ve bundan dolayı bazı yerlerde bordürlerin düz çizgi hâline geldiği görülmektedir. Bu durum MS 11. yüzyıl mühürlerinde görülen bir dönem özelliğidir. Mührün bulunduğu yapıda 2022 yılı kazı çalışmalarında mühürle aynı tabakada MS 11. yüzyıla tarihlenen beş sikke ele geçmiştir. Bu sikkelerden biri A2grubu (MS 976-1030/1035), diğeri C sınıfı (MS 1042-1050) olmak üzere ikisi anonim follis’tir. Diğer üç sikkenin ikisi, X. Konstantinos Dukas’a (MS 1059-1067), biri ise VII. Mihail Dukas’a (MS 1068-1071) aittir. Söz konusu beş sikke de mührün kullanıldığı dönemde sirkülasyonda olup mührün MS 11. yüzyıla ait olduğunu destekleyen önemli arkeolojik verilerdendir. Hadrianopolis kazılarından elde edilen arkeolojik veriler ve Hadrianopolis territoryasında yer alan ve günümüzde hâlâ kullanılan şifalı sıcak su kaynakları kentte bir sağlık kültünün varlığına işaret etmektedir. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen kurşun mührün ön yüzünde betimlenen Baş melek Mikail ise özellikle Anadolu’da şifalı suların bulunduğu yörelerde hastalıkları iyileştiren hasta insanların koruyucusu olarak bilinmektedir. Dolayısıyla Hadrianopolis kazılarında bulunan kurşun mührün sahibi Basileios’un mühürlerinde Baş melek Mikail’i tercih etmesinde Hadrianopolis’in şifalı sıcak su kaynaklarına sahip bir sağlık merkezi olmasının da etkili olduğu söylenebilir. Ayrıca Hadrianopolis’te günümüze kadar gerçekleştirilen arkeolojik kazılardan elde edilen veriler MS 7. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren bir kesintiye uğradığından kentte yerleşimin bu tarihten itibaren sona erdiği düşünülmekteydi. 2022 yılında başlayan İç Kale Vaftizhanesi kazılarında bulunan ve MS 11. yüzyıla tarihlendirilen Bizans kurşun mührü ve mühürle aynı kontekste ele geçen Anonim follisler, X. Konstantinos Dukas’a (MS 1059-1067) ve VII. Mihail Dukas’a (MS 1068-1071) ait sikkeler, Hadrianopolis’te yerleşimin küçük de olsa MS 11.- 12. yüzyıla kadar devam ettiğine işaret etmektedir. Hadrianopolis İç Kale Vaftizhanesi kazıları ilk yılında kent için önemli veriler sunmuş olup önümüzdeki yıllarda yapıda gerçekleştirilecek arkeolojik kazılar bölgenin ve Hadrianopolis’in Orta ve Geç Bizans Dönemi’nin aydınlatılmasına kuşkusuz katkıda bulunacaktır.

A Byzantine Lead Seal from Paphlagonian Hadrianopolis

Gizem

Kaunos is located in the district of Dalyan, in the town of Muğla, within the bordersof Çandır Village. The area between the theatre and “hamam” is called Palaestra Terrace, which is a vast plain.There is a Domed Basilica as well as the North and South Chapels adjacent to it on the terrace from ancient times. There are wall paintings on these buildings. However, in situ, murals have not been well preserved. One of the reasons for this is that the wall height of the chapel is high. However, although the walls of the Domed Basilica are well preserved, the murals in this structure have also fallen into ruin. The available in situ data only shows that the entire structure is decorated and gives information about the use of color. In situ, ruins offer limited information about the painting program, but the data provided by the excavations are more illuminating.During the 2007 excavations, blocks were found stacked in the centre of the North Chapel. These blocks, which are spolia, reveal the repertoire of decoration of the North Chapel. On the surface of the blocks, there are animal motifs (duck and horse), floral motifs (lily) and religious symbols. Apart from the blocks, small finds with inscriptions were recovered during the excavation. However, the scarcity of the available data is an obstacle in order to reach an understandable text.There are fourteen depictions of ducks and four horses on these blocks. The figures were made using the printing mold technique. These animals are placed in a standalone geometric design. Both of them have been pictured more than once within the same block. Ducks are depicted facing each other or facing away and depicted in a flying style. The details are not obvious. They are depicted in the form of a black silhouette on white. Horse depictions are also placed in pairs on the same block. The horses are oriented to the right side that are pictured sideways. They are shown with their left forelimbs in the air. The fact that one out of the two animals found in the North Chapel is a land animal and the other is a water animal, which may be related to the city’s geography. However, these depictions likely represent heaven. At Kaunos, the depicted horses and ducks are not in war or any struggle. Here, we can understand the calm composition of the depiction of the animals as god’s diverse creation aboveground.Important symbols of Christianity are included in the North Chapel mural. These are depictions of the cross and christograms. One of the important elements is the formation of each arm of the cross in the form of an anchor. This puts the exampleof Kaunos in a separate place among the numerous known depictions of the cross. The anchor, which was used extensively in the early Christian period, is a symbol of seafaring. But in Christian art, the functional state of the anchor takes on a symbolic meaning. In theology, the idea of the soul’s hope for salvation is symbolized as the anchor. This depiction is common in catacombs dating to the 3rd century and the fact that the anchor image is placed together with the cross is probably an expression of the believers’ hope to go to heaven. Thusly, in the 2007 studies, it was concluded that the chapel was used as a martyrium by burying the bodies of three saints in it after the building lost its function. This situation explains the existence of the depiction.Floral motifs were also found on the surface of the block depicting a cross and a christogram. The motif that comes across here is the lily flower, which has various symbolic meanings in Christian art. In iconography, the lily finds a place in art as a symbolic expression of the Virgin Mary, and therefore of the Christian faith.One of the remarking factors in Kauno’s pictures is the background. In light of the examples found, it can be seen that the paintings were made without giving place to an element that will emphasize neither outdoor nor indoor space. According to the distribution of the color used in the murals, it is understood that the surface of the blocks is predominantly black. The outer frames that are thick on the borders are red, and the inner frames that are thinner than it is light pink. In the illustrated blocks, the contrast has been used to emphasize the depiction. The figures are placed on a white background on a black surface.One of the important pieces of information offered by the finds of the North Chapel is the existence of a two-stage wall painting here. A recovered block confirms that the mural paintings here belong to the second stage. This also helps in dating the decoration. The Northern Chapel murals must be from the earlierst period close to the date of construction of the structure, Considering that the chapel was built after the Domed Basilica, it belongs after the 6th century. However, the painting program here does not reflect the characteristics of the Middle and Late Byzantine period wall painting. In light of the available data, it can be put forward that the North Chapel murals are dated to the Early Byzantine period. Since we have very little data about the early Byzantine period, Kaunos wall paintings are a very important contribution to Byzantine art research.

A Striking Example of Early Byzantine Painting: Caunus Domed Basilica

Esra

Çobankale castle is 5 km from Altınova district of Yalova city. It is located in the Yalakdere Valley. Information about the historical process of the castle can be obtained from the narratives of the 1st Crusade. According to the narratives of Anna Komnena, the Seljuks re-conquered the castle, which was taken from the Turks by the Crusaders in 1096.Castle was under the rule of the Eastern Romans in the 13th century. Ottoman raiders defeated the Eastern Roman soldiers in the castle and the Ottoman Empire came of age as a result of the Battle of Bapheus in the region. After the region was conquered, the castle was left to its fate.Scientific studies have been carried out since 2017 in the castle, which has been dominated by different powers throughout the periods. The subject of this article is two reliquary crosses, which were unearthed during the excavations in the chapel in the castle. Çobankale reliquary crosses were found in the excavations carried out in the castle in 2020, in the rectangular planned and single-nave chapel located in the east of the castle, next to the east-west oriented tombs in the burial pit created by simply carving the bedrock.Loan pile reliquaries were worn around the neck using a rope or chain. These reliquaries consisted of cross-shaped boxes that could be opened and closed. They were created by joining two hollow parts together with hinges at both the bottom and top. Among the most common depictions in the iconography of reliquary crosses, which are equipped with religious figures in low relief or engraving, are the figures of the Virgin or saint in proportion to the crucifixion of Jesus. It is seen that the cruciform relics are generally made of bronze, as well as finely worked gold and silver examples.In this study, which aims to evaluate the reliquary crosses and their place in the Byzantine religious world, the functions of the artifacts are emphasized, based on the narratives of the ancient authors about the reliquary crosses and dating suggestions are presented by comparing similar examples in the inventories of museums in differentregions of Anatolia and unearthed by excavations.In this context, it can be stated that reliquary crosses, which can be seen as a reflection of the self-concept in Byzantine culture, are versatile objects. Along with their primary role of providing protection from evils and evil spirits with the relics hidden within, they were sent as precious gifts; they became the mark of the word; they showed rank and strengthened interpersonal ties.The relics in the form of a Latin cross with inventory number of “Çobankale 2020- M3” have survived to the present day with only one side preserved. The upper and horizontal cross arms of the reliquary, which is produced with the bronze casting technique, are approximately equal to each other, and the lower cross arm is longer. The arms of the cross expand slightly from the center outward. At both ends of the vertical arms there are looped hinge parts that connect the two cross pieces to each other with a pin.When the Çobankale reliquary crosses, which is evaluated iconographically, it is seen that a saint figure with a halo is depicted in a proportional position in the center of the cross relic with inventory number M3 (1). In studies dealing with figures depicted in a similar way, it is seen that the depictions of these figures are mostly attributed to St. Georgios. The dress details of the figure, which is depicted with a dress that extends to her feet, her arms extended in a prayer position and her outwardly turned feet are depicted in a very stylized style.In Çobankale M3 (2) inventory numbered reliquary crosses, there are four biblical writers in medallions in a low relief technique in the center, with a halo on the head and in the proportion position, and on the cross arms at the ends. The common beliefthat the person praying in the position of orans is Virgin Mary and has been supported by epigraphic data in the studies written to date. Likewise, this iconography, in which the Virgin Mary is often depicted in the orans position, is encountered not only on cross relics, but also on silver goblets, censers, ceremonial crosses, other encolpions, book covers, and relic boxes.The draped dress of the Virgin Mary figure in the center, extending to her feet, is decorated with simple linear decorations with horizontal notches and dots in the scraping technique. The busts of four male figures in the medallions on the cross ends of the relic are depicted with long beards. Facial features and clothing details are highly stylized.Considering the iconography, material and typological features of the Çobankale reliquary crosses, it is seen that a large number of similar ones have been found, almost as if they came from the same workshop, and are exhibited in museums today and are the subject of scientific studies.Although there is no clear consensus on the production and origins of the reliquary crosses, iconographic evaluations reveal important data in terms of the evaluation of their chronology and typology. These reliquary crosses, which are generally thought to have been used extensively after the iconoclastic period, especially starting from the 11th century and 12-13th century. It can be stated that it has been used extensively for centuries.In addition, in order to support the scientific studies carried out in the chapel, radiocarbon analyses of the bones belonging to the tombs and wooden pieces found in the chapel were carried out in 2022. According to the results of the analyses carried out, the wooden pieces date back to the 13th century and the bone samples taken from the graves are dated to the end of the 11th-12th century. In the light of radiometric data, it can be stated that the chapel was built in the 12th century and was used until the 13th century.In this context, the Çobankale reliquary crosses are also iconographically dated to the 12th century, according to radiometric analyzes that allow both similar examples and the chapel to be dated.In addition to the chronological evaluation, it is also important that the Çobankale reliquary crosses are grave finds. The fact that the reliquary crosses are found in tombs is due to the close bond of the owner of these objects, which are the symbols of personal piety, with his body. Moreover, considering the talismanic meanings of the cross relics, it is believed that they protect not only the living but also the dead.

The Encolpion Reliquary Crosses from Çobankale

Ufuk

This contribution, centring on the results of a long-term and interdisciplinary archaeological research project conducted in the Gulf of Mandalya (Güllük Körfezi), investigates the transformation of rural settlements and the countryside in coastal Caria from Late Antiquity to Byzantine times, together with the economic activities and forms of labour that ensured the survival of rural communities throughout centuries. Despite considerable changes in settlement patterns over time, the literary, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence suggest that this region was widely occupied, with numerous sites located both inland and in coastal areas. The most notable among these sites, whose history contributed to the formation and profound modification of the settlement features of the land surrounding the gulf, were Iasos and Kazıklı to the north and Bargylia to the south. The Mandalya Archaeological Survey Project (1988- 2011) revealed an almost uninterrupted continuity of settlement and land exploitation in this micro-region from the Late Bronze Age through to the 18th/19th centuries CE (and beyond), with a major concentration from the 6th century BCE to 7th century CE. Within this wide chronological context, the paper focuses on the continuity/ discontinuity of rural settlements in the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, and attempts to understand the changing nature of settlements through transformation, abandonment and/or relocation.The rural landscapes of Caria are characterized by the presence of Late Antique ‘villages’, as well as countless settlement units, rural churches, isolated farms, agricultural terraces, and the ruins of numerous other structures dispersed throughout the countryside. This plurality confirms the prosperity of the urban territoria, with intensive agricultural activity and prolific rural settlements. In Late Antiquity, the archaeological data points to a significant concentration of occupation between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. During this time, this landscape was dominated by open, unfortified small villages, with rural churches and chapels situated inside or close to these settlement and production units. The Early Middle Ages (7th–9th centuries) saw a large-scale abandonment of the coastal regions, with settlements moving, mostly for security concerns, inland and to more isolated areas.Archaeological evidence, including fragments of mortars, counterweights, oil and/ or wine presses discovered in situ or scattered throughout the survey area, within and around sites associated with a domestic use, demonstrate that agricultural production was a part of village life, both on the coast and inland. One of the most significant and constant economic resources hereabouts – the quarrying and exploitation of Iasos marble (marmor iassense) – merits further discussion. Quarries of a calcareous deep red-violet breccia with irregular white-grey veins, coming in two varieties – rosso brecciato and cipollino rosso – scar the slopes extending from the north of the Iasian peninsula eastwards to ‘Little Sea’. Iasos marble was widely employed in famous churches of the time, including St. Polyeuktos and St. Sophia in Constantinople, St. John’s at Ephesus, San Vitale in Ravenna, among many others, during the 6th century, when its exportation was at its peak.While the use of marmor iassense as a significant economic resource reveals the vitality of this territory, a similar vigour can also be seen in urban areas like Iasos and Bargylia, particularly in the 5th and 6th centuries. The Life of St. Eusebia (Xena) also alludes to the existence of monasteries and convents in and around Mylasa (and elsewhere in Caria) in the same period. At Iasos, the presence of defensive structures and burial items from the Byzantine necropolis in and around the agora show that habitation continued throughout the ‘Dark Ages’. The burial goods span a large chronological range from the late 6th through to the 16th centuries, with the majority of the evidence being concentrated in the late 6th and early 7th centuries and from the 11th century onwards.Aside from the evidence mentioned above, indicating some continuity of life or settlement activity, little is known about the ‘Dark Ages’ at Iasos and its hinterland. The city would have suffered from the Persian and Arab incursions, perturbing Asia Minor from the mid-7th to 9th centuries, although concrete evidence directly attributable to foreign raids is not always forthcoming. As a matter of fact, there is no proof that this region was uninhabited during the Byzantine Middle Ages despite the fall in archaeological evidence from the late 6th/early 7th to the 9th centuries, which collapse was seen in most regions of the Byzantine Empire in connection with Persian and Arab raids as well as other factors. As can be seen, for instance, in the neighbouring territory of Teichioussa-Kazıklı or in inland regions of Caria, such as the plateau southwest of Aphrodisias, it is also likely that after this date, the coastal areas were largely abandoned, with settlements being relocated in ‘inland’ and remote areas.Iasos and its hinterland were protected by several sets of fortifications from the Hellenistic period onwards. In the Middle Ages, additional defences were built to secure the peninsula and the western harbour. One of these is atop the acropolis, and the other, a square tower, is located on the Roman pier that guards the western harbour in its easternmost section. The defensive enclosure on the isthmus north of the peninsula must be added to them. These medieval structures – some including various phases of construction – cover a large chronological span from the Late Roman period to Byzantine times (and beyond). Despite the fact that the precise construction date and/or chronological evolution of the disputed Medieval fortifications of Iasos are still unknown, it is reasonable to assume that they served as a ‘chain of defence’ protecting the city and its hinterland from the 7th century through the Byzantine Middle Ages and so lessened the need for additional fortification in nearby inland/ rural areas. Traces of Byzantine settlement and activity can be confirmed here, despite changing settlement patterns and temporary interruptions, until the establishment of the Menteşe Beyliği at the end of the 13th century. This process can better be defined as survival through transformation and adaptation – one that involves abandonment, resettlement (within or around the ruins of the now largely deurbanised and ruralised urban fabric) or relocation.

‘Urban’ and ‘Rural’ in Byzantium: The Gulf of Mandalya (Güllük Körfezi) in light of Archaeological Evidence

Feride

Balıkesir is located in the northwest of the Anatolian Peninsula in the west of Turkey, an important part of it is located in the South Marmara and the other part in the North Aegean. The region where Balıkesir is located is known as Ancient Mysia. The history of Balıkesir goes way back. Traces of the Bronze Age (3200 BC) were found in the Yortan excavations in the region and the Paleolithic period in the İvrindi excavations. The first inhabitants of the Mysia Region were the Thracian tribe Mysians who entered through Thrace and the Straits. The region later passed into the hands of the Hittites, Phrygians, Alexander the Great, the Kingdom of Pergamon and the Romans and Byzantine Emperors. With the conquest of Anatolia by the Seljuks in 1071, the region was also Turkified. Karesi Principality was founded by Karesi Bey in the 1300s. Karesi Principality joined the Ottoman lands in 1345.Kuva-yi Milliye Museum is located on Anafartalar Street in Balıkesir. The building was built in 1840 as the mansion of Giridizade Mehmet Pasha, the treasurer of Karesi sanjak. It was used as headquarters during the national struggle. It served as the town hall between 1947-88 and it has been used as a museum since 1996. The museum has two floors, the ground floor consists of Atatürk room and Kuva-yi Milliye halls. On the second floor, there are archaeological artifacts. Approximately 25000 works of study are preserved in the museum collections.The relics in the Christian belief are the remains of the holy people, especially Christ, such as teeth and bones. Relics of martyrs, i.e. religious martyrs, have an important place in the early Christian period. With the end of the persecution ofChristians in 312, various types of relics emerged. Bishops, parish priests, and hermit monks have accepted martial remains as primary relics. Items belonging to the time of Christ, parts of Mary’s clothing were considered as secondary level relics. It is accepted that there are 3600 relics belonging to approximately 476 saints in the capital Istanbul. Relics have been introduced since the foundation of the city.The relics is a sacred object in Christianity. It is the name given to objects of various forms in which relics of persons such as Christ, saints or objects that came into contact with them during their lifetime, are preserved. Relics were produced in many different types and sizes during the Byzantine time. In early Byzantine period relics are in the form of small sarcophagi made of marble or stone, or in the form of small boxes in the form of square, rectangular, oval, made of precious metals. Such crosses are small cruciform boxes that are joined together by a small lock system consisting of two parts. It was carried at chest level by hanging it on the neck with a metal or leather strap attached to the hanger ring on the upper cross arm. It was believed that reliquary crosses were carried by individuals in the form of encolpion on their necks, and that they protected them from diseases, evil and the evil eye due to their direct connection with holy persons. The bones of the saints or the parts of the real cross in the relics were thought to protect the individuals who carried it from all kinds of evil.Reliquary crosses were widely used in the Middle Byzantine period and it became an official part of religious dress in the 12th century. The reliquary crosses in museums and collections are produced between 10th-12th centuries.Within the scope of this study, the form, production and decoration techniques were examined in terms of style and iconography of the themed scenes on eight bronze reliquary crosses during the Byzantine Period in the collection of Balıkesir Kuva-yi Milliye Museum. Photographs of the works were taken, their measurements were taken and their drawings were made. Since the reliquary crosses were brought to the museum through purchase, the exact location of the finds is not known.Within the scope of this study, the form, production and decoration techniques were examined in terms of style and iconography of the themed scenes on eight bronze reliquary crosses during the Byzantine Period in the collection of Balıkesir Kuva-yi Milliye Museum. Photographs of the works were taken, their measurements were taken and their drawings were made. Since the reliquary crosses were brought to the museum through purchase, the exact location of the finds is not known.

Byzantine Period Bronze Reliquary Crosses in the Collection of the Balıkesir Kuva-yi Milliye Museum

Gülşah

The main reason for Byzantine painters’ anonymity is the copying of cult images. The first original images in Christianity are known as “Acheiropoieta”, which are believed not to have been made by human hands. Some of these images are Kamouliani, Edessa and Memphis images. Another image believed to have miraculous power is the Hodegetria icon of the Virgin Mary, thought to have been created by Saint Luke, the author of the Gospel and a painter, and named after the monastery where it was later found. During the 7th century, while the Byzantine Empire faced Persian, Avar, and Arab attacks, interest in Acheiropoieta images with miraculous powers increased. The spread of legends about these images led to the copying of cult images. However, there have been opposing views in the Christian faith against images since early times. Those who defended the icons against such views emphasized the painting of St. Luke and argued that using images and production practices was a tradition from the apostolic period.The oldest icons rescued from the destructiveness of the iconoclasts by the end of the Iconoclasm period were considered equivalent to the paintings made by Saint Luke. These oldest icons, interpreted as authentic or original, formed an archetype for later ones. For instance, numerous copies of the Hodegetria Virgin Mary icon attributed to Saint Luke were made in the 11th century.Byzantine painters became anonymous because of copying the Acheiropoieta, or an original archetype. The painter’s devotional intention to the holy persons prevented him from using his name while making a new icon from an archetype. Therefore, the attribution of the icons made to Saint Luke, the first painter according to Christianity, also caused the painter to hide his identity. Many Byzantine painters produced works anonymously. However, some mosaicists and fresco painters recorded their names in dedicatory inscriptions. In addition to this situation, icon and fresco painters started to use their signatures in their works in the 12th century.Church dedication inscriptions are one of the primary sources of information about Byzantine mosaic masters and fresco painters. Dedication inscriptions containing the names of the artists are found in churches that have survived from the Early, Middle and Late Byzantine periods. This situation shows a known and maintained craft practice in the Byzantine Empire. The names of artists such as Elpidos, Ephraim, Nikolaos of Rekitza and Georgios Kalliergis are known through church dedication inscriptions.In addition to church dedication inscriptions, it is seen that as of the 12th century, painters began to use their signatures on icons and wall paintings. The use of signatures by painters is related to the social and economic changes of the period. These social and economic changes continued increasingly during the Late Byzantine period. In parallel with these developments, using signatures by artists became common in the 14th century. Artist signatures come in two forms: the first usually containing the artist’s name, while the second consists of a prayer containing his name.The painter’s name is Stephanos, and it is known from the prayer he placed in the lower frame of the icons. It is the earliest dated example bearing the signature of the painter of the icons of Moses and Elijah, dated to the end of the 12th century and found in the Monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai. Again, a painter named Peter made three icons found in the St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai and they are dated to the beginning of the 13th century. The artist’s signature is on the front of these two icons.In the Byzantine Empire, using signatures by artists became more common as of the 14th century. Michael Astrapas, one of the famous painters of the period, is known for the signatures he left in the churches where he made the fresco program. The earliest dated building with the painter’s signature is the Peribleptos Church in Ohrid, built by the Byzantine commander Progonos Sgouros. Michael Astrapas went to Serbia in the following years and he worked under the patronage of King Stefan Uroš II Milutin (1282-1321). Another famous painter of the late Byzantine period is Angelos Akotantos of Crete. Most of the icons he made bear his signature.When the signatures are evaluated according to their position, they call for protection from God, or a Saint, or beg forgiveness of their souls in the afterlife. When the church dedication inscriptions and the signatures of the artists are examined, besides the independent painters, it is seen that there are also painters who are clergies, such as priests, monks or deacons. Painters often worked with family members and collaborated with other painters on more significant works. While some only operated in their own towns, painters such as Michael Astrapas and Georgios Kalliergis have worked and are known in the wider region. In addition, during the Late Byzantine period, painters went to other Orthodox countries such as Serbia and Russia and played a role in the spread of Byzantine art. As a result, Byzantine painting is not a completely anonymous art, contrary to popular belief. Artists have modestly expressed their identities through church dedication inscriptions, signatures, and prayers.

An Evaluation on Anonymity and Known Painters in Byzantine Painting Art

Selda

With the most general expression, the cross can be defined as the shape that is identified with the moment of Jesus’ crucifixion as well as one of the most important symbols of Christianity. It is also known that the cross, an important element of belief, responds to different needs in life. The respect and trust for the cross, which people carried due to its protective features, and socially which was not only in religious buildings but also on city walls, in houses, on roads and passageways, and in common areas, is important in understanding its significance in the Byzantine world. The value and symbolic meaning of the cross has made its uses diverse and dynamic. The cross, which is chosen for military and imperial ceremonies in the administrative sense, can be used in different areas as well due to its savior, healer and protector attributes in the religious sense. This determines the reasons why the cross is used for different purposes and its formal characteristics accordingly. Pendant crosses has flat (Cat. No. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11) and circular (Cat.No. 4 and 5) sections. The arms of the cross end in a straight, circle, teardrop or halfround/ semi-circle. According to Pitarakis typology, the reliquary crosses is divided into Type I (Cat. No. 12), Type IV (Cat. No. 14, 15, 16 and 17) and Type VIII (Cat. No.13).Considering the material and technical characteristics of the artifacts, two of the crosses are made of copper (Cat. No. 15 and 16), while the others are made of bronze. The decoration is made through engraving (Cat. No. 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14 and 17) and relief (Cat. No. 3, 7, 11, 13, 15 and 16) techniques. In one example, it was observed that (Cat. No. 17) slots were opened for colored stones or glass, but the stone or glass material that may have been inside has not survived.The crosses has geometric (Cat. No. 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 17) and floral (Cat. No.10) motifs. Figurative depictions include Crucified Jesus (Cat. No. 3, 12, 13, 16), Mary in orans position Bible writers or saints (Cat. No. 15 and 16). One example is undecorated (Cat. No. 6).The stylistic features of the crosses are the most important element in identifying the artifacts and revealing the differences/similarities between them. Except for one example (Cat. No. 3 figural), both geometric and floral decorations are used on the pendant crosses. Figural decorations are seen on the reliquary crosses except for one example (Cat. No. 17 geometric). Geometric decoration is characterized by intertwined circular motifs or circles, while floral decoration is characterized by curling twigs.Since the Byzantine cross of the Kırklareli Museum were included in the museum inventory through purchase, museum, collection and archaeological diggings have a great importance in the analysis of the material. The crosses obtained from Kırklareli and their surroundings were first compared with similar examples in the nearby geography. It is very important that the examples of Balkan origin are not only museum material but also diggings .While most of the crosses date to the Middle Byzantine period (10th-12th century) (Cat. No. 1, 2, 3, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 17), common examples from different parts of the empire date to the Early and Middle Byzantine periods (6th-13th century) (Cat. No. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 13).As a result, the metal cross artifacts belonging to the Kırklareli Museum are important examples in terms of contributing to the existing inventory of Byzantium and examining its place in the Balkan geography when evaluated regionally. All seventeen metal artifacts were brought to the museum through purchasing. As it is a portable object the exact location of the find is unknown. These artifacts are nevertheless partof a whole as the inventory of the Kırklareli Museum and are concrete examples of Byzantine Christian culture. The abundance of portable crosses, which we know were used by believers during praying or in daily life to protect against all that is evil, suggests that Constantinople cannot be the only center of production. These artifacts may include locally made crosses.The Balkan geography, with its miscellaneous ethnic structures and multiplist internal dynamics, is at a different level within the empire. The proximity of this geography, which is located on the borderline of the capital, to Constantinople brought along many factors. Spread of Christianity in the Balkans took place at different times. Occupation, migration, warfare, trade and cultural relations between Southeastern Europe and Anatolia through the ages must have influenced the Christian heritage of the region. It has been observed that some of the artifacts belonging to Kırklareli and its surroundings, which are located in the Thrace Region today, are not only of Constantinople or Anatolian origin but also of Balkan origin. Reliquary 11 is based on the Heraklia-Perinthos digging in Tekirdağ; Reliquary 14 is based on the Varna National Museum in Bulgaria, Reliquary 15 is based on the Athos/Vatopedi Monastery find, the Pernik Bulgarian Medieval Castle digging find, the Sofia National Museum, the Belgrade National Museum and the Budapest National Museum. Reliquary 16 is similar to the digging finds from Prosek Castle in Macedonia, the Benaki Museum in Athens and the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest and Reliquary 17 is similar to the Anatolian examples, as well as the Ukrainian and Athens-Canellopoulos Museum examples.No. 10 pendant/encolpion is the only one among the metal crosses of the Kırklareli Museum with its four-leaf clover form. Encolpions are dated mainly to the late 10th and early 11th centuries, with examples appearing in the neighboring lands of the empire (Georgia, Bulgaria, Greece, Ukraine). They are thought to have been sent as gifts from the capital or made by local producers in lands outside the empire in response to popular demand. The pendant/encolpion in the Kırklareli Museum may have originated in Constantinople or it may be made in the Balkan region.

Byzantine Metal Crosses in Kırklareli Museum

In the Byzantine period, water was viewed as the source of everlasting life and divine resurrection and as a sign of sanctification and purification from sins—an idea based on acred texts. The sanctification of water in Christianity has resulted in specific ceremonial requirements concerning liturgical and therapeutic applications. These requirements were met in the Early Christian Era by creating/constructing water structures and equipment. The liturgical fountains are one of these structures, where the congregation and clergy, particularly in the atriums of the churches, bathed their hands and feet in the courtyard before entering the naos. Functionally, these fountains, which were used for bodily cleansing before entering the place of worship, should have been symbolically seen as a means of spiritual purification of the soul, preparing the individual for a clean encounter with God. As can be seen from the example of the Perge South Basilica fountain, church fountains were decorated with rich architectural plastic elements to reflect the significance of the spiritual ritual they embodied.Although their places and forms in the atrium generally vary depending on the size, location, and other physical conditions of the church, most of the examples evaluated within the scope of this article are rectangular-shaped piscinas/pools located on one side of their atrium and rectangular/semicircular niche and niches or a flat fountain façade placed behind them. As can also be seen, these types of fountains in the atrium are only rarely placed outside the building in churches without an atrium.Several sources from the 4th century AD contain remarkable information regarding the process of washing hands and/or feet in fountains before entering the church and praying, as well as the various items used in this ritual and their nomenclature. In the mentioned chronicles, it can be inferred that there were mainly two types of fountains with different names in the early-period churches. One of them is the phiale, a characteristic structure for the period, and the other is the krene fountain. Written documents do not provide information about the structural features of the fountains, especially the phiale, since the ritual performed in the churches is described rather than the form of the fountain. According to the chronicles previously mentioned, there were primarily two types of fountains with various names in the early-period churches. One was the phiale, which was typical for the period, and the other was the krene fountain. Because the ritual conducted in the churches was more detailed than the shape of the fountain, written records examined within the scope of this study do notgive information about the structural features of the fountains, except the phiale. Asfar as these written records are considered, however, it is evident that the name krene(κρήvη) was commonly employed in portrayals of fountains in churches, particularly as early as the fourth century AD. This name is utilized not just in churches but also in the general designation of the period’s secular fountain constructions. Krene (κρήvη) is simply a topped structural design that facilitates human use of a water source. As a result, we believe that the term krene, rather than phiale, would apply to the general nomenclature of church fountains of the Early Byzantine Era.One of the rare examples from the Early Byzantine Period is the fountain located in the atrium of the Southern Basilica in Perge, which was used due to its location for cleansing rituals before the clergy entered the church and the congregation took place. This fountain, which can be defined as the krene (κρήvη) due to its general architectural features, must have been added to the atrium of the church in the 5th–6th centuries AD. A rectangular pool with a parapet arrangement in the atrium of the South Basilica and the marble-covered fountain wall extending behind it are structurally similar to many late-antique residential fountains. Still, the use of this type of fountain, which is analogous to many late antique residences in Anatolia, was very limited in Anatolian churches. Structures similar to those in Perge in terms of design, plan, and location are seen in churches in important episcopal settlements in the Balkans. The churches with a fountain (which can be defined as “krene”) in their atriums, especially those built in the second half of the 5th century, include Philippi A Basilica, Nikopolis B Basilica, Corinth Lechaion Hagios Leonidas Basilica, Corinth Kraneion Basilica, and Nea Anchialos A Basilica. The fact that they have a basilica plan with a transept, just as the Perge Southern Basilica does, emerges as a striking common feature.When comparing the Southern Basilica fountain to other church fountains from the Early Byzantine Period that demonstrate identical traits to this fountain, the most striking common feature is that most of these fountains were located in churches in prominent episcopal towns. In addition to the example of Perge, fountains can also be seen in religious buildings andbuilding complexes dated to the Early Byzantine Period, affiliated with various episcopal settlements in Anatolia. Undoubtedly, the most important factor in this is the active role of the bishops in the cities of the Early Byzantine Period. It can be thought that the authority of the bishops over water management, depending on the urban administration in the Early Byzantine Period, was effective in the construction of the fountains, especially in the churches in the episcopal centers. These fountains, which were built especially depending on episcopate structures, reflect the power of episcopacy in religious architecture and city administration as a condition of Christianity, which was the main factor determining social and political life in the Early Byzantine Period.

Early Byzantine Period Church Fountains in the Light of the Southern Basilica Fountain in Perge

Ceren

The remains of the body of a holy person or consecrated objects associated with these remains are called relics. The development of the cult of the relic began in the 4th century. In the early Byzantine period, the cult of martyred saints and the interest in the discovery of personal objects, such as bones and fragments of clothing, belonging to holy persons martyred for the sake of religion led to the development of the concept of relics. The boxes made of different materials and in different forms in which the relics were preserved are called reliquary.In the Early Byzantine period, cylindrical amulets, talismans and amulets are theprecursors of the later, more widespread reliquary crosses. Between the late 9th and 11th centuries, reliquary crosses replaced their predecessors, the amulets. The interest in reliquary crosses and the cult of the relics after the Iconoclasm is confirmed by archaeological data. It is known that reliquary crosses did not appear before the end of the 9th century, were used at most in the 10th and 11th centuries, and spread rapidly to neighbouring cultures. It was believed that the reliquary crosses would protect the believer from all evil during his/her life and after his/her death. It is known that reliquary crosses carried on the chest, were used by all members of the society, especially clergy, men, women and even children. Reliquary crosses are categorised according to their functions, construction techniques, forms and the depictions on them. According to their construction techniques, reliquary crosses are generally classified into two main groups, namely incised and relief, and are further subdivided according to the depictions on them.The 14 reliquary crosses depicting the Virgin with Christ-child in the Halûk Perk Museum have been analysed and classified in the light of the opinions of different experts on the types and iconography of the Virgin in Byzantine art. The reliquary crosses analysed in our study were classified according to the iconographic types of the Virgin with Christ-child, not according to their construction techniques. Five different types of the Virgin with Christ-child were identified on the reliquary crosses from the collection.In the first group (Catalogue nos. 1-7), Christ-child is depicted on the chest of the Virgin, who is depicted in full-length frontal view with her hands open to both sides in a praying position. This type is a depiction of the Virgin Blachernitissa (Βλαχερυίτισσσσα), well known in Byzantine art. The 7 reliquary crosses in the first group are divided into three sub-groups according to the physical depiction of the Virgin (Catalogue nos. 1-7). It is understood that the depiction styles of the 3 reliquary crosses with the oval-shaped shoulders of the Virgin are similar to each other. They may have been made in production workshops in the same region, or they may reflect the stylistic preference of the period (Type 1/a, Catalogue 1-2-3-4). In the second subgroup, the Virgin’s shoulders are not oval and are slightly tapering upwards. There are two reliquary crosses in this group and both are decorated with foliate motifs each sides (Type 1/b, Catalogue 5-6). Lastly, the Virgin Blachernistissa example was produced with very fine workmanship (Type 1/c, Catalogue 1c.7) and every detail of the maphorion of the Virgin is carefully emphasised.In the second group, only one reliquary cross (Type 2, Catalogue no. 8), the Virgin is shown frontal and full-length and in a prayer position with her hands open to her sides. In this example, made with the casting technique and decorated in relief, there is a bust of Christ-child in a medallion in front of the Virgin and at the level of her chest. This type of depiction of the Virgin coincides with Episkepsis. When the studieson reliquary crosses are analysed in general, it is noteworthy that there is no direct example and definition of the Virgin Episkepsis. In this context, this example in the collection is important as it is the counterpart of the Episkepsis type, which we see in different examples of Byzantine art, in reliquary crosses. Based on the depiction of Episkepsis on the cross, it can be dated to the 11th-12th centuries.At this stage, it is necessary to include the Platytera type, which shows very similar iconographic features with Episkepis in the iconography of the Virgin, in our iconography discussion. This iconographic type within the depictions of the Virgin is known by the title “Platytera”, which means “wider than heaven” in Greek. In the Platytera type, the Virgin in the position of orans, carrying the medallion depicting the Christ-child on her chest is very similar to the Blachernitissa and Episkepsis types. In the definition of the Platytera type, there are similarities between Episkepsis, and sometimes both types are used together. The main source of this categorisation problem is that the Blachernitissa icon type is not fully known and there is no conclusive evidence as to whether versions of it existed from the early period onwards. More detailed studies on the iconography of the Virgin on the reliquary crosses will provide us with clearer information about the Episkepsis or Platytera types. In this sense, the existence of the iconographic types of the Virgin that can be classified as Episkepsis or Platytera on reliquary crosses is also opened to discussion.The third group of reliquary crosses (Type 3, Catalogue nos. 9-10-11) also includes a full-length frontal depiction of the Virgin with Christ-child. In this group, however, the Virgin is not in the position of orans, and she is encircling the head of Christ-child with her arms broken at the elbows, and pointing to him with her hands and fingers curled over his head. In this depiction, the Virgin uses her arms and hands like a bow to form a medallion on her chest surrounding the head of Christ-child.In the fourth group of reliquary crosses (Type 4, Catalogue no.12-13), the Virgin is depicted full-length and with the Christ-child in front of her chest. Mary’s arms and hands are not carved and emphasized on both reliquary crosses.In the fifth and last group, there is one reliquary cross (Type 5 Catalogue no. 14). In this sample in the collection, the Virgin is holding the Christ-child with her left hand at a point between his head and shoulders. Although the reliquary cross is not in full form, it can be assumed that the Virgin is depicted with her left hand on the shoulder of her child and her right hand supporting him from below. This type of depiction of the Virgin is defined as Kyriotissa in studies on reliquary crosses. In the Kyriotissa type, the Virgin is depicted from the front, holding the Christ-child, at the level of her chest, with her right hand on the shoulder of the Christ-child, and her left hand covering the lower part of the Christ-child’s body. However, the example in the collection shows the opposite holding position.In conclusion; it is understood that seven reliquary crosses in the Halûk Perk Museum depicts the Virgin Blachernitissa with a full-sized with Christ-child at the chest level (Catalogue nos. 1-7). Analysing the studies carried out until today, it is revealed that this type of reliquary crosses were produced in large numbers during the Byzantine Period. The reliquary cross in Catalogue no. 8, which is a rare and interesting example, bears the image of the Virgin Episkepsis. Although there is no inscription or abbreviation on the reliquary cross indicating the title Episkepsis, this conclusion was reached through typological evaluation. The overlap of this interesting example, which can be identified by some experts as the Virgin Blachernitissa, with the Episkepsis image is one of the details of our study. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the depiction of the Virgin Episkepsisis frequently encountered in different works of art such as coins, seals and icons, and it is thought that the reliquary cross in the collection was produced in the same period. In addition, our study provides information about the Episkepis and Platytera types and emphasises that the issue of whether or not they are found on reliquary crosses should be discussed. Another subject of our study is the depiction of the Virgin Kyriotissa, which is frequently found on reliquary crosses. Taking into account the recent studies of different experts, the definition of the Virgin Kyriotissa and Blachernitissa is discussed. It is clear that the Kyriotissa type has a clear definition and should not be confused with the Blachernitissa type. However, in the Kyriotissa depiction found in the only reliquary crosses we analysed in the collection, the position of the Virgin holding the Christ-child on her chest with her hands was found to be different.It is understood that the depictions on the reliquary crosses are very important sources for the studies on the iconography of the Virgin. In our study, while introducing the depictions of the Virgin with Christ-child on the reliquary crosses in the Halûk Perk Museum, it is emphasised that different information and suggestions can be presented in the light of new researches based on the iconography of the Virgin.

The Iconographic Evaluation of A Group of Reliquary Crosses Depicting The Virgin and Christ-Child from The Halûk Perk Museum

Ercan

Hadrianopolis is an important Paphlagonian city, located in Eskipazar district of Karabük, in the Western Black Sea region. Although archaeological data show that the settlement in Hadrianopolis dates back to the Chalcolithic Age, Hadrianopolis gained city status during the Roman period. Calamities such as wars or earthquakes that occured in the Late Antiquity, probably around the 3rd-4th centuries, caused massive damage in the city, and Hadrianopolis was rebuilt at the beginning of the Early Byzantine period. As an outcome of the excavations that have been going on since 2003, the ruins of seven buildings, date to the Early Byzantine period were discovered in the city borders. The one of them called as The Cross-in-Square Planned Building in Hadrianopolis Citadel, is also the subject of this article. It was discovered for the first time during archaeo-geophysical studies carried out in 2013. During the studies in 2013, it was concluded that the building was designed with cross-in-square plan, and it was suggested that it possibly functioned as a martyrium or mausoleum, based on that some tombs of Early Byzantine period such as the martyrium were constructed with the cross-in-square plan. Scientific excavations started in 2020, and the building was uncovered in 2022 completely. The lack of epigraphic resourches and insufficiency of the findings recovered in the excavations, prevent us to access exact information about when and by whom it was built, and for what was its function.The building, located in the north-east of Hadrianopolis Citadel, is largely in destroyed. It’s not possible to access detailed information about the first phase of the building. The ruins deducted as from the first phase are the blocks found between the north, east and west cross arms and in the northeast room. The blocks discovered on the floor of building are placed parallel to each other so as to form a channel. The recovered ruins prevent us to attain exact information about its function in the first phase. The fact that there is a channel with its blocks water flew through, suggests that the building was a latrina in the Roman period. Probably there were some wooden arrangements above the channel and so it was served as a latrina. Considering the stratigraphy of the excavation area, it can be said that the construction of the building was around the 2nd-3rd century AD.The building, which was reconstructed in the Early Byzantine period, was designed as cross-in-square plan in this phase. However its impossible to determine the exact time of this transformation of the main plan, it can be argued, based on the findings discovered during the excavations and the stratigraphy of the area, that the building was rebuilt with cross-in-sqaure plan as a conclusion of the designation of a new purpose to it, around the 4th-5th century. The building has a square plan, measuring 16,75 x 16,55 meter from the outside, and has a cross-in-square plan inside, which measures 14,60 x 14,40 meter. The building contains four rectangular cross arms point to the north, south, east and west, and also quadrangular rooms in different sizes in its four corners. At the intersection of the cross arms, there is a rectangular center, measuring 5,60 x 5,30 meter, which seems to be most important part of the building, and reached through the arms of the cross. In order to emphasize the importance of the central part, arched transitions rising on rectangular shaped pillars were constructed in the places that provide the transition from the cross arms to the central part.The cross-in-square plan was commonly applied in the religious buildings such as churches, baptisterium, mausoleum and martyrium in Byzantine architecture. Although it has cross-in-square plan, the building in question doesn’t have religious function. The findings discovered during the excavations don’t provide a definite information about the function, but give clues which indicate that it was a building with civil, military and administrative purpose. Firstly, the building is located in the citadel, indicates that it was a military building for the first time. The findings such as pieces of armor probably of a soldier or high-ranking official, perhaps an administrator, and an iron mask belonging to a cavalry, suggest a possible military purpose for the building. The facts that it was a sheltered building with a few doors, and contains many pithos and mortars, found in the northwest room, possibly for storing food, indicatethat the building might have been used as a horreum. Horreums of Late Antiquity, where grain and rations were stored, were usually located in the central areas of cities.These buildings had a few doors and windows and protected by soldiers to ensure the safety of the materials and food stored inside. When its location, architectural characteristicsand findings recovered from the excavations were taken in consideration all together, it is reasonable to argue that it was a horreum. A lead weight found in the southern cross arm inside the building, also provides clues go along with the argument above. There is an inscription of a phrase on the front face of the weight, may be read as the name Theodoros, who was probably the official responsible for treasury affairs of the Byzantine empire. Although it is not clearly evident because of the conditions of the inscriptions, it can be presumed that Theodoros was the official with the title of “comes sacrarum largitionum”. It is arguable that Theodoros had sent this weight to an officer probably with title of horreiarios or kommerkiarios in charge of building, so that he could carry out his civic duty in Hadrianopolis properly. All this data are also go along with the argument that the building had been used an administrative or commercial building. These study presents the architectural characteristics of the building in detail, and through the discussion emphasizing its plan, tries to explain and determine its importance in Byzantine architecture. It also takes the findings discovered during the excavations, the location of the building and its architectural characteristics into consideration and evaluated together, and finally offer some suggestions regarding its function, because it hasn’t been clearly detected yet.

A New Discovery from Paphlagonia: The Cross-in-Square Planned Building in Hadrianopolis Citadel (First Results)

Fatma

Zeliha

Over the course of history, various theories have been proposed to explain the root cause of epilepsy, including brain disorders, congenital abnormalities, genetic inheritance, witchcraft, retribution for wrongdoing, malevolent spirits, paranormal influences, and mental health conditions.Miraculous healings are recurring themes in the New Testament. Indeed, the healing patients with epilepsy is mentioned in the New Testament, particularly in Gospels Matthew 17: 14-21, Mark 9: 14-29, and Luke 9: 37-43. Thus, Christian iconography in most cases depicts Jesus blessing the patients with epilepsy forcefully driving the evil spirit out of their mouths or heads. Epilepsy has been believed to be caused by supernatural forces. The causes of epilepsy were explained in different ways by Byzantine doctors who agreed that epilepsy was a brain disorder. However, Byzantine clergymen claimed that this disease was caused by devils and evil spirits. This diseasehas been described by the clergy as a malignant disease.The subject of this article is to provide an iconographic analysis of the healing of epileptic patients. It is illustrated in the illuminated manuscripts Florentine Bibliotche Laurensiana, Plut. 6.23 and Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France Grec 74 which date back to the last quarter of the 11th century. The healing of patients with epilepsy is mentioned in the chapter of the New Testament, notably in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. This scene, depicted in detail in both manuscripts, is not as common in Byzantine iconography as other healing scenes. Other scenes depicting healing demoniacs exist in church decoration, but it is not certain that the scenes refer specifically to these passages of the Gospels.Scenes of the healing of patients with epilepsy are not common in Byzantine art. In the Byzantine period of the 11th century, scenes on this subject were depicted mostly in manuscripts. Within the scope of this study on the manuscripts of Laur. Plut. 6.23 and BnF Grec 74, the scenes of the healing of epileptic patients, notably their iconography, style, and their relationship with the text of the gospels will be examined by us. Five scenes of healing of epileptic patients can be found in these two manuscripts: Laur. Plut 6.23 displays three scenes while BnF Grec 74 presents two scenes. Illustrations of the healing of patients in the Laur. Plut 6.23 has a narrative style. However, this was not the case for BnF. Grec 74. In other words, the scenes of the BnF gr. 74 are less iconographically detailed focusing only on the actual action of healing. In the Matthew, cycle of this miracle story of Laur. Plut 6.23 includes five consecutive episodes (fol. 35v); a) The disciples and the crowd watch at both sides of composition, the father of the child coming to Jesus b) The “epileptic” boy puts his head in the water c) The “epileptic” boy burns himself in the flames in front of his house d) Christ heals the child e) The father brings his son to Christ. The chapter of Mark includes four consecutive episodes (fol. 80v); a) The man asks Jesus to heal his sick son b) Christ heals the boy c) The boy stands up d) Jesus goes to his apostles. Finally, Luke’s gospel we have three consecutive episodes, similar to the ones in fol. 80v. In fol. 125v portrays following scenes a) The man asks Jesus to heal his sick son b) Christ heals the boy c) Jesus returns to the apostles. However, this is not the case with the inventory numbers of the BnF gr. 74 manuscript. These scenes have only one episode (Fol.34v, Fol.83r). In fol. 34v there is only one scene. The boy is represented almost naked. He is represented twice, once standing and then falling on the ground. The boy’s father is undistinguishable in the crowd, standing at the right of the scene. In the fol. 83r, the “epileptic” boy is represented three times in three different ways: at first, he is depicted standing and then falling on the ground. The iconographic detail of this illustration is taken from 8r. The miracle at Capernaum and this Lunatic Childin Mark has one thing in common: both stories tell that the demoniac was thrown on the ground by the evil spirit (Mark, 9: 20). This was the reason that the artist adoptedthe identical scenes for these two scenes. In both manuscripts, the composition, the figures, and their posture are iconographic elements that display the story of the text.As a result, a total of five illustrations on the healing of epileptic patients can be found in these two manuscripts: Laur. Plut 6.23 displays three scenes while BnF Grec 74 presents two scenes. Illustrations of the healing of patients in the Laur. Plut 6.23 has a narrative style. Besides, these scenes include four or five consecutive moments. In other words, all the scenes in Laur. Plut 6.23 is closely related to New Testament chapters. However, in the scenes of the BnF Grec 74, the depiction is less detailed and is centered on the healing scene. Nevertheless, the iconographic details of BnF Grec 74 show proficient artistic skill.

Iconographic Analysis of Scenes of the Miracle of Healing Patients with Epilepsy in Manuscripts of Florence Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana Plut. 6.23 and Paris Bibliothéque National de France Grec 74

@JOURNAL_BOX_CURRENT

@JOURNAL_BOX_EARLYVIEW

Alper

Water is the source of life for all living things. Because of our need for water, mankind has always seen water as a sacred element throughout history. Water, over artifacts and monuments symbolized life, healing, fertility, strength, beauty and enjoyment. It was seen as sacred in Turkey and was believed to be the spirit of water. In addition, water was associated with fortune, life, soul, chance, fortune, conscience, and character. In Turkish culture and the Islamic faith, water and rain are considered as the source of life and abundance. In Turkish-Islamic architecture, waterspouts are called corten. Waterspouts protected mortar and masonry walls from corrosive effects by getting rid of rain and snow water away from the wall and foundation. In the Anatolian Seljuks and Dynasties periods, a large part of the cortens in architectural works was made simple and another was meant to be figurative. The pre-Islamic and Islamic beliefs of Turks determined their view of water. Cortens was produced positively in the context of these religious beliefs. It is known that the cortens, especially those with figures, are made with symbolic purposes such as fertility, abundance, happiness, and power. Therefore, the figures are in direct relation with these concepts. The usage of animal figures was avoided apart from these meanings. Although Islamic belief and Turks perceived water positively, the Christian faith and the Latins perceived water as positive in the spiritual direction and negative in the material direction. Sacred water was used for religious rituals. No doubt the most important of these rites is baptism, which is seen as a spiritual cleansing rather than a material one and early Christians emphasized the spiritual aspect. During the Middle Ages, the Western Christian world did not accept bathing as an innocent practice leaving out it in religious rituals. Many monks and saints believed St. Francis of Assisi’s idea that an unwashed body is a sign of piety! For this reason, Western society avoided water except for the occasional bath. In the 12-14th centuries, the works of Gothic architecture started in Europe. In this architectural understanding in which religious structures are predominant, buildings tend to rise vertically. In Gothic architecture, the waterspouts represented as figures that provide the evacuation of rain water are called gargoyles. The gargoyles have a terrifying psychological effect on the believer. These are mostly waterspouts with plastic properties made in the form of terrifying demonic creatures. In the medieval Christian world, the church taught religion to society through art. That is, art was made for the purpose of religious propaganda. In the Middle Ages, the Church even resorted to the most formidable forms of evil in order to spread its religious teachings. Some gargoyles served as a moral reminder to sinners, and because gargoyles were thought to represent the souls condemned for their sins, it was suggested that sinners were forbidden to enter the church. By reflecting the horrible appearance of hell, Satan, which is an unconventional image that does not conform to the church, reminds people that they will be safe in the sacred church. Although some gargoyles are quite simple in design, the&nbsp;majority of them are decorated in detail. These are decorative carvings representing grotesque animals, birds, dragons, satyrs, mermaids, snakes, and many other themes. They can also be in the form of fascinating hybrids and mythical creatures such as semi-human semi-animal figures. The functional purpose of the gargoyles is the waterspout. The symbolic aim is to ward off evil. The waterspouts in religious and secular buildings served the same purpose in different architectures throughout the 12-14th centuries. The figured waterspouts are shaped differently in proportion to the value judgments, beliefs, traditions, cultural and architectural heritage of societies. Due to the ban on animal and human figures in Islamic architecture, the figured ornament was rarely seen. The Turks have a moderate approach to figurative ornaments due to their old beliefs. In the Anatolian Seljuk architecture, almost all the building groups have symbolic, mythological, astrological, cosmological and talismanic figures. We usually see figured ornament around openings such as doors and windows, but it is rarely encountered in the waterspouts. Cortens have symbolized power, strength in relation to protection while symbolizing goodness, abundance and mercy in relation to rain. The cortens associated with guardianship of religion generally had been located on facades trough the roads where people can see easily. In the cortens, animal or human figures can be seen. Animal figures include depictions of lions, rams and bulls. Mythical creatures include depictions of dragons. The lion is the symbol of strength; the rams and bulls are symbols of abundance, and the dragon symbolizes both abundance and power. The Abbey Church of Saint Denis in France is accepted as the first Gothic structure. The eastern section of the church was designed by Abbot Suger. The Western world inherited the Greek, Hellenistic, Etruscan and Roman architectures and adapted these ancient styles to gothic architecture. The understanding of ornaments in Gothic architecture developed in the scholastic thinking of the church. All the decorations around the religious buildings were made parallel to the teachings of the church. Emphasis on the instructional use of visual imageries, resulted in the creation of many monsters. The animal figured waterspouts were used in the western world by Greeks and Etruscans who especially preferred those with lion heads. The gargoyles depict a wide variety of animals and imaginary creatures that we tend to associate with evil. It is not a coincidence that they often have cloven hooves, bat wings, goat beards and horns. Gargoyles were consciously depicted as demons and associated with evil. The use of these figures in waterspouts caused them to consider water as a symbol of disaster and trouble. Since Turkish-Islamic architecture has a limited number of cortens showing figures, we tried to include all the samples. The cortens are classified according to the&nbsp;figures they depict. As there is a large number of gargoyles in Gothic Architecture, we included only a few samples. Some examples of gargoyles in churches or monasteries in different parts of Europe were compared. Similarities between these gargoyles were found in different structures. Finally, similar and different characteristics of the figured waterspouts in two separate cultures are indicated.

A Comparison Experiment on the Figures of the Rainspout in Gothic Architecture and Turk-Islam Architecture in the 12th and 14th Centuries

Sevinç

Drawing attention with its decorations in addition to its architectural features, Double Minaret Madrasa has been the center of attention of many researchers and has been examined in many respects. Our aim is not to repeat the evaluations and studies related to the structure, but to present new suggestions for its ornaments. A large part of the decorations of the madrasa has been destroyed and only the entrance facade has survived. Unfortunately, in the recent restorations, the extent of this damage has increased. Within the scope of our research, new determinations have been made regarding the original status of some decorations in the structure. Built in 1271, the Double Minaret Madrasa was abandoned over time, and the stones of the building were used in the construction of other buildings. Excavations were carried out in the structure under the presidency of Prof. Dr. Haluk Karamağaralı between 1963-1965, and restorations were carried out in various periods. The ashlar facing of the structure ends in the upper part of the pointed arches of the openings that leads to ascend to the minaret inside. There is almost a square panel just above the opening which leads to ascend to the left (north) minaret. In this panel, which is made with Mâ’kılî writing style, an arrangement consisting of turquoise and eggplant purple colored glazed tiles and bricks is seen. In this writing style based on geometric basis, all the letters are angled. In the ornament, the word “Allah” is placed in four different directions. The missing tiles were renewed, the writing panel was completed, and the unglazed tiles were painted in the repairs carried out in 2007-2008. However, various errors in the writing and completions of the current panel are striking. This panel decorating the minaret base has a mathematical arrangement. Letters are placed in two rows; there are gaps between the leaning unglazed bricks. These areas are filled with (baklava) diamond-shaped and eggplant-purple glazed tiles. Thus, the name “Allah” has been made apparent with the eggplant purple tiles. The areas around the unglazed bricks and eggplant purple tiles are surrounded by turquoise glazed tiles. In the restoration, it is understood that the tips of letters on the left side of the panel are not completed and the “elif “ letter in the upper left corner is missing. Additionally, one arm of the swastika was left missing. A panel is located just above the opening leading to ascend to the right (south) minaret. In the panel, the original of which consisted of mâ’kılî style writing, there are geometrical looking irregular shapes instead of writing. It is understood that the work underwent a repair in an unauthentic way. It is seen in the panel that the names of “Muhammad”, “Ebubekir”, “Omar”, “Osman” and “Ali” are respectively written with Arabic letters in the mâ’kılî writing style. The current panel should be completely replaced and completed in accordance with the original. In the upper part of the bases, an arrangement of brick and tile is seen. In this ornament, square shaped turquoise tiles were placed between long rectangular unglazed bricks. The same ornament is repeated on the eastern and southern facades of the bases. However, in the restoration work, the same decoration which should be on the top of the left side minaret is left unpainted. On the outer sides of the both minaret bases (north and south), a large panel of tiles was placed. In the panels, which are understood to be formed with tile mosaic technique originally, two wide borders circle the big medallion in the middle. There is a palmette lotus frieze in the first row. Unglazed bricks and turquoise colored tiles were placed in skipping form in the second row. In the corners of the medallion, the plant ornamentation in from of palmette, rumi and curly branches is repeated. The border forming the frame is thick and its surface is decorated with a geometric decoration made of pentagons in two rows. There are 12 pointed arched niches in the polygonal section which enables the transition from the shoe cabinet section to the cylindrical body. It is understood from the traces that these niches with different widths were adorned with ornaments made with tile mosaic technique originally. It can be detected from the old traces that four of the pointed arched niches had plant decorations. In the plant ornamentation, there are palmettes at the ends of the interwoven hexagrams. Ornament made in accordance with the principle of infinity; the palmette ends of the stars are connected by concave curves and a hexagonal is formed. The palmettes decorate each corner of the hexagon. The decorations inside the other niches have almost disappeared. Minaret bodies are completely decorated with a beautiful harmony of bricks and tiles. Bricks shaped in different sizes, such as square and rectangle, are arranged in horizontal plane. Square shaped eggplant purple colored tiles are placed between the bricks. In the body ornament of the minarets, the name “Muhammed” which is written with eggplant purple glazed tiles in the mâ’kılî writing style is seen. Thin, rectangular turquoise colored tiles were mortared between both bricks and the joint gaps surrounding the eggplant purple glazed tiles. Turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles have been destroyed much faster because they have no organic bond with the structure and most of them have come off. One of the few examples, whose portal was crowned with double minaret, Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa is one of the most important works in terms of Turkish art. The double minaret integrates the portal with its decoration and adds color to the stone structure with its tiles. In the double minaret, in which turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles were used, mâ’kılî writing is seen as well as geometric and plant ornaments in parallel with the decoration features of the period. These decorations are important in terms of reflecting the characteristics of the period. The blanks between the letters and the gaps have the same widths in mâ’kılî writings with angled, plain, sharp, lines. The master followed these rules in the examples of the Double Minaret Madrasa, but also filled the inside of the lines that made up the letters, resulting in seemingly thicker letters. In Mâ’kılî writing, words having high religious meanings and in this writing style words like Allah, Muhammad, Ali, Ebubekir, Omar, Osman and Kalima Shahadah are often used. The masters showed not only manual skills but also mathematical and design proficiencies. It is no doubt that the tiles of the Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa, which has been destroyed for the most part presently, are among the most outstanding examples of Anatolian decorative arts and reflect the fancy and tastes of their periods. Therefore, urgent measures should be taken to prevent further damage to the building both in terms of architecture and decoration.

New Proposals for the Brick and Tile Decorations on the Minarets of Çifte Minareli Medrese (Double Minaret Madrasah) In Sivas

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Women as the Object and the Subject of Art in the 2nd Constitutional Period

Seda

First thirty years of the 18th century was a milestone for the Ottoman society, culture, and architecture because when the Treaty of Passarowitz was signed, a long period of peace started between the Ottoman and Western civilization. Besides, the superiority of Western societies was accepted by the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the first envoys were sent to Europe. Yirmisekiz (twenty-eight) Mehmet Çelebi is the first envoy sent to France. Mehmet Çelebi observed a lot of palaces, gardens, cities, military postures, press housings in France, and on his return to the homeland, he brought with him the plans of these structures in his travel guide. He even had the plans of some important French palaces and gardens. When Sultan Ahmed III and his Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha read this travel guide, they were impressed a lot. Therefore, they immediately commissioned public works in Istanbul. For this reason, new palaces, kiosks, pavilions, medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, and sebils (Sebil is a public donation, for the distribution of cold drinking water, sweet drinks or fruit juice to passers-by in cups) were started to be built. Instead of grand mosques and social complexes of the 16th and 17th century’s Ottoman architecture, in 1718-1730, the so-called Tulip Era, public structures were built. Until the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire’s economy was in good condition. However, in the 17th century, it entered a recession. Therefore, only medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, kiosks, and summer palaces could be built in the first thirty years of the 18th century. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex, built in 1722 or during the Tulip Era, was one of these buildings. Eminzade Haci Ahmed Aga, a chamberlain of the navy yard in the Ottoman Empire, commissioned Ahmediye Complex. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex consists of a mosque, primary school (Islamic monastery), madrasah, library, two fountains, WC, tomb, burial area reserved for special people, and a room to show azan times. These units are located around a court. The court has a small pond, as well. If we look at the location plan, we can see that the Uskudar Ahmediye Complex has an asymmetrical composition. Buildings of the complex are built according to specific geometrical shapes like square, octagon, and polygon. Almost all the buildings are covered by domes. In addition to this, vaults are used in some places, as well. Although Uskudar Ahmediye Complex generally shows classical Ottoman architecture features, some parts exhibit Western and Eastern styles. For instance, the sebil has a polygonal plan like Early Baroque style. Besides, Uskudar Ahmediye fountain and minbar of the mosque have some flower motifs from Eastern cultures. Also, the Ahmediye fountain and the sebils have multifoil arches coming from the Antiquity and Early East culture. We know that Uskudar Ahmediye Complex have neither entirely Western nor Eastern architecture features. It is a classical Ottoman architecture example but, in some parts of this complex, the reflections of the Eastern and Western architectures can be seen. Indeed, the first thirty years of the 18th century were a transition period for the Ottoman architecture. During the first thirty years of the 18th century, there was the Baroque and Rococo style in Europe. Notably, the Baroque style was the most prominent style in France during Louis IV’ time, which is famous for the palaces built. The exterior facades of these palaces are generally plain, but the interior design is more elaborate. In the decorations, which bears traces of the Baroque style, is seen botanical patterns like leaf Frisians, seashells, and flyaway figures. After the Baroque style, the Rococo style, which was a decorative art, emerged in Louis V’s period in France. The number of columns and pilasters, which had been used as exterior architecture, had decreased. The rococo style includes S and C crimped branches, toothed medallion, seashells, and acanthus leaves. Versailles Palace is the most notable example of Baroque and Rococo style in France. The baroque and rococo styles did not enter in the Ottoman Architecture until after the transition period called the Tulip Era, which began in 1718 and continued until 1730. Indeed, it could be said that the effects of this era can be seen in the Ottoman architecture until 1740. The Tulip Era brought some novelties (such as wide eaves and more decorations) to the Ottoman architecture. These new decorations were from Persian and especially Indian and Mughal cultures. Another novelty was polygonal buildings which were generally seen at the sebils of this period. This was coming from the West and called the Early Baroque style. Although some parts of Uskudar Ahmediye Complex reflects Eastern and Western architectures, the architectural elements and details of the buildings in the complex are traditional. In other words, the buildings in the complex generally have Classical Ottoman architecture features. Also, some details and decorative motifs of the complex are from the Eastern and Western architectures. In conclusion, Uskudar Ahmediye Complex is a building that displays the features of the transition period from the classical Ottoman architecture to the Baroque style.

Uskudar Ahmediye Complex & Its Place in the Architecture of the Tulip Period

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The Art-Sanat Journal is an international academic refereed e-journal that is published semi-annually. Original articles and studies in Archaeology, Art History, History of Architecture, Restoration-Conservation and other related areas are considered for publication.

Owner: Istanbul University Research Institute of Turkology (on behalf of Director of the Institution Prof. Dr. Mustafa Balcı)

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Islamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)

Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)

International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)

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Türk Eğitim İndeksi

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Akademik Araştırmalar İndeksi (Acar Index)

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Art-Sanat

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The aim of Art-Sanat Journal is to support, publish and develop scientific studies related to the art, history of art, archaeology and other art fields of Turkish, Turkic communities and other communities related to Turkic communities.Academic researches and publications on Archeology, History of Art, History of Architecture, Conservation-Restoration, Museology and performing arts about Turkish, Turkic communities and other communities related to Turkic communities.

Aim & Scope

Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)EBSCO Art &amp; Architecture Source TÜBİTAK-ULAKBİM TR DizinIslamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)SOBIAD Social Sciences Citation IndexAkademik Araştırmalar Index (Acar index)ArastirmaxJournalTOCs ResearchBibIndex of Turkish EducationDOAJScopusErih Plus<ul> </ul>

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Art-Sanat Journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

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The journal adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	Mustafa Balcı