Mehmet

Assist. Prof.

Crowding-Out Effect: Evidence from OECD Countries

Mohammed

Lecturer

Do Asymmetric Currency Price Fluctuations and Oil Price Shocks Matter for Growth in Nigeria? Evidence from Non-Linear Analysis

Kartal

Assoc. Prof.

Yüksel

R&D Intensity, Complementary Assets and Firm Value: Time Series Evidence from Turkey

Zekeriya

External and Domestic Shocks, Exchange Rate, Country Risk Premia and Macroeconomic Conditions in Turkey

Buse

Şeyda

Tamer

Prof.

Evrencan

Turkish Statistics Institute (TURKSTAT) data in 2017 has led to the need to consider the use of the internet today with the increasing use of mobile phones. The increase in mobile internet usage has led to the desire of users to access applications faster and in a more practical way. Today’s mobile application users prefer features such as easier access to applications on their phones, fast service, memory usage and language. Accordingly, it is necessary to make a user-based application in order to be a preferred mobile application by users whether it is an individual mobile application developer or a company mobile application developer. Thus, it is foreseen that mobile application software developers may know which criteria and how much importance they should give to mobile application preference. In this way they may provide continuity in the market.According to TURKSTAT 2017 data, there are approximately 78 million mobile phone users and nearly 70 million of them are internet subscribers. When the graph of internet usage is analyzed according to TURKSTAT years, it is evident that mobile applications are of great importance to users. In previous studies, the importance of mobile applications and the studies of human beings on mobile application trends have been observed.&nbsp;In this study we first discuss the efficiency category in the Google Play Store in order to determine effective criteria for mobile applications. Based on the efficiency category, the data obtained from the literature survey and the evaluations of five experts who worked on mobile applications for less than three years were evaluated and the criteria that were effective in selecting the mobile application were determined. Criteria which are effective in mobile application selection according to the literature review and expert opinions can be grouped in the following categories, advertising, language, price, performance, memory usage, privacy, user reviews, and speed. Since this study is about efficiency and since the advertising and privacy principles are the same in every application in the Google Play store, three criteria were extracted and a total of six criteria were selected.The six criteria were evaluated by five experts and compared using the AHP method to determine the severity of the criteria. Afterwards, five mobile application projects were selected. AHP, TOPSIS and PROMETHEE methods were applied to the five selected projects. When the criterion weights were examined, 37% speed criterion, 24% performance criterion, 19% price criterion, 10% language criterion, 6% user comment criterion, and 4% memory usage criterion were listed. The fact that the criteria are close to each other results from the fact that the criteria affect each other. We concluded that the speed criterion is the first in the obtained ranking. Mobile application gives more importance to speed while it is more flexible in memory usage.The weights of the criteria were used according to AHP, TOPSIS and PROMETHEE methods, which are multi-criteria-decision making methods for five alternative rankings. Thus, according to the relationship between criterion and alternative, the mobile application software developer can choose one of the multi-criteria decision-making methods, AHP, TOPSIS or PROMETHEE, and take the most appropriate evaluation as an example. A programmer who wishes to take into account the criteria and the opinions of experts should choose the AHP method. A mobile application developer should prefer the TOPSIS method to obtain alternative sequences based on the negative and positive distance of the alternatives. In addition to benchmark weights and alternative comparisons, the user should choose the PROMETHEE method for entering the user’s preferred value minimum and maximum. In practice, it was observed&nbsp;that the alternative sequences obtained from the three methods appeared in a similar order. Although there are differences in the steps of the methods used, the fact that the weights of the criteria used were very close to each other and that the user preferences were in this direction led to a similarity in the alternative rankings.

Determination of Effective Criteria for Mobile Application Selection and Sample Application

İsmail

The Effects of Exchange Rate and Interest Rate Exposure on the Stock Returns and Volatility of Turkish Insurance Companies

Bayram

Res. Assist.

Life expectancy at birth is now considered as an indicator of the social, environmental, and economic development of a country. The main aim of development is to provide a better life for individuals and society in terms of development. In order to achieve this goal, countries are trying to develop policies, and efforts are being made to improve the living conditions of individuals. In this respect, health is one of the basic elements of a better life.&nbsp;Each baby born in the world’s most developed 24 countries is expected to live longer than 75 years. This length of life is less than 50 years in 45 underdeveloped countries. Differences in life expectancy between countries can be due to many reasons. In underdeveloped countries, food products, clean water, environmental hygiene conditions, and housing differences can be defined as the most important factors affecting the life expectancy of individuals. On the other hand, the rapid growth in income, unemployment, health expenditures, medical and insurance sectors and the increase in costs lead to a further diversification of the factors affecting the life expectancy in developed countries. When the data is analyzed, it is clear that the citizens of developed countries live longer than the citizens of undeveloped countries. The most important reason of that is the importance given to health investments in developed countries. These investments not only&nbsp;enable people in the country to use high-tech products in health care, but also reduce the number of patients per health worker. In addition, the increase in accessibility to health institutions allows people to live more healthily, which leads to a longer life expectancy in that country.In this study, economic indicators which have an effect on life expectancy were investigated for OECD countries in the early 21st century. When the development levels and life expectancy of the countries are examined, it is seen that underdeveloped countries are significantly behind compared to developed countries in terms of life expectancy at birth. For this reason, it is of great importance to find out why length of life is higher in economically developed countries and it very important to investigate the economic indicators affecting this situation.&nbsp;When the economic literature is examined, it can be seen that there are some studies on the factors affecting life expectancy, but there are not enough studies investigating the link between life expectancy and economic variables. Also, it is clear that no study has as yet been conducted between direct economic variables and life expectancy. Moreover, in economic literature, there is also a lack of studies which use OECD countries as a sample. Finally, there is no other study which uses econometric methods. In this study, Panel Regression Analysis and Granger Panel Causality Analysis were applied for the 2000-2016 period. These analyzes explain the regression and the causality relationship between the variables. According to the findings, bi-directional causality was determined between life expectancy and unemployment rate. Likewise, bi-directional causality was determined between life expectancy and gross domestic product. Also, unidirectional causality relationship was determined from health expenditures to life expectancy. In addition, regression analysis revealed that health expenditures are the most important factor affecting the life expectancy in OECD countries. In line with the regression result, it is seen that there is a positive and significant correlation between life expectancy and health expenditure. This result reveals the importance of investments in health services and the importance of health expenditures. Also, it shows that the life expectancy can be improved by investments and technologies in the health sector. In terms of development, providing a better life to individuals and society is possible when the health expenditure of the country increases.

The Impact of Economic Indicators on Life Expectancy: A Panel Data Analysis

Baha

Ottoman waqfs basically earned income in two ways, namely by renting their real estate and by operating their cash capital using the “muamele-i şer’iyye” methods. Waqfs that generated income by operating cash or by operating cash and renting real estate are called cash waqfs in the literature. The cash capital of cash waqfs could be increased in several different ways after the establishment of the waqf. One of the most commonly used ways was to add the remaining surplus to the cash capital after deducting the total expenses from the total income at the end of each hegira accounting year. Another issue examined in the studies on cash waqfs is the size of the cash capital of these waqfs and the way in which this increased and decreased.Ottoman waqfs basically earned income in two ways, namely by renting their real estate and by operating their cash capital using the “muamele-i şer’iyye” methods. Waqfs that generated income by operating cash or by operating cash and renting real estate are called cash waqfs in the literature. The cash capital of cash waqfs could be increased in several different ways after the establishment of the waqf. One of the most commonly used ways was to add the remaining surplus to the cash capital after deducting the total expenses from the total income at the end of each hegira accounting year. Another issue examined in the studies on cash waqfs is the size of the cash capital of these waqfs and the way in which this increased and decreased.This study is limited to 12 foundations established by ordinary people in Eyüp in the inspection zone of “Havass-ı Refia Kadılığı” between the years 1769- 1773. It aims to analyze the effect of waqf revenues on foundation cash capitals based on the data in the waqf accounting records within the framework of an econometric model. This modest study conducted within a very limited time period and area due to the difficulty of obtaining uninterrupted and regular data from archive documents, presents the findings obtained from the analysis and also offers a secondary contribution to the literature through data obtained from the accounting books used in cash-waqf foundation studies. The study shows that they are suitable for analysis by using econometric methods.The accounting book used in the creation of the data set of this study is among the books recorded by the Ottoman kadi in the şer’iyye court records and is one of the accounting books held by the trustees of the foundation. The accounting book in question is registered with the number 246 in the records of the Havass-ı Refia Court in the Istanbul Mufti Office Sharia Registry Archives. The data set is based on the information in the income (revenue) sections of the accounting records. In the model, cash capital of the foundations was accepted as the dependent variable and interest and rental income of the foundations were accepted as independent variables. After providing logarithmic transformation for all variables in the model, the series were analyzed using panel data method.Panel data analysis method was preferred in the study since it enabled the panel data analysis, cross-sectional data and time series data to be analyzed together. The study investigates whether there is an individual or time effect in each unit during the decision process in which panel data model is preferred. For this, F test and Likelihood Ratio (LR) test results were examined. According to these results, the presence of individual effect was determined. As a result of these findings , it was decided according to Hausman test which of the fixed or random effect models would be preferred. According to the test results, the H0 hypothesis, which says that the random effects model is appropriate, was rejected and the fixed effect model was chosen. In order to estimate and interpret the model, it is necessary to test the assumptions of the fixed effect model. For autocorrelation testing, Bhargava, Franzini and Narendranathan’s Durbin Watson Test and BaltagiWu’s local best invariant test, the modified Wald test for testing heteroskedacity, and Pesaran’s CD test for cross-sectional dependence testing were used. Test results for local best invariant tests of Bhargava, Franzini and Narendranathan’s Durbin Watson and Baltagi-Wu are 1.0743907 and 1.5401328, respectively. Considering that these values are less than 2, it is concluded that autocorrelation exists in the model. According to the modified Wald test results, the hypothesis H0 is rejected and it is understood that there is a heteroscedacity according to the units. Finally, cross-sectional dependence was also examined by Pesaran’s CD test, and according to the test results, the presence of the cross-sectional dependence was also determined, where hypothesis was rejected. In order to estimate and interpret the model, the problems determined as a result of the tests should be corrected. The presence of autocorrelation, heteroscedasticity and cross-sectional dependence were corrected by Driscoll and Kraay standard errors method.According to the findings of the analysis, while interest revenues have a statistically significant effect on cash capital at a 90% confidence level, rental revenues do not have a statistically significant effect on the same . Accordingly, a 1% increase in interest revenues increases the cash capital of foundations by 0.43%. This result shows that the interest income of foundations plays a very important role in the accumulation of foundation capitals. In addition to the findings obtained by the econometric analysis conducted in the study, a secondary result is that the waqf data obtained from the foundation accounting books in the sharia court records are suitable to be evaluated by using econometric methods.

The Effect of Interest and Rent Income of the Foundations of Ottoman Istanbul Eyüp Region on Cash Capitals: Panel Data Analysis (1769-1773)

Hasan

Halim

The research aims to determine the factors that affect the satisfaction of individuals who benefit from an activity offered as a public service. The research is carried out within the framework of the social state principle. The health problems of people who benefit from home health services do not allow for comprehensive research. The quality of the service personnel and the level of trust of the patients are examined as the factors affecting satisfaction in the research due to these limitations. The questionnaire technique was used as the data collection method in the research. In determining the number of samples, the “minimum 5 per item and 100 samples in total” constraint, which was deemed appropriate by Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson (2014), was taken as the basis. The data obtained within the scope of the research were analyzed with the SPSS 21 package program. In the analysis of the data, factor analysis, reliability analysis, descriptive statistics, correlation, and regression analysis were used.When the demographic characteristics of 151 patients who participated in the study were examined, 70,9% of the participants were women, and 29,1% were men. When the number of people living in the same dwelling is examined, 35,1% of the patients are single living, 63,6% are living with at least one person. 38,4% of patients are people who have benefited from this service for less than a year, 25,8% between 1-2 years, and 34,4% for more than two years. Also, all of the participants benefit from home health services every 5-7 days, and they are over the age of 40. According to the results of the reliability analysis, the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the scales is 0,917 for the trust in staff, the patient satisfaction scale is 0,801, and the staff quality scale is 0,954. According to the result of the factor analysis, the KMO value of the trust in staff is 0,805, and the result of Bartlett’s Sphericity Test is significant at the level of 0,000≤0,050. The total variance announced was determined as 80,27%. Statements in the scale are gathered in a single factor, and their loading levels are between 0,936 and 0,869. The KMO value of the patient satisfaction scale was 0,809, and Bartlett’s Sphericity Test was found to be significant at the level of 0,000≤0,050. The coefficients of the statements in the patient satisfaction scale are between 0,597 and 0,876. The total variance announced was determined as 68,948%. The KMO value of the Personnel Quality Perception scale was 0,937, and Bartlett’s Sphericity Test was found to be significant at the level of 0,000≤0,050. The coefficient values of the expressions in the Personnel Perception of Quality scale were between 0,600 and 0,770. The total variance announced was found to be 72,19%. The loading values of the factors ranged between 0,878 and 0,774.&nbsp;As a result of the correlation analysis conducted in order to test the significance of the relationships between the variables used in the study, a moderate (0,48), positive, and statistically significant relationship was found between patient satisfaction and staff quality. A moderate (0,588), positive and statistically significant relationship was found between patient satisfaction and trust in the staff. A moderate (0,457), positive and statistically significant relationship was determined between the quality of the staff and trust in the staff. Along with the meaningful relationship between the variables, a regression analysis was started to test the hypotheses. In the regression analysis, the “Enter Method” was used because it allows the use of multiple variables as a result of the regression analysis, it was determined that the trust in staff was 34,0% (R2 =0,340) in the level of positive explanation. The level of personnel quality disclosure of patient&nbsp;satisfaction (R2 =0,228) was determined as 22,8%. The level of self-confidence and employee quality independent variables disclosing patient satisfaction (R2 =0,411) was determined as 41,1%. The relationship between independent variables and dependent variables (R=0,648) was determined as 64,8%. When the coefficient values are examined, the constant value (0,688) is seen. In standardized coefficients, the Beta value is seen as 0,268 for personnel quality and 0,486 for confidence in personnel. It is seen that the mentioned values are significant (p≤0,05). When the obtained values are placed in the formula 𝑦𝑖 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑥𝑖1 + 𝛽2𝑥𝑖2 + 𝜀i, the change caused by one unit change in the patient quality and confidence independent variables in the patient satisfaction can be explained by 𝑦patient satisfaction=0,688 + 0,268 xstaff quality+ 0,486 xtrust in staff+ 0,307. As a result of the research, it was concluded that the perceived quality of the staff and the trust of the patients in the staff were effective on patient satisfaction.

Factors Affecting Satisfaction in Home Health Services: Trust and Quality

Mustafa Şeref

A startup starts with the opportunity of potential economic gain. It must have supportive resources (financing, management) to take advantage of the opportunity in a competitive and uncertain environment. Bank loans require regular cash flows, and therefore, startups cannot access debt financing. Banks also demand mortgages in return for credit. In the initial funding, the entrepreneur, himself, his friends and relatives play an essential role. After the initial phase, the entrepreneur’s acquaintances around him are insufficient in meeting the capital requirement. For this reason, startup founders sell some of their resources to other investors who expect a return on investment. The most crucial dilemma here is in terms of how much investment will be given for how much share. Does this have a methodology? How does it handle the math? What are the strategies that startup founders should follow?Usually, the startup entrepreneur is disappointed if he has given too many shares in exchange for very little capital. Sometimes they reject the offer. In this article, the organization and financial structures of venture capital are covered. It is shown that these calculations are the result of the sector’s foundation rather than a bargaining issue or exploitation.&nbsp;Due to the high uncertainty for both parties, it is difficult to determine the true value of newly established startups. Often, the younger the startup, the more&nbsp;historical data is missing, and the higher are the uncertainties that affect future performance which make it difficult to appreciate the company.Venture capital is the capital of an entrepreneurial group from other individuals and institutions. Risk capital entrepreneurs are called limited partners, as they only provide money. Limited partners are pension funds, endowments, companies, and wealthy people.General partners are those working in venture capital firms. They make investment decisions and use capital from limited partners or their own resources.&nbsp;&nbsp;The contract between partners is usually for ten years. This period can be divided into three parts. The new investment is made in the first period. In the second period, there are some new investments or additional investments to the existing investments, and in the third period, exists are realized. On average, 10 to 15 investments are made. Many of them fail.Venture capital is an expensive financial instrument. The discount rate used by risk capitalists is much higher than the standard project evaluation discount rates. In particular, the effect of this reduction rate is observed in the high shareholding demanded against investment.There are two main factors behind the discount rate: the setup of venture capital firms and the risk of ventures. Venture capital uses other people’s money for a long time. Limited partners are waiting for a return by adding to this waiting period.The industry average is that one or two out of 10 investments are successful. Thus, the success rate (P) varies between 10% and 20%.On the left side of Equation 1, there are capital (cash inflow), expectation returns (r) and time (T) of the fund. On the right side, is shown the probability of the startup firm to be successful and the income to be earned (cash out).Cash Int * (1 + r) ^ T [Expected return of limited partners] = P × Cash Out [Expected result] (1)There is a cash-to-cash (c-c) ratio when the amounts of cash are placed on the left side of the equation and the discount rates on the right side (equation 2).Cash Out / Cash In = = (1 + r) ^ T / p (2)The ratio of cash outflow (earnings) to cash inflow (cost) is 1 plus the time over return is divided by the probability of success. It also shows how much cash should be issued against each deposit.As an example, there should be a cash-to-cash recycling rate based on investors’ expectations and success.If the return expectation rate of investors is (r) = 0,1, 1 year is expected (t), the probability of success is 0,1 (p), it is necessary to withdraw cash from the sale of the starting firm of 11 TL against the cash inflow of 1 TL. For example, if two years is expected (t), 12,1 TL is required. If a 5-year exit strategy is foreseen, a cash outflow of 16,1 TL is required against the 1 TL set. The main reason for being extremely high, such as 11, 12, 16 times, is due to the low probability of success (P). If the success rate (P) is increased by 20%, the cash to cash rates required in the same example are reduced to 5,5, 6, and 8 times, respectively.&nbsp;In this case, the area that can be in the price negotiation with the fund, which must meet the expectations of the investors, is narrow. The venture capital fund is not an exit. The startup founders should ask only a sufficient amount of capital.

High Cost of Venture Capital and Investment Strategy Startups Should Follow

Muhittin

Selva

Sevcan

Muhammed

In this paper, we utilize the framework developed in Çakmaklı, Demiralp, Kalemli-Özcan, Yeşiltaş, and Yıldırım (2020) to calculate the sectoral costs. Our objective is to determine how sectoral costs are impacted by openness or the ratios of exports and imports in the GDP. To determine the role of openness in sectoral costs during the pandemic, we compare the costs between countries that are open and relatively closer in terms of share of trade in the GDP. We first split countries into two groups: Advanced Economies (AE) and Emerging Markets and Developing Economies (EMDE). We assume that AEs are less vulnerable to health shocks. Thus, the pandemic is successfully contained for this group. In contrast, EMDEs are more sensitive to the progress of the pandemic and have to deal with the pandemic and its health-related and economic consequences. Separating the countries in this manner allows us to evaluate the heterogeneous nature of the health shock. Two representative countries were selected from each group depending on trade openness. From the EMDE group, we pick Turkey, which is an open emerging market economy, and Brazil, which is a relatively closed emerging market economy. We then make a similar selection for the AEs. This time we pick the US, which is a relatively closed economy versus the Netherlands, which is a more open economy.The COVID-19 shock was unexpected and severe. The world was caught unprepared as countries hastily put together policies to curb the spread of the virus, contain the financial panic, and offset the economic contraction all at the same time. In Çakmaklı, Demiralp, Kalemli-Özcan, Yeşiltaş, and Yıldırım (2020), a framework is developed that illustrates the economic costs of the pandemic. Accordingly, a country’s pandemic not only impacts its production and employment as a pure domestic supply shock, but it also impacts the production of intermediate inputs imported by other countries.The sectoral costs for the EMDEs are the highest for those sectors that are more severely affected by the domestic pandemic conditions such as accommodation and food services, arts and entertainment, or real estate. The decline in demand caused by the fear factor in these nations where the pandemic is unregulated is mostly reflected in the economic losses in these sectors. We see a different sectoral breakdown when we look at AEs. Because the domestic drag from the pandemic is eliminated in these countries, the sectors that bear the highest economic costs are those that are more exposed to trade with EMDEs countries such as textiles and apparel, transportation and storage, basic metals, wholesale and retail, or agriculture and fishing. These sectors are either sizable importers of inputs or are connected to other industries that are major importers of inputs.Within the hardest hit sectors for AEs, wholesale and retail or transportation and storage are non-tradable sectors. The wholesale and retail sectors use oil as a major input. A fair amount of the inputs utilized in the manufacture of coke and refined petroleum, mainly through mining, are imported. Additionally, there are clear nonlinearities where the oil industry is linked to chemicals and pharmaceuticals, which are two industries that were dramatically affected by the pandemic. Turning to transportation and storage, which is another non-tradable sector, the costs borne by this sector are largely explained by the sizable contraction in the motor vehicles sector.The real estate sector in the Netherlands and the construction sector in the US appear to be outlier sectors that experience disproportionate losses compared to other AEs. When we take a closer look at these sectors, we observe their exposure EMDEs more clearly. The real estate industry in the Netherlands has almost 30 percent of its mining inputs obtained from EMDEs, which experiences a significant decline during the pandemic We see similar declines in basic metals, rubber, and plastic. For the US, the imports of basic metals and electrical equipment from EMDEs as intermediate inputs have reduced significantly. We observe that the countries that are more open to trade bear higher economic costs. More specifically, within two AEs such as the Netherlands and the US, we observe that the sectoral costs are generally higher in the Netherlands compared to the US, consistent with more trade exposure. Comparing the sectoral costs for two EMDE countries reveals a similar picture. In comparison to Brazil, Turkey is more open to trade. Consequently, Turkish sectoral expenses are often greater than Brazilian ones.&nbsp;

The Sectoral Costs of the Pandemic: What is the Role of Openness?

Mustafa

Energy is gradually increasing its importance as an indispensable ingredient of life. In addition to its effects on daily life, it is also the subject of many academic studies. Energy is a concept that is associated with many sciences and disciplines and is constantly analyzed through certain variables. It is a working area that may maintain its modernization because of its close connection to technological innovation. In a globalizing world, it is a dynamic that sometimes brings countries closer to each other and sometimes causes conflicts.The relationship between energy and economics develops through the energy economy, energy market, energy resources, energy policies, and its environmental effects. Energy sources, the focus of this study, fall into two categories: non-renewable and renewable. Non-renewable energy sources are also known as fossil fuels. They were formed by the transformation of the remains of organisms that lived in previous periods over many years. They are also known as traditional energy sources. As a result of long-termed habits, these nonrenewable energy resources have a significant ratio in global energy. Fossil fuels have a high share of 81% in today’s energy market.Due to their way of formation, fossil fuels have some drawbacks. The first of these is the potential risk of not being enough to meet the increasing energy demand since they are exhaustible energy sources. The second negative aspect is that they threaten life due to the polluting gases they emit in the process of being used. It is known that the use of energy resources such as oil and coal and the gases that cause greenhouse gas emissions such as methane and carbon dioxide cause global warming and climate change problems. They grant political superiority to the nations with resources, which is another drawback. The importing nations’ energy security and independence are in danger. When several unfavorable circumstances are taken into account, it is evident that resource diversification is a difficulty for the countries involved. In this direction, renewable energy sources come to the forefront as clean and environmentally friendly. They contribute to economic growth and sustainable development goals. They also help to solve the problem of foreignsource dependency on energy.The aim of this study is to show that Turkey and other developing countries can easily increase their renewable energy investments without leaving aside their economic growth targets. Since the energy markets of developed economies are more established, developing countries need to start this energy transformation. With this process, both economic policy goals and sustainable development goals will be achieved together.Between 1995 and 2014 was chosen as the scope of the study. The group of developing countries, including Turkey, has been determined from the report titled “World Economic Situation and Prospects”. These countries are economies that pursue their economic policies intending to become a developed country. Considering this report, 67 developing countries were included in the study. When the data were examined, some countries were excluded because they experienced data loss in some years. In addition, due to the desire to add more countries to the model, data could be added to the analysis until 2014. All data used in the study were collected from the “World Bank Data Indicator” section.The Generalized Method of Moments (GMM), which is a dynamic panel data analysis method, is used as the model of the study. In the study, the use of renewable energy resources, use of fossil fuels, economic growth, and CO2 emission variables are discussed in the form of annual data covering the years&nbsp;1995 and 2014. The dependent variable among these factors is the economic growth indicator. The research focuses on how independent variables affect the dependent variable. In the dynamic model, the one-year lagged value of the dependent variable is added to the regression as an independent variable.As a result of the study, the signs of the independent variables that affect the dependent variable are positive as expected. Increasing the use of renewable energy in developing nations has a positive impact on the pace of economic growth in those nations. Additionally, it does not seem to be a realistic goal to meet all of the world’s energy needs through the use of renewable energy sources. The main goal for developing countries, including Turkey, is to create a more sustainable energy resource management. In this direction, Turkey should both build a sustainable future by increasing the share of renewable energy and experience positive changes in terms of economic indicators. Economic policies should be prepared in line with energy policies.&nbsp;

The Relationship Energy Sources Use-CO2 Emissions and Economic  Growth: An Investigation on Developing Economies

Onur

This study examines Islamic economic thought in the context of the theoretical framework of economic sociology theories which explain the development of industrial capitalism. Islamic economics literature has preferred to follow a different path from the ideal economic individual typology used by Western literature, especially in explaining the economic structures of devoloping Eastern countries and in solving their existing problems. The first reason for this preference is the number of Muslim countries in the East. The second important reason is that industrial capitalism did not occur in any of these countries. Many Western economists attribute the fact that industrial capitalism did not take place in the East to the fact that its societies do not have the ideal economic human behaviors as described by modern economic theories.&nbsp;According to many Islamic economic theorists, modern Western literature aims to describe ideal economic behavior in order to ascribe capitalist development solely to Western countries, therefore, necessitating efforts to draw alternatives of ideal economic behavior as a counter-movement. This has led many to attempt alternative theories to neoclassical automatic balance mechanisms, which pay little attention to the sociological dimensions of economic thought. Likewise, the inability of alternative theories to address the sociological dimension has led to some negative consequences. The boundaries of Islamic economic thought seem to be limited to conformist dimension only against the neoclassical paradigm. Therefore, this paper discusses the dimensions of Islamic economic thought and the transformations of this school in the context of economic sociology. Theorists of economic sociology have discussed the nature of economic behavior in a social context, and argue that non-Western economies could not realize the accumulation of capital due to their stagnant structure. In this direction, attempts have been made in this paper to accurately define stagnation. For this purpose, it has been questioned whether stagnation exists within the dynamics of the economy. In addition, the effect of state economic interests on this stagnation is discussed.Considering the central importance of the social context in economic sociology, economic sociologists have not neglected the effect of religious thought on the economic structure, and have examined the effect of spiritual elements on the economy. The founders of economic sociology identified three main components to explain the differences between economic mentalities in terms of capitalist development between civilizations. These are respectively; (1) Structuralism, (2) Sociology of Institutions, and (3) Social Networks. These three main components have held central importance in the conceptual framework used in this study. Additionally, the study compares the differences and similarities between Islamic thought and modern economic thought. Sociology of institutions, one of the three main components of this conceptual framework, has been of great importance for the methodology of the paper. According to the sociology of institutions, Eastern societies could not achieve the accumulation of capitalist capital due to their belief in mystical religions.&nbsp;The methodology of the paper was also designed to test this proposition. This article adopted qualitative research methods as the development of Islamic economic thought was examined from an interpretive view. It conducted a comparative examination of the social structure and the development of economic institutions while highlighting the key differences in the processes in different periods. Therefore, a comparative historical design was preferred. This research design was also utilized to due to the great importance of how certain social changes differ before and after particular temporal points, which were examined in the context of mainstream views. In this view, it is claimed that Islam, and therefore its understanding of economics, has a morality. In addition, one of the other implications of this view is undoubtedly that Islamic economic thought could not realize industrial capitalism for this reason. In this context, the concepts of stagnation and secularization in Islamic economic thought were analyzed descriptively. Also, a categorical-systematic content analysis was made. As a requirement of the classification stage, which is the first step of categorical— systematic analysis, a two-dimensional classification was made between secularization and stagnation. The article then discusses the secularizationstagnation conflict in the linking phase, which is the second step of the categoricalsystematic analysis. In this paper the components of the classic Ottoman thought have been weighted in the frame of the discourse analysis.&nbsp;

Examining Islamic Economic Thought in the Context of Comparative  Historical Economic Sociology

Ozan

Debt, Wealth, Income Distribution and Demand: A  post-Keynesian Empirical Study on Turkiye

Murat

Mete

Gülçin

Bilge

Quality of Life Index: Istanbul 2020

Yasin

The Role of Macroeconomic Stability in Current  Account Balances

Anar

Natural Resources and Rent Seeking Collusion in the  Context of Dutch Disease

Selim

Bengü

Dollarization and Risk Premium in a Risky Country:  An Investigation on Turkiye

Alper

Intra-BRICS Trade: A Panel Data Analysis with  Structural Breaks

Turgut

Sencer

Net Neutrality in the Content Provision and Internet  Service Provision Markets

Fatma

The ICT sector with its high R&amp;D investments, innovation and employment capacity, high value-added structure, low fixed capital investments, and intermediate goods demand is seen as the fastest-growing sector in both developed and developing countries. In addition to the ICT sector’s high percentage of national income, especially in developed countries, the sector is also known to contribute significantly to productivity increases. Rapid developments in the field of information and communication technologies have recently led to the effects of these technologies on macroeconomic indicators such as productivity and employment being frequently discussed in the literature. Although the results from empirical studies supporting the positive effects of ICTs on labor productivity and countries’ experiences provide strong evidence for arguments that strengthen the existence of a relationship between these two variables, difficulty is had in saying that a general consensus still exists on this issue in the literature. Similarly, this inference is valid for the effects of ICTs on employment. As such, these technologies are able to increase employment in the long run as markets adapt to new technologies while also being able to lead to technological unemployment due to the labor-saving effects of ICTs.Despite the presence of many studies examining the relationships among ICT usage, labor productivity, and employment in the literature, a limited number of studies are found to have examined these relationships with regard to Turkey. Within the scope of the reviewed literature, no study has been found to have additionally examined the effects of ICT use on labor productivity and employment by modeling these separately based on the ARDL bounds test approach. These two aspects point to the motivation of the study and its potential&nbsp;contributions to the existing literature. The purpose of the paper is to contribute to investigating the effects of information and communication technologies on labor productivity and employment in Turkey. The ICT sector is one of the sectors whose importance has increased in the Turkish economy, especially in recent years. In 2020, the growth rate of the ICT sector increased by 22% compared to 2019 to a size of 26.9 billion dollars. The ICT sector had an annual average growth rate of 15% in the 2016-2020 period, during which employment in this sector had increased by 7% and ICT exports by 31%. In the last five years, investments in the sector, whose growth trend is approximately 10%, increased by 30%. In this context, the econometric procedure for the ARDL bounds test was followed using ICT usage, labor productivity, and employment rate data in Turkey for the period of 2001-2020. Afterward, the study examined the causality relationships between the variables using the Toda-Yamamoto test.The main findings obtained from the analyses show ICT use to have had a statistically significant and negative impact on labor productivity. Similarly, the impact of ICT use on employment was also negative, with the values for both models’ coefficients being quite small. Meanwhile, a bidirectional causality relationship exists between ICT use and labor productivity, as well as between employment and labor productivity. However, no causal relationship was found between ICT use and employment. Consequently, the impact of ICT use on labor productivity and employment in Turkey is negative, but the coefficients are negligibly small. The possible reasons for ICTs’ negative effects on labor productivity and employment can be explained through inadequate complementary investments and the delayed realization of positive effects in the long run. This is because the temporary negative effects of these labor-saving technologies on employment will eventually be eliminated by realizing complementary ICT investments and creating new job opportunities. In addition, ICT’s impact on labor productivity will also become positive as ICT use increases in parallel with the increase in the workforce’s technological skills and abilities over time, with this effect also tending to increase more.&nbsp;

The Effects of Information and Communication Technologies on  Labor Productivity and Employment in Turkiye: The ARDL Bounds  Test Approach

Ayça

High unemployment rates are accepted as an important macroeconomic problem in all countries. In general, unemployment is the situation when people are willing to work but are unable to find a job. Unemployment rate are an important macroeconomic variable for all countries in the world, are primary goal. In line with this, the issue of reducing unemployment rates by increasing employment is definitely part of countries’ short-, medium-, and long-term economic policies.&nbsp;When evaluating a general economic situation, completely eliminating unemployment is seen to be impossible. The literature has various studies on unemployment, with two main theories being found: the unemployment hysteresis hypothesis and the natural rate of unemployment hypothesis. Unemployment hysteria and the natural rate of unemployment examine the effects of economic shocks on unemployment series.&nbsp;A time series that has a unit root, (i.e. is not stationary), can be said to possess a hysteresis effect. Any shock in this situation will cause the unemployment time series to maintain even after the shock wears off. Meanwhile, for time series that do not have a unit root, (i.e. are stationary), the effect of any economic shock will have a temporary effect on the series, with the series returning to its original state once the shock wears off. In the natural rate of unemployment hypothesis, the unemployment rate returns to its previous level in the long run after experiencing an economic shock. In the unemployment hysteresis hypothesis, the unemployment rate does not return to its previous level after the shock.&nbsp;&nbsp;Unit root tests are widely used to determine whether unemployment hysteresis is present. The aim of this study is to test the unemployment hysteresis hypothesis in EU countries using linear and nonlinear unit root tests. For this purpose, linear analyses were performed on the unemployment rate time series of this countries, and unit root analyses were performed separetely with regard to linear and non-linear series. The linearity of the series showing EU countries’ overall unemployment rate needs to be determined first before determining whether the series is stationary or not. As a result of the linearity tests, linear unit root tests were applied to the series possessing a linear structure. Nonlinear unit root tests were applied to the series possessing a nonlinear structure. Both the linear and nonlinear unit root tests were applied to the series that showed conflicting result regarding the linearity tests. As a result of the research, the Luxembourg unemployment time series was seen to have a unit root for all models. In line with this, when evaluating all the models together, the unemployment rates in Luxembourg can be said to exhibit unemployment hysteresis.In countries possessing unemployment hysteresis, a shock to the economy is permanent and causes long-term effects. For this reason, active policy implementations are needed. Due to the way unemployment series diverge from the average unemployment rate as a result of an economic shock, studies should be carried out to resolve unemployment issues using various administrative policies. The unemploment rate is also directly related to many macroeconomic variables such as inflation and gross domestic product. Therefore, any instability experienced in the unemployment rate will also upset other economic balances. As a result, increasing the general economic structure’s resilience against internal and external shocks is important for keeping unemployment rates at a specific level.&nbsp;

Determining Unemployment Hysteresis in European Countries Using  Linear and Nonlinear Unit Root Tests: The 1991-2020 Period

Bülent

This study examines the effects of politico-economic uncertainty on tax wedge rates. When considering that uncertainty affects the decision-making mechanism of economic agents (especially policy makers), uncertainty is usually expected to affect tax wedge rates. In this context, the research seeks to answer the following question:• What are the short- and long-term impacts of politico-economic uncertainty on tax wedges and do they differ?When examining the literature on uncertainty, analyses can be concluded to be found mainly between tax wedge and variables such as unemployment, economic growth, production, informal employment, foreign investments, and productivity of labor force. In addition to individual country analyses, one country was also found to have been compared to cases such as the EU, OECD, and G-7 countries. Research has also occurred on the tax wedge’s impact on female and male employment. The common result obtained from the studies is that uncertainty negatively affects many macro and micro variables such as unemployment, inflation rate, investment level, economic growth and development, credit volume, firm profitability, and productivity. The original contribution from the current study is that it explores the relationship between economic policy uncertainty and the tax wedge, which has yet to have been examined in the previous literature.Many factors such as financial or political crises, epidemics, climatic conditions, and social events can lead to economic uncertainty. This emerging uncertainty causes economic and financial instability, and in this respect, a strong link exists between uncertainty and instability. The resulting instability reduces the likelihood that decisions made about the future can be predicted correctly or that confidence can be had in the economy, as uncertainty deepens and affects instability again in this process. As a result, the economy enters a vicious circle. In addition, the main source of uncertainty in the markets may be policymakers’ lack of clarity in terms of objectives and instruments regarding the monetary and fiscal policies to be implemented and even their inconsistent behaviors with regard to actions and statements.As for the inflationary gap that may arise under economic uncertainty, lowand fixed-income earners in particular may have to reduce their consumption levels due to the decline in purchasing power. On the other hand, wage earners whose nominal income has increased due to inflation will become exposed to higher brackets in the progressive tax tariff, and thus the average tax and tax wedge rates will increase. As a result, wage earners’ tax wedge rates will increase and the principle of fairness in tax will be damaged when considered within the scope of inflation tax. Fiscal drag will also arise due to inflation. As a result, decreasing demand may prevent economic and employment growth as the tax wedge increases due to real income not increasing.However, if uncertainty causes a deflationary gap, unemployment will arise due to decreased demand, increased inventories, and falling production levels. In this case, pressure may occur to increase the tax wedge rate on the existing labor force and employers who are trying to finance the cost of unemployment through means such as unemployment insurance premiums. A decrease in wages in the absence of labor union activities may also adversely affect the burden of the tax wedge. As a result, the phenomenon of economic uncertainty caused by vague decisions or explanations policymakers make may adversely affect the tax wedge through economic instability (e.g., inflation, deflation, unemployment, labor inefficiency/loss of productivity, changes in relative prices, and inefficiency in resource distribution).This study analyzed the cointegration relationship between the tax wedge and uncertainty using annual data for the period of 2000-2020 over a sample of 18&nbsp;OECD countries whose economic policy uncertainty index had been calculated. The tax wedge rates were accessed from the OECD database, and the economicpolitical uncertainty index was accessed from the website www.policyuncertainty. com, which published data based on Baker et al. (2016). The raw data for the tax wedge comprises the ratio between the amount of tax paid by a single childless worker and the corresponding total labor cost for the employer. The panel ARDL method was used in the analysis with respect to the homogeneity, cross-sectional dependence, and unit root results of the panel data.According to the results from the PMG analysis, in which homogeneous results had been obtained for the countries in the long term, economic policy uncertainty was seen to increase the tax wedge. In the model with a statistically significant error correction coefficient, approximately 11% of the short-term imbalances were concluded to have disappeared during the next period and convergence to have achieved equilibrium in the long-term. However, no relationship was observable between the variables in the short run. In other words, the short- and long-term effects of the model were seen to differ.Many countries and international organizations (e.g., OECD and EU) try to take measures to reduce the costs caused by the tax wedge. In this way, they aim to reduce unemployment and unregistered employment and to improve the general economic framework. One of the most important steps toward reducing the negative effects of the tax wedge is to reduce uncertainties. In this context, politico-economic actors should behave without compromising their scientificity, realism, transparency, public interest, and justice in terms of the statements and decisions they make.&nbsp;

The Effect of Economic Uncertainty on the Tax Wedge: The Case of Selected OECD Countries

Selahattin

Financial failure has been one of the most important risks for companies, investors, and lenders for many years, especially during fluctuating economic periods. Regardless of the company size or the sector in which it operates, the possibility exists of encountering financial difficulties. In case of financial distress, companies primarily aim to maintain financial stability, thus ensuring the company’s continuity.Markets are observed to have changed and developed rapidly through the effects of globalization, technological developments, and economic conditions. This change brings the ability to predict financial failure to the fore, especially with regard to companies, and forecasting financial failure will have an important function in this respect. The financial reports companies publish are taken as a basis for determining financial failure. However, environmental problems such as climate change, drought, and global warming have increased ecological uncertainty as well as future economic uncertainty. Stakeholders also require additional reports such as sustainability reports in order to identify ecologicaland environmental-oriented problems, as well as the additional financial reports companies publish in the face of these uncertainties. These additional reports a company publishes help explain to stakeholders the measures the company is taking against environmental problems, as well as the company’s innovative approaches and practices implemented for minimizing environmental impacts from products, starting from the production stage and finishing with it reaching the final consumer. At this stage, one should not forgot that a sustainable environment should be provided so that current and future generations can live comfortably in the face of changing environmental conditions.The first section of the paper explains the concepts of sustainability, sustainability accounting, and sustainability reporting, and the second section explains the activities related to sustainability accounting. The third section defines financial failure. The analysis phase selected the transportation sector from among the 11 sectors included in the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB) and examined the annual reports of 39 out of 43 companies in the transportation sector in the world. The Altman Z″ scores for the companies were calculated according to the data they announced in their financial statements. In the paper, the relationship between companies operating in the transportation sector selected from SASB and their financial failures was analyzed. Thus, it is aimed to examine the relationship between financial failure and sustainability reports. The calculated Altman Z″ score measures not just companies’ financial failure but also the impact COVID-19 has had on financial reporting.When classifying companies according to their Z″ score with regard to financial failure estimation studies, the following grouping was made with respect to Table 1 from Altman and Hotchkiss’ (Altman ve Hotchkiss, 2006, s.248-267 ve Altman, İwanicz-Drozdowska, Laitinen ve Suvas 2017, s.136).- Companies with a Z″ score &lt; 4.35 are in the distressed zone, - Companies with a Z″ score between 4.35 and 5.85 are in the gray zone, and - Companies with a Z″ score ≥ 5.85 are in the safe zone&nbsp;This study evaluated companies in the distressed zone (Z″ &lt; 4.35) and companies in the gray/uncertain zone (4.35 ≤ Z″ &lt; 5.85) to examine whether these companies published reports on sustainability reporting.As a result, the study found eight companies to have been in financial distress for the five years between 2016-2020, with four of these companies having published sustainability reports during this period. Three of these companies operate in the airlines sector, and one company operates in the automobile sector.The study additionally observed an increase to have occurred in terms of the number of sustainability reports each year, even for companies in financial distress or in the gray zone. In other words, the need and importance for companies to file a sustainability report in addition to a financial report has increased each year in the studied period. When examining the impact COVID 19 has had with regard to financial reports, the Z″ scores in 2020 for 22 companies were observed to have decreased compared to their 2019 Z″ scores. This shows most companies’ finances to have been negatively affected by the COVID 19 pandemic. In addition, the Z″ scores for the companies in the airline sector as an industry branch in the transportation sector are seen to have been more affected by COVID 19 than other industries.&nbsp;

Analysis of the Relationship Between Financial Failures and Sustainability Reports of Companies Publishing SASB Reports

Serkan

In Turkiye, household consumption expenditures share of the gross domestic product was approximately 56.4% in 2020. (Turkish Statistical Institute [TurkStat], 2021). Therefore, private consumption expenditures constitute more than half of the gross domestic product and are its most crucial component. This percentage is high enough to even indicate the importance of this study. The main motivation of this study is to research private consumption expenditures, which is accepted as an essential indicator of the household welfare level. The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of plastic card expenditures, gross domestic product, and inflation on private consumption expenditures through the case of Turkiye.Considering the size of the expenditures made with debit cards within the Turkish economy, the analyses made to determine consumption only by credit cards while omitting bank cards contain a critical deficiency. Therefore, determining the effect of plastic card expenditures on private consumption expenditures is vitally important. In actuality, this feature distinguishes the study from other studies in the literature. For this reason, this study separately examines the short- and long-term relationships between plastic card expenditures and private consumption expenditures and is expected to fill this gap in the literature.This study examines the effects of plastic card expenditures and inflation on private consumption expenditures using 32 quarterly datasets for the 2014Q1-&nbsp;2021Q4 period through the case of Turkiye. Because the variables consist of quarterly data, the variables have been seasonally adjusted through the seasonaltrend decomposition using LOESS (STL) method. In addition, variables are included in the analysis in their logarithmic form to allow the analysis results to be interpreted as percentages and to converge the outliers. The analytical section of the study first presents the descriptive statistics of the variables, the correlation matrix, and figures. Next, the augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips-Perron (PP) unit root tests are applied to determine the appropriate method and determine the stationarity of the variables. Afterward, any possible cointegration relationships between the variables in the model are investigated with the ARDL method, the short- and long-term coefficients are estimated, and structural stability and smoothness of the model is tested with various diagnostic tests. Lastly, the causality relationships among the variables in the model are tested using the Toda-Yamamoto causality tests. The findings obtained as a result of the analysis can be summarized as follows:The ARDL limit test results show a linear cointegration among the variables of household private consumption expenditures, plastic card expenditures, gross domestic product, and inflation . This result means that the variables move in unison in the long run. All the coefficients are statistically significant both in the long- and short-term. According to the long-term coefficient estimation results, private consumption expenditures increase as gross domestic product and plastic card expenditures increase in Turkiye. As inflation increases, private consumption expenditures decrease. In the long run, a 1% increase (or decrease) in gross domestic product increases (or decreases) private consumption expenditures by about 0.64%. This result shows that Turkiye’s private consumption function is compatible with the Keynesian consumption function. This result also proves gross domestic product to be the most influential factor in private consumption. In simpler terms, as the gross domestic product increases in Turkiye, private consumption expenditures increase in the long run; however, consumption does not increase as much as income. In the long run, a 1% increase (or decrease) in plastic card expenditures increases (or decreases) private consumption expenditures by approximately 0.38%. This result can be interpreted as household private consumption having quite a high dependence on plastic cards. This result can additionally be interpreted to mean increases in household plastic card ownership increases household consumption motive. The long-term inflation coefficient being identified as -0.36 can be interpreted as inflation suppressing/ reducing private consumption expenditures. When inflation increases (or decreases) by 1%, private consumption expenditures decrease (or increase) by about 0.36%. The short-run coefficients are similar in direction to the long-run ones. However, inflation has a much stronger and statistically more significant effect on reducing short-term private consumption expenditures than in the long run. In addition, the model successfully passed all the diagnostic tests.According to the Toda‐Yamamoto causality test results, bidirectional causality relationships exist between private consumption expenditure and gross domestic product, between private consumption expenditures and plastic card expenditures, and between gross domestic product and plastic card expenditures. In addition, one-way (unidirectional) causality relationships exist going from plastic card expenditures to inflation and from inflation to private consumption expenditures.The study’s empirical findings reveal that increasing the gross domestic product and plastic card expenditures and reducing inflation rates will have positive effects on private consumption expenditures in Turkiye. Therefore, these variables can be said to be outstanding instruments for stimulating the economy and stimulating aggregate demand during an economic recession. The significant negative error correction term indicates that the Turkish economy will adapt relatively quickly to an external shock.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Does Plastic Card Spending Have an Impact on Household Private  Consumption Expenditures? Empirical Evidence Based on the  ARDL Method

Kemal

Arif

Businesses carry out various activities in order to produce the economic goods and services society needs and to offer them to those who need them. When considering basic business functions, these business activities can be grouped under five functions: supply, production, marketing, management, and financing. As one of these five functions of enterprises, financing involves providing the financial resources a business needs in order to produce.While finance means the money, funds, and capital from which individuals and institutions can benefit, financing covers the ways money and capital are provided. Firms generally wants to compensate for financing the resources they need primarily with their own equity. However, when their own funds are insufficient for the investment and growth targets companies plan, an additional external financing requirement arises.When considering balance sheet equity, achieving a balance is desired when financing assets. The desire is to benefit from current resources when financing current period activities and from long-term resources when financing fixed assets. The formation and distribution of long-term resources provides information about an enterprise’s capital structure. However, adding up a business’ short-term liabilities provides information about the business’ financial structure.When deciding about capital structure, which expresses the equity capitalization and debt rates that will provide the capital a business needs, the aim is to determine the capital structure that has the lowest costs for financing resources. For this purpose, the Modigliani and Miller (1958) model has been developed to determine enterprises’ optimal capital structure. The Modigliani and Miller model is quite important in terms of answering a critical question about how changes in enterprises’ financial structures affect market values and average capital costs.Modigliani and Miller’s (1958) ignored tax effects, with their subsequent study from 1963 being a continuation of their 1950 study in which they explain the relationship between capital costs and corporate tax. According to them, the only advantage debt has for a business is that it saves interest expenses regarding tax payments and thus increases that business’ market value. Therefore, Modigliani and Miller’s approach, which argues that the market value will remain constant for all debt ratios, becomes invalid when considering the tax savings provided by interest expenses.In the Modigliani and Miller model, the value of the leveraged firm will exceed the value of the unleveraged firm due to the amount of the interest tax shield when including corporate tax. At the same time, the difference between these values will widen as the amount of debt usage increases. However, having full debt in the capital structure only by deducting the tax effect is impossible in practice. This situation can be explained through financing and investment decisions, as a shortage of money and abandonment of certain planned profitable investments are likely to occur due to the amount of obligatory payments being at excessive debt levels. This will cause investors’ average income expectations and the business’ market value to decrease as the debt ratio rises.When evaluating annual average data, this study shows the financial leverage ratios of the companies in the Borsa Istanbul Full (BIST-TÜM) Index for the 2008- 2020 period in Turkey to have experienced an increasing trend. This shows that businesses have been providing financing for the resources they need through foreign resources. Implementing the financial expense restriction regarding expense and cost items such as interest, commission, exchange rate difference, maturity difference, and profit share concerning the foreign resources does not allow the 10% deduction from the tax base corresponding to the portion of expense and cost items exceeding the equity amount for enterprises whose foreign resources exceed their own resources. The regulations regarding financial expense restrictions are expected to result in an improvement on the balance sheets of enterprises operating in Turkey by encouraging equity financing. This study aims to reveal the effects that financial expenditure restrictions have on enterprises’ capital structure. In this context, the study will first present examples of financial expense restrictions in selected countries. Using balance sheet and income statement data, the debt/equity ratio and net financing expense/EBITDA ratio are seen to have been used in the financial expense restrictions applied in the relevant countries. After 2020, the provisions of financial expense restrictions began being applied once they were enacted into law in Turkey in 2021. This study then evaluates the effects these applications have had on enterprises’ capital structures. The study concludes with the evaluations that financial expense restrictions will have positive effects on enterprises’ financial policies and that enterprises’ market values will in parallel also be positively affected. Future studies can analyze whether the aim expected from the regulations regarding financial expense restrictions was realized in the following periods and whether the regulation was effective or not by using data from BIST companies’ financial statements.&nbsp;

Financing Expense Restrictions’ Effects on Capital Structure

The brain drain has taken different forms these days, both physical and virtual. The virtual brain drain differs from the physical brain drain in terms of its causes and effects. This phenomenon occurs in parallel with developed and developing countries and brings about both opportunities and difficulties. The criteria that determine these opportunities or challenges emerge in line with countries’ priorities, policies, resources, strengths, and weaknesses. However, the virtual brain drain also differs from the physical brain drain in terms of how it emerges. Initially, the factors that determined this distinction involved the requirements of the information and technology age. This led to a renewal of the traditional concept of brain drain to take into account the phenomenon of the virtual brain drain. Another factor has been the possibility of spatial flexibility during work. The development of information and communication technologies has significantly contributed to employees transferring abroad by minimizing the physical effort. In this regard, the virtual brain drain has become embodied among a contracted workforce and a flexible working model.Flexibility is a distinct interpretation of the technical advancements and other elements that directly or indirectly affect the relevant sphere of activity (in particular labor markets) based on the needs of the era. Employment policy planning is especially at the forefront of the modification and transformation of national industrial systems. Among these modifications and transformations is an&nbsp;evaluation of the concept of work flexibility in terms of the new job forms that have been brought about by the technological shift in consumption and production patterns.Since 1975, technological advancements in communication have provided cost savings for businesses, production structures have shifted to areas of expertise, and collaborations with external suppliers have made significant changes in consumer demands, necessitating the need for more flexible employees.Nevertheless, the technological transformations, changes in labor demand, globalization and international competition, unemployment, expansion and changes in the service sector, acceleration of competition and economic efficiency, supply-and-demand expectations with regard to the nature of labor, wage systems, and dialogues between parties can be counted as the general reasons for the existence of flexible working.Remote working is a form of flexible working that has gained popularity, with alternatives at various levels. Remote at any level, fully remote, remote during the pandemic, partial/hybrid remote working, and remote work choices have been applied in accordance with companies’ and institutions’ frameworks. As a result of the creation of numerous goods and services in the 20th century in particular, working from home has become a generally accepted style of working in the service industry. With the acceleration of information technologies and communication in recent years, work can be done remotely these days from many areas. As an elevated idea, these professions are virtual. Virtual work is compatible with flexible corporate models and is considered an extension of a demand independent of place when employees or specialists are in faraway offices or countries.Multinational corporations increasingly play a crucial role in employment, welfare, quality of life, and investments because of their strategic locations. Therefore, globalization has expanded beyond the goods and financial markets and accelerated toward markets with technology and knowledge workers; geographical mobility has also increased more than ever, resulting in an increase in the number of employees for companies with diverse cultures and organizational structures around the world. In this context, such a global increase suggests the concept of brain drain. In addition to being a physical concept in the classic sense, brain drain also includes the virtual type that has occurred in recent years without any physical relocation occurring.The objective of this study is to investigate the experiences of employees wıth regard to the rapidly expanding teleworking style in Turkey, particularly in the informatics and software industry. Thus, attention will be drawn to this situation so as to evaluate it as a positive or negative experience for Turkey.This study has preferred being conducted as qualitative research. The study has also selected the phenomenological design, in which obtaining a deep and comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon is the primary objective, and 10-15 participants are considered sufficient. In this context, the study aims to reveal the experiences of remote workers for a foreign corporation in Turkey. For this reason, the study has preferred the interpretation-based phenomenological design. The study uses descriptive analysis as the qualitative data analysis approach for assessing the collected research data. First, the study categorized and organized the participants’ guesses and highlighted them into topics based on their responses to the open-ended questions and the remarks directed toward them. The research collected data from 11 participants in six different Turkish cities using the e-interview technique. The obtained data were analyzed using descriptive analysis. According to the results obtained from the study, the employees’ searches were observed to have been shaped around economic factors, the search for flexibility, and issues arising from companies, with participants more intensely expressing the factors affecting work-life balance to have had a guiding effect on the virtual brain drain.&nbsp;

The Virtual Brain Drain in Turkey: A Qualitative Research on Remote  Employees’ Experiences in Foreign Firms

Erdem

Behavioral economics explains how economic decision-making is influenced by mental, emotional, and social biases. The discipline of labor economics studies the decisions of workers and employers regarding repeated human interactions and has also been influenced by the development of behavioral economics. This interaction has become the discipline known as behavioral labor economics in the last two decades and helps to explain the observed behavior of workers and employers. Traditional labor economics theories have been tested in behavioral labor economics, with new theories having been developed, and tools having emerged that contribute to the literature for the design and evaluation of labor economics policies using behavioral theories and experimental methods together.&nbsp;The wage and wage-effort relationship has been one of the main issues in labor economics, economics, and other business disciplines, and various solutions have been sought for this issue under the heading of wage theories since the 20th century. Gift exchange theory is an efficiency wage theory model, according to which a wage level higher than the equilibrium wage level in the market is considered a gift for the employee, and employees in turn put forth greater effort in exchange for this gift. Nowadays, gift exchange theory explains how all kinds of factors affecting employee psychology, working rules, other workers’ wages, unemployment insurance, unemployment levels, and reference wages are important in determining efficiency wages. In this context, the theory offers a new and different perspective to wage theories.The aim of this study is to interpret gift exchange theory using behavioral labor economics arguments and to measure the effect of a psychologically perceived gift on effort behaviors in the employer-employee relationship. For this purpose, the effect of an extra wage that was given as a gift exceeding the participants’ expected wage level was examined with regard to experimental and control groups. The difference in effort levels between the groups was first measured, followed by the change of this difference over time. This experiment uses the method of field experiments to test the effectiveness of gift exchange theory. Within the scope of the experiment, the control and experimental groups each had 10 participants. The participants were sent information about the books in a file and asked to record this information in the library system. The participants were informed that they would earn 100 virtual coins if they recorded the data from the book that they’d been sent onto the system completely and sequentially for three sessions. Prior to starting the study, the participants in the control group were also told that they would be given 100 virtual coins in thanks for participating in the study voluntarily. The participants in the experimental group were also thanked for participating in the study voluntarily, and in this context, they were given 50 more virtual coins as a gift and then informed that they would receive a total of 150 virtual coins at the end of the study.&nbsp;The Mann-Whitney U test was applied to measure the effects of the gift exchange that occurred between the control and experimental groups in the total hour and for each hour. According to the test results, the significance value for the full hour was p = 0,000, which satisfies the p &lt; 0,05 condition. Thus, the difference between the experimental and control groups was determined to be statistically significant. The change in the number of books recorded in the system by both groups over time was examined by applying the Friedman Test. First, the change in the number of books in the control group per hour entered into the system was not statistically significant (p = 0,497 &gt; 0,05). Next, the change in the number of books recorded in the system in the experimental group per hour was&nbsp;measured, and this change was statistically significant (p = 0,00 &lt; 0,05). For this reason, the two-way Friedman Test was applied to measure the significance of the difference. According to the results from this test, the difference between the first and second hour in the experimental group (p = 0,371 &gt; 0,05) was not statistically significant, while the difference between the first and third hour (p = 0,00 &lt; 0,05) and between the second and third hour (p = 0,004 &lt; 0,05) in the experimental group were statistically significant.&nbsp;Further contributions to the literature can be made by comparing the ratio of the nominal gift given in addition to the wage and the change in effort levels. To achieve a more realistic result, gift exchange should be measured by preparing a longer-term experiment plan rather than a one-time three-hour study, thus the sustainability of gift exchange in labor markets can be examined in this way. In addition, the one-time fee paid in the study may be perceived as additional income by the participants. Instead, a field study conducted directly on employee salaries may provide different results.&nbsp;

The Effect of Gift Exchange Theory on Wage Determination

Bilal

The subject of social policy involves solving the problems of disadvantaged groups in society. In this context, solving the problems of disadvantaged groups is one of the requirements of being a social state. These problems may arise based on many reasons such as social, economic, cultural, or religious. As one of the most important actors of social policy, employees also face many problems, with unemployment, precarious work conditions, de-unionization, and low wages being among the main problems in the labor market. These problems are seen more intensely in extraordinary times. For example, as a result of the socioeconomic problems experienced during the COVID-19, many workers became unemployed or faced low wage raises. Being able to have the parts of social policy come to an agreement is very important for being able to solve these problems. Workers, their unions, employers, and the state when necessary are the most important actors in solving problems. However, all social policy actors can play an active role in solving problems, with social policy actors such as families, religious institutions, and non-governmental organizations also being important actors for solving socioeconomic problems. With the increasing effectiveness of technology and the media, socio-economic problems have also become much more visible.The media has been frequently stated over the last 50 years to have a significant influence as an agenda-setting tool. For example, the media has been said to have a significant impact when determining the media agenda among TV channels, newspapers, and magazines. As a result of social media practices that developed much more rapidly as of 2010, social media began being evaluated by certain segments as a factor that strengthens democracy. As a result of Web 2.0 technology, users have started to manage content in addition to content production. In this context, Twitter is one of the most important applications to have been used as an agenda-setting tool.The main purpose of this research is to examine Twitter users’ social policy role as an agenda-setting tool. The research examines how Twitter users reacted to Yemeksepeti motor delivery employees who rejected the wage increases and Migros warehouse workers who were dismissed for not accepting their wage increases. In this context, 8,536 tweets with the hashtags #migrosboykot, #yemeksepetiboykot, and #yemeksepeti were analyzed using content analysis. The tweets were analyzed using the quantitative analysis program MAXQDA. First, certain categories were created under the theme of social policy, then these categories were divided into certain codes. The categories were determined to be social policy actors, ways to fight for rights, and socio-economic problems. The codes created under the category of social policy actors are workers, employers, and the state. The codes created under the category of ways to fight for rights is strike/solidarity/boycott. The codes created under the category of socioeconomic problems are precarity, poverty/unemployment, and wages/rights/ raises. The related tweets were coded according to their specified codes. As a result of the coding, qualitative outputs were reported such as code relations browser (code co-occurrence model), a code map (code proximity), and a word cloud.The results of the qualitative analysis show the majority of tweets to have defended workers’ rights and to have emphasized fair work. Many twitter users were seen to support workers on such issues as unemployment, poverty, wage increases, rehiring dismissed workers, working conditions, and boycotts. Meanwhile, some Twitter users were found to think that the state and unions should play an active role in solving problems. As a matter of fact, the Minister of Labour and Social Security emphasized he himself to be a follower of the process with his tweet. As a result, Twitter users can be said to be an important agendasetting tool in solving social policy problems during these mentioned processes and to contribute positively to solving problems.&nbsp;

The Hidden Role of Twitter Users in Social Policy as an  Agenda-Setting Tool: The Case of Yemeksepeti and Migros

Alperen

Ümmügülsüm

Sustainable development necessitates equal access to quality education in order to mitigate wars, poverty, pressure, exclusion, ignorance, and discrimination. However, more than 250 million children are still unable to access decent education. The United Nations announced the 17 Sustainable Development Goals to systematically address global problems, including the lack of equal access to quality education. Because these problems are complicated and intertwined with one another, the United Nations encourages organizations to engage in interorganizational partnerships in order to tackle these grand challenges. Interorganizational collaborations are particularly useful for addressing complicated problems such as quality education and skill development in wartorn countries. Although the resources and capabilities of partnering organizations might complement each other during interorganizational projects, organizational differences may also underpin social paradoxes during the collaborative period. These social paradoxes increase the risks that interorganizational projects will fail or break down. People have limited knowledge especially about how different types of organizations select partners, evaluate potential partnerships, and initiate projects, despite these three stages being critical to the success of interorganizational projects.This study provides a particular focus on interorganizational projects aimed at providing children with equal access to quality education, especially on the collaborations between corporate foundations as a type of boundary organization with non-governmental organizations. The study employs the single case study design to examine the case regarding the effective partnership between the LEGO Foundation and Right to Play, two organizations that completed four successful projects, primarily in Africa, from 2018 to 2022. Given the strong influence social constructivism has had on the sustainability movement as well as the instrumentality of narratives both in social constructivism and project management, the study analyzes the narratives that are available from secondary data sources regarding those two organizations. The narratives were deciphered based on classic and contemporary narrative definitions, with the abstractionist paradigm being followed for identifying generalizable patterns.In line with the previous literature, the organizations were noticed to have benefitted from different types of narratives over various stages. The study contributes to the understanding of how to effectively manage interorganizational projects by exploring which narratives are used during each stage of collaboration. The three stages of collaboration this study analyzes are: the stages of identifying potential partners, assessing potential collaborations, and implementing the project. The organizations were detected to highlight prioritizing global problems by engaging in crisis narratives in order to identify potential global partners. These crisis narratives help the organizations distinguish like-minded organizations from the others. Next, these organizations evaluate potential partnerships using an introspective approach. Identity narratives facilitate this introspection by raising the question of “Who are we?” to assess the suitability of potential partnerships as well as to justify their choices to their stakeholders. Next, project partners employ transcendence narratives to eliminate potential tensions due to organizational differences during the initiation stage of the collaboration. Due to effective initiation being crucial for mitigating the risks of projects breaking down or failing, organizations might benefit from being aware of these types of narrative and the corresponding stages in which each particular narrative is ideally used. Organizations might also use their resources and capacities more effectively by understanding how to match specific stages with their respective narratives, as this can help them contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals through interorganizational partnerships.Future research might overcome the limitations of this study and expand current knowledge. Firstly, follow-up research might employ a multiple case study design to assess the salience of these types of narratives in terms of different types of collaborations. Another complementary study might focus on the types of narratives as well as narrative performances with regard to unsuccessful interorganizational collaborations. In addition, future research might specifically concentrate on exploring the types of narratives to use in later stages of interorganizational project management, such as for scaling-up or terminating projects.&nbsp;

Sustainability Narratives: A Social Constructivist Perspective on  Interorganizational Projects

Yeşim

The Covid-19 Pandemic and Digitalization in  Financial Markets

@JOURNAL_BOX_CURRENT

Melike

Suzan

Environmental pollution is an important problem threatening the world, and countries have implemented environmentally friendly policies in order to improve environmental quality and sustain economic growth. However, globalization, which expresses the economic, social, and political integration of countries, is an important factor in terms of environmental quality, especially with regard to CO2 emissions, because globalization increases countries’ interactions with each other economically, socially, and politically, and the interactions between different countries inevitably affect CO2 emissions. Globalization can affect environmental quality in two ways. Firstly, globalization can improve environmental quality by reducing CO2 emissions. Secondly, globalization can harm environmental quality by increasing CO2 emissions. Therefore, determining the nexus between globalization and environmental quality can help both governments and policy makers regulate their environmental policies. This study investigates the relationship between economic growth and different types of globalization (e.g., economic, social, political) within the framework of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis for the period of 1970-2018 in Türkiye. Previous papers have addressed the general globalization index and investigated its effect on environmental quality (Acheampong et al., 2019; Chishti et al., 2020; Sheraz et al., 2021; Yang et al.,&nbsp;2021). Based on the EKC hypothesis, this paper differentiates itself from others by analyzing the impacts different types of globalization (e.g., economic, social, political) have on environmental quality for Türkiye within the scope of the vector error correction model (VECM). In order to analyze the nexus of the variables, the study first conducted a stationarity test for the series using the augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips-Perron (PP) tests. The long-term relationships among the variables were investigated using the Johansen cointegration test, then the long-term coefficients were determined using fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) and dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) estimators. Afterward, the short- and longterm causality nexus was analyzed using the VECM Granger causality test. Lastly, variance decomposition and impulse-response functions were used to examine the effects of shocks. According to the findings from the ADF and PP unit root tests, the variables of CO2 emissions per capita, GDP per capita, economic globalization, social globalization, and political globalization were found to be stationary at the first difference. Johansen cointegration test findings indicate that long-term relationships exist among CO2 emissions per capita, GDP per capita, economic globalization, social globalization, and political globalization in Türkiye. According to the findings from the VECM Granger causality test, short-term one-way causality nexuses occur from economic globalization to CO2 emissions and from social globalization to political globalization. In addition, the negative sign and statistical significance of the error correction coefficient reveal the presence of long-term causality nexuses from economic globalization, social globalization, and political globalization to CO2 emissions. After determining the presence of longterm relationships among the variables, the long-term coefficients were estimated using the FMOLS and DOLS estimators. The long-term estimators reveal CO2 emissions per capita to be significantly and positively affected by GDP per capita, economic globalization, and social globalization, while being significantly and negatively affected by the square of GDP per capita and political globalization. In addition, the results from the relevant tests have revealed evidence for the validity of the EKC hypothesis in Türkiye. Lastly, the study also performed impulse response functions and a variance decomposition analysis. According to the impulse response functions, per capita CO2 emissions reacted positively in the fourth period to a shock of one standard deviation in per capita GDP before stagnating. While per capita CO2 emissions react positively to a shock to the standard deviation as seen in economic globalization in the second period, per capita CO2 emissions had reacted positively to a standard deviation shock, as seen in social globalization and political globalization in the first period. The variance decomposition approach shows a change in CO2 emissions per capita to have mostly been self-caused, followed by economic globalization, political globalization, GDP per capita, and social globalization, respectively. In other words, while 56.73% of the one-unit change in CO2 emissions per capita in the tenth period is self-explained, the contributions from economic growth, economic globalization, social globalization, and political globalization toward CO2 emissions for the tenth period were 4.78%, 30%, 0.93%, and 7.45%, respectively. The findings reveal the various types of globalization (e.g., economic, social, political) to affect environmental degradation differently. In this context, environmental policies should be designed by considering how each type of globalization affects environmental quality. In addition, policies need to be implemented to reduce environmental pollution without reducing the growth rate.

Analyzing the Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis in Terms of  Economic Growth and Different Types of Globalization in Türkiye

Ahmet

Exchange rates are one of the fundamental factors affecting consumer prices. Recent empirical studies have shown a decrease in the exchange rate pass-through (ERPT) in countries that adopt inflation-targeting regimes (Devereux and Yetman, 2003; Saiki, 2004; Nogueira, 2006). Evidence is also found in the literature showing the ERPT on consumer prices to slow down and gradually decrease in economies that switch to a floating exchange rate regime (Kara, Küçük-Tuğer, Özlale, Tuğer and Yücel, 2007; Darvas, 2001).Türkiye is one of the emerging economies to have implemented policies for liberalizing capital markets after the 1980s, and this has led to fluctuations in its exchange rate. After a long history of high inflation, Türkiye started to implement a free-floating exchange rate and inflation-targeting regime in 2006 and reduced its inflation rates to single digits in the following decade (Kara and Öǧünç, 2008). While many studies have investigated the ERPT, only a few have empirically analyzed whether the ERPT changes over time in Türkiye (Kara et al., 2007). Hence it remains essential to examine whether the Granger causality between exchange rate and consumer price index (CPI) changes over time. Thus, this paper examines whether the ERPT effect on aggregate and disaggregated consumer prices changes over time in Türkiye using the time-varying Granger causality (TVGC) test proposed by Shi, Phillips, and Hurn (2018, 2020). This method adds a time dimension to the Granger causality analysis, providing an opportunity to periodically analyze the causal relationship between the exchange rate and consumer prices. The study examines the causality relationships between the US dollar and CPI over the 1986M01-2022M06 period and between the US dollar and euro currency basket and the 12 major groups of consumer expenditures over the 2003M01-2022M06 period.&nbsp;The empirical results show a bidirectional Granger causality to exist between the US dollar and the CPI, while a unidirectional Granger causality occurs from the currency basket to the indexes for the major groups of consumer expenditures. The bidirectional Granger causality relationship between the US dollar and CPI and the unidirectional Granger causality relationship from the currency basket to the indexes for the major groups of consumer expenditures appear stronger for housing, transport, and household equipment in particular. The relatively low causality with food and non-alcoholic beverages may be due to the more significant contribution to this sector from domestic resources, which are relatively less affected by external and exchange rate shocks. When considering a time-varying Granger causality relationship, Granger causality is seen to occur from the US dollar to the CPI during the 1994 and 2001 crises in particular, as well as during the exchange rate shock experienced in 2018. More specifically, the results obtained using the forward expanding (FE), the rolling (RO), and the recursive evolving (RE)windows align with the literature stating the free-floating exchange rate regime and the inflation targeting regime to both reduce the ERPT, thus empirically verifying the that the ERPT effect on consumer prices changes over time.When considering the causality relationship between the currency basket and the indexes on the major groups of consumer expenditures, a Granger causality is found going from the currency basket to food prices, starting with and continuing after the 2018 exchange rate shock. In addition to the exchange rate shock, a Granger causality from the currency basket to house prices was also detected for the 2008 global financial crisis. The ERPT on household equipment is seen to be in question for different periods that require sectoral analysis. Periods with ERPT on transport coincide with global oil prices and exchange rate shocks. The Granger causality from the exchange rate (the US dollar and currency basket) to the aggregate and disaggregated consumer prices was observed to become evident during national and international crisis periods and to have remained high and persistent following the 2018 exchange rate shock due to the deterioration in CPI expectations.&nbsp;

Does Exchange Rate Pass-Through Change Over Time in Türkiye?

Müge

Gizem

Demet

Esra

Free zones are areas that occur within the political borders of a country but outside of customs restrictions in terms of foreign trade, taxation, and duty tax. The advantages that accompany free zones come to the fore in countries that do not or only partially apply legal and administrative regulations and that have intense commercial activities. Free zones emerged within the policy of increasing participation in international trade and producing and exporting low-tech laborintensive goods and have also found application in Türkiye, as these zones are a fundamental tool for implementing Türkiye’s export-oriented industrialization strategy. Businesses in free zones, particularly export businesses, can actually have several advantages, including technological and physical infrastructure support, eased procedures, the option to use free zones as stockrooms (rather than having to sell products immediately), export-oriented subsidies, and tax exemptions. However, discussion frequently occurs around free zones’ impact on transit trade, human capital, and labor; the way it facilitates the entry of foreign capital into a country; and its effects on the transfer of new technology. The scope of this study addresses how successfully the free zone formations that emerged with the understanding of free international trade have acted to incentivize exports and employment by designing appropriate economic and commercial reforms. The aim of this study is to empirically investigate and evaluate the relationship imports and exports have with Türkiye’s foreign trade and employment by focusing on the companies that operate in free zones and enjoy many tax advantages, including exemptions from corporate tax, income tax, customs tax, value-added tax, and&nbsp;&nbsp;stamp tax. In this framework, the study establishes seven different models using the determined variables by focusing on the monthly periods between January 2013 and May 2022 and analyzes the models using the Fourier autoregressive distributive lag (ADL) hidden cointegration test. This study analyzes the variables in seven different models by dividing them into negative and positive components, thus aiming to reveal the relationships hidden among the variables. The econometric results the study obtained show exports in free zones and Türkiye’s industrial production to affect total exports in the same direction with regard to the positive components. While a similar relationship is observed between Türkiye’s total exports and free zones, increases in the exchange rate and the world industrial production index are seen to have negative long-term effects on exports in free zones. The model that attempts to explain employment in the context of the positive components is seen to conclude that changes in imports and exchange rates in free zones affect employment in the same direction. The models that analyze negative shocks are seen to conclude increases in total imports in free zones, the exchange rate, and Türkiye’s production index to also result in an increase in total imports. Free zones serve to increase production and employment by increasing the total investment volume in Türkiye’s economy and by developing commercial activities both at the national and international scales. In this regard, the study makes the following important suggestions: The efficiency of the tax incentive system in free zones should be supported by ensuring broad tax incentives in order to strengthen the technological and human infrastructures and by having a qualified workforce in order to develop high-tech production opportunities in these zones. Also, Türkiye should advance with regard to international trade, as well as determine and implement the appropriate fiscal policies. Currently, Türkiye lacks a legal framework for impeding free zones from maximizing their export potential. In order to make the free zones in Türkiye more effective at benefitting from its export potential, current legal decisions should be made to address the issues in this regard, and import-export management should be carried out in a planned manner in line with the needs.&nbsp;

The Relationship Imports and Exports in Free Zones Have with  Türkiye’s Foreign Trade and Employment: The Fourier Autoregressive  Distributive Lag (ADL) Hidden Cointegration Test

Veysel

How Vulnerable is the Turkish Stock Market to the Credit Default Swap? Evidence from the Markov Switching GARCH Model

Zaim

Determinants of Export Performance in Emerging Market Economies: New Evidence from a Panel Quantile Regression Model

International Knowledge Spillovers and Economic  Growth: New Evidence from High-Tech Imports and  R&D Cooperation

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Özgür

Sultan

The Causal Relationship Between Economic Growth and Export: The Case of Russia

Ümit

The Monetary Policy Reaction Function in Turkey: Evidence from Fourier-Based Time Series Methods

Kalim

The US Economy, Global Imbalances and Recent Development: A Critical Review

@JOURNAL_BOX_FEATURED

Recep

Nowadays, tax expenditures are extensively applied in many countries in order to achieve certain economic and social goals more effectively and quickly. This situation reveals the importance of fiscal discipline in OECD countries, one of which is Turkey. In recent years, the increasing need for public services has led to increases in demand for public expenditures. In this context, tax which is the most important resource of financing public expenditures, has become an important implementation tool of fiscal policies. In addition to the implementation of tax as a fiscal policy tool for the purpose of financing public expenditures, it can also be applied indirectly in the form of tax expenditures in place of forgone tax revenues, for the purpose of economic and social policies.Tax expenditures, which were introduced for the first time in the 1960’s and which are extensively applied in many countries in order to achieve certain economic and social goals more effectively and quickly, constitute an important discussion topic. Thus, tax expenditures generally represent forgone tax revenues&nbsp;and are generally applied in the form of tax exemption and exceptions, reductions, credits, low tax ratios and tax deferrals. The fact that tax expenditures have the qualifications of extra budgetary public expenditures and the transfer of funds from the public sector to the private sector increases these discussions further. Therefore, the efficient and effective implementation of tax expenditures is becoming more and more important in terms of income and expenditure policies.In this study, prepared in order to analyse the development of tax expenditures in Turkey, first the concept of tax expenditures and the theoretical framework and implementations were examined, then the volume of tax expenditures, increase ratios, distribution according to the categories of taxes, and ratios to various macro indicators were analysed, using the estimated tax expenditures of the 2015-2021 period in Turkey. Then, the functional distribution of tax expenditures was covered and it was determined which areas these expenditures are directed towards. Finally, the ratio of tax expenditures in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in various countries and the situation in Turkey were examined, and an attempt was made to develop some policy recommendations in order to apply tax expenditures more efficiently and effectively.The findings of the study show that tax expenditures are extensively applied in both developed and developing countries and they continue to increase despite efforts to decrease tax expenditures in the context of fiscal discipline practices. In Turkey, tax expenditures have attained a significant level and in addition to tax laws, there are tax incentives in the form of tax expenditures in many laws. In Turkey, it is envisaged that tax expenditures which are 79,6 billion TL in 2015 will reach 230 billion TL in 2021, by increasing with an annual average 19,3% ratio. In addition, significant increases have been realised in tax expenditures, especially in 2017, 2018 and 2019. This data shows that tax expenditures are extensively applied in Turkey especially in recent years, as an active fiscal policy tool besides the other policy measures, in order to revive the economy.The Income Tax takes the highest share of the tax expenditures in Turkey. In 2018, 38,4% of total tax expenditures comes from the Income Tax, 27,7% from the Value Added Tax, 15,6% from the Corporate Tax, 14% from the Special Consumption Tax and 4,3% from the other taxes. In 2018, 55,9% of the tax expenditures in the Income Tax consisted of the minimum living allowances. This ratio constitutes 21,8% of total tax expenditures. The fact that the highest shares of tax expenditures are the the Income Tax and the minimum living allowances in the Income Tax, is also important in terms of showing that the tax expenditures are applied to improve the income distribution.In 2018, the ratios of tax expenditures to tax revenues obtained in the same categories of taxes were 41,7% the Income Tax, 29,9% the Corporate Tax, 23,5% the Value Added Tax, 15,8% the Special Consumption Tax and 7,1% under the other laws in Turkey, while the majority of tax revenues consist of indirect taxes, the implementation of tax expenditures mostly to taxes on income decreases the balance in tax distribution.Regarding the functional distribution of the tax expenditures in Turkey, labor market development, wages and employment has a share of 24,5%, development of the business world and increasing of investments has a share of 20,7%, infrastructure, energy and transportation has a share of 18,5%, increasing of domestic savings and deepening of the financial markets has a share of 14,7%. These are followed by tax incentives for agriculture with 9,9%, tax expenditures for health and social purposes with 9%, Research &amp; Development, innovation and design activities with 2,4%, tax expenditures in education, culture, sports and arts with 0,4%.The functional distribution is important in terms of showing how tax expenditures are applied within the scope of determined economic and social goals. In recent years, implementations such as minimum living allowances, private pensions, business incentives, research and development incentives, important infrastructure, energy and transportation projects, and agricultural supports show that tax expenditures are extensively applied within the scope of these determined economic and social goals.In 2018, while the ratio of tax expenditures in GDP was 4,1% in Turkey, the share of tax expenditures in budget revenues, tax revenues, and budget expenditures were 19,9%, 24,3% and 18,2% respectively. These ratios are significant when they are compared to many countries’ ratios. In 2018, Canada with 18,6%, Australia with 9,3% and The United States of America (USA) with 6,7% are ranked among the countries with the highest ratio of tax expenditures in GDS. Turkey with 4,1% ratio of tax expenditures in GDP is one of the countries where tax expenditures are extensively applied for the purpose of various economic goals outside public expenditures.In this context, some policy recommendations such as a more effective realisation of cost-benefit analyses on tax expenditures, the calculation of tax expenditures in the most realistic manner with minimum error, the determination of the tax expenditures’ objectives and the explication to the public opinion, the regular and more detailed reporting of estimated tax expenditures/continue to be reported, the functional classification of tax expenditures by sectors, the submission of the reports to the public opinion within the annual budget, the monitoring of the harmony level between the expenditures and the goals and the explication to the public opinion, the termination of ineffective tax expenditures or the replacement with the effective tax expenditures, the simplification of the Tax System, the inclusion of the tax incentives other than tax laws in the form of tax expenditures and providing transparency in resource allocation on tax expenditures are presented in order to apply tax expenditures more efficiently and effectively in Turkey. With these policies, it is envisaged that tax expenditures will contribute positively to Turkey’s economic performance in such a way that the efficiency and effectiveness of tax expenditures are increased and fiscal transparency is achieved.

The Development of the Tax Expenditures in Turkey: 2015-2021

Süleyman

Liberalization process of the capital markets in Turkey began by July 1984 dated number 30 executive order of the government and the process has continued with executive order number 32 on August 1989. New regulations allow domestic and foreign individuals and institutions to open bank accounts, invest in Turkish debt and stock markets in Turkish Lira and foreign currency with some restrictions on borrowing with foreign currency. Short and long term capital flows increased with the liberalization of capital markets in Turkey.Deposit and credit dollarization of banking system is defined as ratio of foreign exchange deposits and credit to the total deposits and credits. In between 2003- 2019 (the sample period of this study), the dollarization (both deposit and credit) of Turkish economy followed a volatile path (Figure I). Dollarization which was around 45% at the beginning of 2000’s declined below 30% until year 2010. After the modifications in the framework of the monetary policy implementation, both deposit and credit dollarization began to rise. The simultaneity of the modification in the monetary policy framework and the rise in dollarization may be related to the fact that required reserve ratios of Turkish lira deposits increased while those of foreign currency decreased were decreased by the monetary authority. During the same period, a simultaneous elevation of volatility of the Turkish lira US dollar exchange rate was observed. In the literature the relationship between deposit dollarization and exchange rate volatility has been showed in multiple studies (Akçay 1997, Honohan, 2006, Corrado, 2008, Yinusa 2008 Mengesha and Holmes, 2013), yet the impact of credit dollarization on exchange rate has not been investigated in our best knowledge. In this paper, we investigate the effects of credit and deposit dollarization and portfolio capital flows on volatility the Turkish Lira (TL) US Dollar (USD) exchange rate. For this purpose we employed the EGARCH-M model. This paper, contributes to literature by its comprehensive approach of examining exchange rate volatility relationship with dollarization of both kinds, portfolio flows and country risk factor (CDS).Empirical results provide insights to the dynamics of Turkish lira US dollar exchange rate volatility since 2003. According to this, increase in deposit and especially credit dollarization elevate conditional volatility of the TL-USD exchange rate. On the other hand, portfolio flows reduce it. In addition to conditional volatility findings indicate that higher deposit interest rate spread between TL and USD deposits, appreciate the TL-USD exchange rate, while higher spreads in loan interest rate TL-USD depreciate TL. These results are in line with theory and literature.Findings of this study indicate that dollarization of the financial system through deposit and credit dollarization elevate volatility of the exchange rate risk in Turkey. So, reducing dollarization of the financial markets gradually decrease exchange rate volatility and risk, eventually attracting foreign portfolio flows by increasing return per unit of risk (Sharpe ratio) which in turn reduce volatility further more. This virtuous cycle eventually reduce volatility more and stabilize exchange rate, increase investments and lead to economic growth and prosperity

The Relationship between Dollarization, Portfolio Flows and Exchange Rate Volatility for the Turkish Economy during the 2003-2018 Period

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Istanbul Journal of Economics-İstanbul İktisat Dergisi is an open access, peer-reviewed, scholarly journal published two times a year in June and December. It has been an official publication of Istanbul University Faculty of Economics since 1939. Starting from 2023, except for the articles in process, the journal has started to consider manuscripts in English for evaluation and publication language has become English. Before 2023 the publication languages of the journal were English and Turkish.

Being one of the earliest peer-reviewed academic journals in Turkey in the area of economics, Istanbul Journal of Economics-İstanbul İktisat Dergisi aims to provide a forum for exploring issues in basicly economics and publish both disciplinary and multidisciplinary articles.

Economics is the main scope of the journal. However, multidisciplinary and comparative approaches are encouraged as well and articles from various social science areas such as sociology of economics, history, social policy, international relations, financial studies are welcomed in this regard. The target group of the journal consists of academicians, researchers, professionals, students, related professional and academic bodies and institutions.

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Istanbul Journal of Economics

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Istanbul Journal of Economics-İstanbul İktisat Dergisi is an open access, peer-reviewed, scholarly journal published two times a year in June and December. It has been an official publication of Istanbul University Faculty of Economics since 1939. Starting from 2023, except for the articles in process, the journal has started to consider manuscripts in English for evaluation and publication language has become English. Before 2023 the publication languages of the journal were English and Turkish.Being one of the earliest peer-reviewed academic journals in Turkey in the area of economics, Istanbul Journal of Economics-İstanbul İktisat Dergisi aims to provide a forum for exploring issues in basicly economics and publish both disciplinary and multidisciplinary articles.Economics is the main scope of the journal. However, multidisciplinary and comparative approaches are encouraged as well and articles from various social science areas such as sociology of economics, history, social policy, international relations, financial studies are welcomed in this regard. The target group of the journal consists of academicians, researchers, professionals, students, related professional and academic bodies and institutions.

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Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. Plagiarism Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-Review After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Policies

The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a> ) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a> and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

Istanbul Journal of Economics-İstanbul İktisat Dergisi is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

Journal of Economics adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and ransparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/8137CF88D98D446BA7C14A96AC5893D9" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor-in-Chief to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for double-blind peer review evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Peer Review

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-inChief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated? - Are the methods described comprehensively? - Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

LanguageThe language of the journal is English. Submitted article must include an abstract in EnglishManuscript Organization and FormatAll correspondence will be sent to the first-named author unless otherwise specified. Manuscpript is to be submitted online via <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/istjecon" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/istjecon</a> and it must be accompanied by a cover letter indicating that the manuscript is intended for publication, specifying the article category (i.e. research article, review etc.) and including information about the manuscript (see the Submission Checklist). Manuscripts should be prepared in Microsoft Word 2003 and upper versions. In addition, a <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/8137CF88D98D446BA7C14A96AC5893D9" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a> that has to be signed by all authors must be submitted.1. The manuscripts should be in A4 paper standards: having 2.5 cm margins from right, left, bottom and top, Times New Roman font style in 10 font size and line spacing of 1.5 and “justify align” format. For indented paragraph, tab key should be used. One line spacing should be used for the tables and figures, which are included in the text.2. The manuscripts should contain between 4500 and 10000 words and the page numbers must be at the bottom and in the middle.3. The name(s) of author(s) should be given just beneath the title of the study aligned to the right. Also the affiliation, title, e-mail and phone of the author(s) must be indicated on the bottom of the page as a footnote marked with an asterisk (*).4. Before the introduction part, there should be an abstract of 120-250 words in English.  Summarizing the scope, the purpose, the results of the study and the methodology used is to be included following the abstracts. Underneath the abstracts, 3 keywords that inform the reader about the content of the study should be specified in English.&#34;According to the field of study, at least one and at most three Jel codes should be added under the keywords. Please visit <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/jel/guide/jel.php" target="_blank">https://www.aeaweb.org/jel/guide/jel.php</a> for the JEL classifications that should be chosen according to the article's topic. JEL classification codes will be given below the English abstracts.5. The manuscripts should contain mainly these components: title, abstract and keywords; sections, footnotes and references.6. Tables, graphs and figures can be given with a number and a defining title if and only if it is necessary to follow the idea of the article. Otherwise features like demographic characteristics can be given within the text.7.  In articles, decimal numbers are separated by a comma or dot for the entire article. The two points should not be used simultaneously. In order to ensure the formal integrity of the article, it should be preferred to use commas or dots and this usage should be applied for the whole article. This rule should also be followed in the display of econometric findings.8. A <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/0215D45F250E49898162B610275C8D6E" target="_blank">title page</a> including author information must be submitted together with the manuscript. The title page is to include fully descriptive title of the manuscript and, affiliation, title, e-mail address, postal address, phone, fax number of the author(s) and ORCIDs of all authors (see The Submission Checklist).9. The scientific and legal responsibility for manuscripts submitted to our journal for publication belongs to the author(s).10. The author(s) can be asked to make some changes in their articles due to peer reviews.11. A copy of the journal will be sent to each author of the accepted articles upon their request.12. The studies that were sent to the journal will not be returned whether they are published or not.13. &#34;iThenticate&#34; document is mandatory for article submission (Maximum15%).

Author Guidelines

Before beginning the online submission process please read the Information for Authors and make sure you have the followings available:Cover letter to the editor<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li style="text-align: left;">The category of the manuscript</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with APA 6.</li> </ul> </ul><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/8137CF88D98D446BA7C14A96AC5893D9" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/F2C472301B83408FAB8CDFA957D3BCC7" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li style="text-align: left;">The category of the manuscript</li> <li style="text-align: left;">The title of the manuscript both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li> <li style="text-align: left;">ORCIDs of all authors.</li> </ul> </ul>Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li style="text-align: left;">The title of the manuscript both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Abstracts (120-250 words) both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Key words: 3 words both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (only for Turkish articles)</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Main article sections</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Acknowledgement (if exits)</li> <li style="text-align: left;">References</li> <li style="text-align: left;">All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul>Manuscript Submission<ul type="disc"> <li style="text-align: left;">DergiPark manuscript submission site of the journal is: <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/journal/2248/submission/step/manuscript/new" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/journal/2248/submission/step/manuscript/new</a>   </li> <li style="text-align: left;">The manuscript must be submitted through the account of the corresponding author. The account of authors other than the corresponding author or someone else who is not included as an author in the work must not be used for submission. All correspondence regarding the submission is made with the corresponding author through e-mail via the DergiPark system.</li> <li style="text-align: left;">While uploading Main Document, make sure that the main document has no information that clarify the author’s identity. Due to double blind peer review, Main Document must not include Title Page, the name of author or any other detail that can disclose the author identity. </li> </ul>Files to be uploaded separately<ul type="disc"> <li style="text-align: left;">Copyright Agreement Form</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Permissions obtained for previously published material if used in the present manuscript</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Title page</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Main Manuscript Document</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li style="text-align: left;">The title of the manuscript both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Abstracts (120-250 words) both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Key words: 3 words both in Turkish and in English</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (only for Turkish articles)</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Main article sections</li> <li style="text-align: left;">Acknowledgement (if exists)</li> <li style="text-align: left;">References</li> <li style="text-align: left;">All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li></ul></ul>

Although references to review articles can be an efficient way to guide readers to a body of literature, review articles do not always reflect original work accurately. Readers should therefore be provided with direct references to original research sources whenever possible. On the other hand, extensive lists of references to original work on a topic can use excessive space on the printed page. Small numbers of references to key original papers often serve as well as more exhaustive lists, particularly since references can now be added to the electronic version of published papers, and since electronic literature searching allows readers to retrieve published literature efficiently. Papers accepted but not yet included in the issue are published online in the Early View section and they should be cited as “advance online publication”. Citing a “personal communication” should be avoided unless it provides essential information not available from a public source, in which case the name of the person and date of communication should be cited in parentheses in the text. For scientific articles, written permission and confirmation of accuracy from the source of a personal communication must be obtained.Reference Style and FormatIstanbul Journal of Economics-İstanbul İktisat Dergisi complies with APA (American Psychological Association) style 6th Edition for referencing and quoting. For more information:-    American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (6th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.-    <a href="http://www.apastyle.org/" target="_blank">http://www.apastyle.org</a>Accuracy of citation is the author’s responsibility. All references should be cited in text. Reference list must be in alphabetical order. Type references in the style shown below.Citations in the TextCitations must be indicated with the author surname and publication year within the parenthesis.If more than one citation is made within the same paranthesis, separate them with (;).Samples:More than one citation;(Esin et al., 2002; Karasar, 1995)Citation with one author;(Akyolcu, 2007, p. 17)Citation with two authors;(Sayıner &amp; Demirci 2007, p. 72)Citation with three, four, five authors;First citation in the text: (Ailen, Ciambrune, &amp; Welch, 2000) Subsequent citations in the text: (Ailen et al., 2000)Citations with more than six authors;(Çavdar et al., 2003)Citations in the ReferenceAll the citations done in the text should be listed in the References section in alphabetical order of author surname without numbering. Below given examples should be considered in citing the references.Basic Reference TypesBooka) Turkish BookKarasar, N. (1995). Araştırmalarda rapor hazırlama (8th ed.) [Preparing research reports]. Ankara, Turkey: 3A Eğitim Danışmanlık Ltd.b) Book Translated into TurkishMucchielli, A. (1991). Zihniyetler [Mindsets] (A. Kotil, Trans.). İstanbul, Turkey: İletişim Yayınları.c) Edited BookÖren, T., Üney, T., &amp; Çölkesen, R. (Eds.). (2006). Türkiye bilişim ansiklopedisi [Turkish Encyclopedia of Informatics]. İstanbul, Turkey: Papatya Yayıncılık.d) Turkish Book with Multiple AuthorsTonta, Y., Bitirim, Y., &amp; Sever, H. (2002). Türkçe arama motorlarında performans değerlendirme [Performance evaluation in Turkish search engines]. Ankara, Turkey: Total Bilişim.e) Book in EnglishKamien R., &amp; Kamien A. (2014). Music: An appreciation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.f) Chapter in an Edited BookBassett, C. (2006). Cultural studies and new media. In G. Hall &amp; C. Birchall (Eds.), New cultural studies: Adventures in theory (pp. 220–237). Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.g) Chapter in an Edited Book in TurkishErkmen, T. (2012). Örgüt kültürü: Fonksiyonları, öğeleri, işletme yönetimi ve liderlikteki önemi [Organization culture: Its functions, elements and importance in leadership and business management]. In M. Zencirkıran (Ed.), Örgüt sosyolojisi [Organization sociology] (pp. 233–263). Bursa, Turkey: Dora Basım Yayın.h) Book with the same organization as author and publisherAmerican Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Articlea) Turkish ArticleMutlu, B., &amp; Savaşer, S. (2007). Çocuğu ameliyat sonrası yoğun bakımda olan ebeveynlerde stres nedenleri ve azaltma girişimleri [Source and intervention reduction of stress for parents whose children are in intensive care unit after surgery]. Istanbul University Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 15(60), 179–182.b) English Articlede Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., &amp; Wodak, R. (1999). 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Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	Muhittin Kaplan
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