Mehmet

Ayşegül

Uzman

This study seeks to develop a valid, reliable metric for holistically measuring the scope and depth of interpersonal social relations.Interpersonal relations constitute an important field of study in modern social psychology. Humans are social creatures who interact with their environment through various means. The quality of these interactions also impacts other aspects of human life. According to Leary (2004), 20th-century studies delving into human nature shifted their focus from the individual self to one’s relationships with others. Humans have an innate need to form intimate relations with others and are able to satisfy their basic needs and perpetuate their existence through these relations (Bilgin, 2003). Humans interact and build relationships with others for various reasons such as needing to love and be loved, satisfying physical and social needs, achieving a sense of belonging, minimizing fear and anxiety through cohabitation, relieving loneliness, and developing personal identity (Adler &amp; Towne, 1996).The relations people establish with their environment and the types of interpersonal relations in which they are involved are important predictors of their quality of life and life satisfaction levels at the individual level (Tunç &amp; Kaygas, 2016). Understanding this reveals the importance of evaluating the scope and depth of the relations individuals have with their immediate and wider surroundings, as doing so will shed light on two fundamental components of what makes one human: quality of life and life satisfaction.Just as social relations can be evaluated using comprehensive scales, so can they also be scrutinized using a few items. Studies in the literature even exist in which social relations are evaluated with one single question (i.e., how often does one meet up with friends, relatives, or coworkers?; Güler &amp; Gül, 2021; European Social Survey [ESS], 2018). A study conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2020) examining social relations looked at life satisfaction in this way. OECD’s study addressed social support, time spent engaged in social interactions, and satisfaction with interpersonal relations all through one question each. Social interaction is a quality-of-life indicator as prepared by Eurostat (2018) and comprises such elements as social support, interpersonal relations, and satisfaction with these relations. Studies on social interaction evaluate social interaction levels by measuring how often one meets up with family, relatives, and friends.A large number of studies are found in the literature focusing on relation styles and components when evaluating interpersonal or social relations. Likewise, numerous scales are found to have focused mainly on the private sphere, such as the relationships between friends and family members or in closed environments such as the relationships that occur in school. Accordingly, a study seeking to develop a scale able to holistically evaluate the scope and depth of social relations that takes into account all personal&nbsp;and social spheres would make an excellent contribution to the literature. As such, this scale development study has been designed to take into account all the social relations an individual has with family members, close and distant relatives, neighbors, circles of friends, and social groups as well as with society at large. Given the importance afforded to relatives and neighbors in Turkish culture, the current study noteworthily includes these in its scope. As such, the basic aim of this study is to develop a usable metric for determining how individuals perceive the scope and depth of their social relations.The scale’s developmental phase first surveyed the scales present in the literature that are used to evaluate interpersonal and social relations, after which the components of social relations were determined that the scale should incorporate. The scale consists of 23 items dealing with the individuals or groups with whom the respondent considers to be in close contact. The item pool was developed after organizing and realizing a focus group composed of 12 field experts in the educational sciences, sociology, psychology, and educational assessment. After the focus group, the group of experts decided that a 10-item form should be used for substantiating the scale’s content validity. As a result, a data collection study was implemented over university students and young adults aged 25–29 in order to examine the draft scale’s psychometric properties. EFA and CFA were conducted to examine the scale’s structural properties. After conducting the EFA on all the data sets to identify the scale’s structural properties, the scale’s validity and reliability were tested separately for university students and for young adults aged 25–29.This study was conducted with two separate research groups. Differences in developmental stages, knowledge, skills, perceptions, attitudes, and values require the scale’s validity and reliability to be tested individually for each group and their psychometric properties to be substantiated separately. Two separate groups composed of individuals at different developmental stages were formed to test psychometric adequacy for the scale’s usability with other age groups. The first group was comprised of 973 university students, whereas the second was composed of 1,158 young adults between the ages of 25 and 29 years.&nbsp;The study’s data collection phase was performed online due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. After testing the assumptions necessary for analyzing the data, the EFA and CFA were performed to test the scale’s structural properties. After conducting the EFA to ascertain the scale’s structure, no need was found to make any changes to the items contained in the scale. The CFA was then conducted on the same data set to confirm the scale’s structure, after which Cronbach’s alpha was calculated and the correlation values between the scale’s subdimensions were ascertained to examine the scale’s reliability.&nbsp;

Development and Psychometric Properties of the Social Relationship Scale

Barış

Assist. Prof.

The position of soldiers and the army in society and the state bureaucracy in Turkey and the intensity of military operations are not reflected in the literature in the same way. Sociological studies have been the field most affected by this academic drought. This article includes theoretical and conceptual debates on the military profession and attempts to quantify how society and soldiers in Turkey perceive it in order to facilitate these studies. The study seeks to answer the following questions: Is military service a profession; what features distinguish it from other professions, is the view of the military profession in Turkey different from other countries, and do civilians and soldiers have divergent or convergent views about the military profession? A descriptive survey of the military profession was conducted on military and civilian groups in order to answer these questions. The study was additionally supported by unstructured interviews in order to increase the reliability of the survey results and enable a more profound analysis.Survey studies were carried out with 398 soldiers and 297 civilians between September and October of 2021 using the remote access method due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The distinctive questions on the survey involve the perception of the military profession and whether it is a profession, lifestyle, or duty. The sample, in particular the civilian group, was obviously insufficient; this undermines the reliability of the study but nevertheless opens the door to an understanding of the military profession for further research.The first issue in sociologically analyzing the military profession is how the concepts of profession and military service are used in Turkey beyond or in different ways than in the West. First of all, even academic studies lack clarity regarding ranks (e.g., captain, major) and status (e.g., officer, non-commissioned officer). The conceptual ambiguity surrounding the military profession is additionally exacerbated by the fact that the word “profession,” which is most often employed in foreign languages, has a variety of connotations in Turkish. In Turkey, a profession not only refers to organized professional groups but is also used to characterize personal abilities. In other words, it is a descriptive term that encompasses both organizational and individual qualities. Lastly, the founding role of the military and the favorable attitude society has had toward the military in nearly every era have given it a significance beyond just being a profession.Another area of contention is the definition of a professional soldier. In accordance with legal requirements, both society and soldiers classify all soldiers apart from conscripted ones as professionals. Thus, officers, non-commissioned officers, specialist sergeants, and contracted privates (i.e., groups having a voluntary long-term relationship with the army) are called professional soldiers. This approach opposes Huntington’s&nbsp;&nbsp;(1957) view of the professional military as a sphere designated exclusively for commanders responsible for the management of organized violence. Indeed, a similar approach is seen in research conducted in the United States of America after Huntington. As a result, the notion of the professional soldier has been modified to be more ambiguous yet at the same time more inclusive. This study suggests that a third criterion should be added to the criteria of “management of organized violence” and “commitment” Huntington put forth for the definition of a professional soldier. This new criterion emphasizes fulfilling the duty requirements and puts an ethical obligation on all soldiers, regardless of position or rank. Thus, after placing commanders as the direct managers of organized violence at the top of the professionalism pyramid, every other soldier who performs their duty to the best of their ability, regardless of rank or status, earns a place on the pyramid based on the degree to which they execute this duty.&nbsp;The requirements for classifying military service as a profession in Turkey seem to have been fulfilled in abundance. The army’s institutional roots and founding role have allowed it to implement its own legal and administrative regulations, exercise control over the theoretical and practical knowledge specific to the profession via military schools, demonstrate competence in regulating both the professional and private lives of its members, and form a strong organizational culture. The quality that comes to the fore among these features is that, apart from a few branches, candidates are educated in military schools. Since the 19th century, the military, having built advanced military schools and even developed a system large enough to assist the civilian education system, has been able to educate its personnel according to its own norms. The length of study at military schools is additionally often longer than in other nations, thus enabling a robust socialization process. Until the 2016 coup attempt, this term was 11-12 years on average and included military high school, war school, branch school, and the staff college. Additionally, this time excludes short-term courses. The army retains control, both during the school admission examinations and throughout the educational process. Thus, Downes’ (1985, pp. 147–148) requirements of “specified theoretical knowledge and control over the associated practical skills” as well as “long-term education training and assessment via official examinations” seem to have been more than fulfilled in Turkey.Despite possessing the required professional credentials, divergent views and perceptions are found regarding the military profession in Turkey. Although the Turkish military follows the same model as Western armies, the distinction between military service as a lifestyle and military service as a profession becomes more evident in the Turkish case. In the American example, which Moskos (1977b) tried to explain with the institution/occupation model, the military profession is stated to have experienced a similar orientation with other professions in the free market economy, especially with the transition to the professional army. For example, in this case, pay and career&nbsp;&nbsp;aspirations may take precedence over institutional values inherent in military service, such as sacrifice and courage. Did the rate at which professionalization increased in the Turkish military lead to a similar development in Turkey? In other words, is military service seen as a profession, or is it perceived as a lifestyle or a duty, resulting in institutional values having maintained their dominant position?According to the survey findings, civilians and soldiers in Turkey have varying perspectives on the military profession. While 77% of soldiers see it as a way of life, just 24% of civilians characterize it as such. Only 19% of soldiers describe it as a profession; in contrast, 44% of civilians see military service as a profession and 32% as a duty. Consequently, society and soldiers have contrasting perspectives about the military profession. Various reasons for this approach were listed in the in-depth interviews. First of all, military service is a life-or-death profession. Second, the frequent relocation of soldiers compared to other professions in Turkey, which places a great deal of strain on military families and soldiers, contributes to the military profession being viewed differently than other professions. Apart from these, the most important factor is the potential the institutional authority of the army has to influence and control not only soldiers’ professional life but also their family life. Military wives and children must also adhere to institutional requirements, as living in military-specific locations such as barracks, officer’s clubs, and army houses shape military families’ lives. In this case, the developed practices have become more of a way of life than a profession.In summary, the military profession is viewed as a combination of professioninstitution and private life. The soldiers’ emphasis on the lifestyle instead of as a profession shows the institution, profession, and private life to be fused. In this case, the fusion of institution and profession as suggested by Van Doorn (1965) for the Western armies has gone one step further and included private life in Turkey. However, although civilians are aware of these practices, they do not interpret the degree of impact in the same way. This situation naturally creates a difference in civilians’ and soldiers’ perspectives toward the profession.The surveys and interviews have revealed the old generation of soldiers’ perceptions toward the new generation to be incorrect. The interviews reveal retired soldiers to believe that the current generation of soldiers “do not see military service as a way of life, but rather as an ordinary job in a free-market economy.” However, this belief diametrically opposes the survey findings. As much as 84% of the new generation of soldiers (20-30 age group) defined military service as a lifestyle, which is even more than the retired soldiers. One might argue that this contrasting attitude is linked to the political and ideological climate that developed after the coup attempt. This superficial explanation, however, is deemed insufficient. Although its origins are unknown, one of the perceptions that has grown into a near-tradition is that each military school graduation class views those who enter the profession after them as insufficient or doesn’t refer to them as full professionals. This concept, which is often portrayed lightheartedly, seems to stress the significance of rank (i.e., hierarchy). As a result, one should note that Moskos’ (1977b) institution/occupation model has yet to become a viable theory in Turkey. In other words, values such as self-sacrifice, heroism, and commitment, which still stand out as institutional values in Turkey, have more weight than wages and similar personal interests, which Moskos had put forward as occupational characteristics.&nbsp;

A Sociological Study of the Military Profession in Turkey: Profession, Duty, or Lifestyle?

Hasan

Prof.

Adem

Psychometric Evaluation of the Factors for University Choice  Scale in a Military Academy

Şükrü

Because the institutions of the military and the family demand commitment, loyalty, energy, and time from their members, both institutions have features in common with what Coser refers to as “ambitious institutions.” Because ambitious institutions are able to survive through individual commitment and loyalty, they want individuals to spend their time and energy on their own institution and struggle for this.Ambitious families’ adaptation to and satisfaction with military life affect the soldiers’ professional careers. This is because family happiness is very important for soldiers in the military. Soldiers who consider their family to be unhappy may leave their military duty prematurely. This causes the military to lose qualified and experienced personnel. The task motivation decreases in soldiers who are unable to leave the military. These soldiers cause administrative casualties, especially in the battlefield.Military service is a difficult and risky profession by its nature. Soldiers have to serve in all kinds of terrain and environments in both times of war and peace. While performing their military duty, what is demanded from the soldiers also gets imposed on the families of the soldiers. The main challenges of the military profession are risk of injury/death, separation, relocation, and living abroad.Families experience separation as a result of assignment or deployment to garrisons where families are not allowed. These duties affect family members’ physical health, mental health, marital satisfaction, and attitudes toward the military. The aim of this study is to measure the effects these duties that cause soldiers serving in the Turkish military who have recently served in different geographies to separate from their families have on their spouses and to offer suggestions to increase family satisfaction with the military lifestyle.A military family has a structure that consists of spouses or couples living together, with or without children, perhaps with adopted children who reside in the same place where at least one of the partners has a job in the military. The families of those performing compulsory military service are not included in this definition.Militaries make various demands from their soldiers in order to fulfill the tasks assigned to them. These demands directly or indirectly put pressure on the soldiers’ families because the family is expected to support the military in adapting to military institutions’ demands and expectations and fulfilling the responsibilities imposed on the soldier. However, changes in society and the family structure have made this adaptation process problematic for families. Increased work-family conflicts within the family as a result of women becoming more involved in business life and the increase in the number of married soldiers have revealed the need for militaries to take steps in regard to military families.&nbsp;Military families are located at the intersection of military and family. The military asks soldiers to fulfill their duties and responsibilities, as well as to meet what is expected from them in their role as the military parent in the family. In particular, the military family expects the soldier to be with the family at special times and for the soldier to spend energy and time on the family.The military differs from other institutions in terms of its expectations from soldiers and their families. This is because the military is one of the rare institutions that fully requests other institutions to fulfill the different demands they want their members to fulfill. Although the frequency and severity of the difficulties experienced during the military profession may vary, the personnel and their families will experience them all throughout the process. The possibility military personnel will get injured or die during duty, get relocated, and get relocated due to assignments, become separated from family due to duty, or have to live in different countries are the things the military requests from soldiers and their families.Military personnel serving in the military are separated from their families at regular intervals for a period of time as a result of things such as their duties, courses, or exercises. This separation process is experienced for various reasons during peacetime and may last from a few days to a year; this can be much longer during wartime.Soldiers having to be separated from their families due to assignments or other similar reasons has serious effects on the lives of military spouses. The separation process and the reunion of the family after personnel return from duty are seen as great sources of stress in the lives of military families. While most military spouses are able to overcome the difficulties of this period, some may experience these difficulties more than others.MethodThis study uses the survey design, a quantitative research design, in order to examine the effects the difficulties of the military profession have on military spouses’ physical health, mental health, and general satisfaction and to determine spouses’ attitudes toward the military.Sample The Turkish Armed Forces has approximately 200,000 officers, non-commissioned officers, and specialist non-commissioned officers in service. The universe of this study consists of the spouses of officers, non-commissioned officers and specialist non-commissioned officers serving in the Land, Naval, and Air Forces, and determining the universe is not possible. Sampling was used because the entire universe in the study is formed of the spouses of soldiers, and accessing the entire universe is too difficult. The sample size has been calculated as 316 people at a 95% confidence interval and a 0.05 margin of error.&nbsp;Data Collection Tools A data collection tool was developed for gathering the data. The data collection tool consists of four parts. The first part asks questions to soldiers’ spouses about demographic information. The second part asks soldiers’ spouses questions adapted from the questionnaire applied to the wives of the soldiers serving in the US military by the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. This section asks military spouses to answer questions about their experiences during deployments where families were unable to be taken. The third section and fourth sections use the Patient Health Questionnaire- Somatic, Anxiety and Depression Symptoms, whose validity and reliability studies were conducted by Yazıcı Güleç et al.FindingsParticipants’ Demographic CharacteristicsWhen examining the 316 participants’ distribution according to age groups, 7 (2.2%) were determined to be between 18-19 years old, 43 (13.6%) to be between 20-24, 109 (34.5%) to be between 25-29, 77 (24.4%) to be between 30-34, 57 (18.0%) to be between 35-39, and 23 (7.3%) to be 40 or older. When examining the participants’ distribution according to education level, 2 (0.6%) are seen to be literate but did not finish any schooling, 5 (1.6%) to be primary school graduates (5th grade), 13 (4.1%) to be secondary school graduates (8th grade), 77 (24.4%) to be high school graduates (or GED), 190 (60.1%) to be college or faculty graduates (BA), and 29 (9.2%) to have master’s or doctorates. When analyzing participants’ distribution according to employment status, 111 (35.1%) were determined to have paid jobs, 4 (1.3%) to be self-employed, 25 (7.9%) to be unemployed and looking for work, 6 (1.9%) to be students, 1 (0.3%) to be retired, and 141 (44.6%) to be housewives, while 28 (8.9%) chose “other”. When examining the participants’ distributions according to their spouses rank and branch of armed forces, 137 (43.4%) are seen to be married to specialist sergeants, 106 (33.5%) to noncommissioned officers, and 73 (23.1%) to officers; 238 (75.3%) are spouses of members of the Turkish Land Forces, 46 (14.6%) to members of Turkish Naval Forces, and 32 (10.1%) to members of the Turkish Air Force. Of the participants, 229 (72.4%) are married to spouses assigned to garrisons where families cannot be taken, and 87 (27.6%) to spouses not assigned to garrisons where families cannot be taken.The difference between the somatic symptoms scale averages of the groups was not significant (t = 1.23; p = .218). The somatic symptoms of the group whose spouses had been assigned to garrisons where families could not be taken were seen to resemble those of the group whose spouses had not been assigned to such garrisons.The differences between the groups’ averages for the scale regarding symptoms of depression (t = 5.33; p = .000) and symptoms of anxiety (t = 6.31; p = .000) were found to be significant. The anxiety and depression levels of those whose spouses were assigned to garrisons that could not take families were found to be significantly higher than those whose spouses were not assigned to such garrisons.As a result of the analyses, the difference between these groups’ mean marital satisfaction levels (t = -3.80; p = .000) was found to be significant. The marriage satisfaction levels of individuals whose spouses had not been assigned to garrisons that cannot take families were found to be significantly higher than those whose spouses had been assigned to such garrisons.Results and RecommendationsWhen examining the answers soldiers’ spouses gave to the patient health questionnaire used in the research, the somatic symptoms of the group whose spouses had been assigned to garrisons where families could not be taken and was seen to resemble that of the group whose spouses had not been assigned to such garrisons. When examining the studies in the literature, one study obtained data from 130 military spouses and compared the somatic symptoms of one group whose spouses had been assigned to garrisons where families could reside (62 military spouses) with another group whose spouses were garrisoned but could not take families (68 military spouses). That study found the somatic symptoms scores of those whose spouses were soldiers assigned to garrisons where families were not taken to be higher than those whose spouses had not been assigned to such garrisons. A study conducted by the USA Military determined that women whose spouses had been assigned to garrisons where families could not be taken showed somatic symptoms such as fatigue, headache, menstrual pain (menses), sleep problems, and eating disorders. A similar study conducted with data obtained from the wives of 346 soldiers concluded the physical health of women whose spouses had been assigned to garrisons where families could not be taken to have deteriorated. Contrary to the literature, the similarity of somatic symptoms between the two groups in this study is attributed to the fact that the spouses of some of the women in the sample had returned from their assignment and these women’s physical health had improved.When examining the data obtained from the sample, the anxiety and depression levels of those whose spouses had been assigned to non-family garrisons were found to be significantly higher than those whose spouses had not been assigned to such garrisons. These duties start the separation process in the family and are seen to negatively affect the mental health of military spouses. During this time, the problems family members experience reduce the motivation of military personnel. Studies are found in the literature that support this research result. One study conducted with 8,056 military spouses compared the mental health of women whose spouses were on nongarrisoned duty, women whose spouses had recently returned from non-garrisoned duty, and women who belonged to neither group. The mental health of spouses of soldiers who’d been separated more frequently due to non-garrisoned duty was worse than the others. A study conducted with the spouses of 940 soldiers assigned to Iraq and Afghanistan determined that 182 of these spouses met the criteria for major depression and anxiety disorder.As a result of the data obtained from the research sample, the marital satisfaction levels of those whose spouses were not assigned to garrisons not able to take families were higher than those whose spouses were assigned to such garrisons. Marriage satisfaction and marital quality were measured in a study conducted with the wives of 100 soldiers deployed to Egypt as part of the peace support operation of the US military between 1994-1995. These measurements were made with data obtained from the spouses before, during and after the assignment. The researchers found the spouses’ marital satisfaction to decrease during the assignment but to have no overall long-term change; in other words, no significant change occurred in the quality of the marriage over time. The rate of couples remaining married for those who’d had problems in their relationships before the assignment was low.Military families should be the first priority of militaries that want to keep soldiers long-term within their own structure. Military families’ harmony, satisfaction, and quality of life are directly related to the importance the military attaches to families as well as the policies they implement. Family happiness and well-being is important for soldiers. Soldiers who think their families are happy also have long careers in the military. Having leaders in units who take care of the families of the military personnel under their command and try to solve their problems increases the morale and motivation of the personnel; this support also positively affects the success of the union.&nbsp;

The Effects of Deployment on Military Spouses’ Physical Health, Mental Health, and Marriage Satisfaction

Mustafa

Being isolated from social structures and physically separate, military structures have developed cultural habits, views, and behaviors different than civilians. As a sub-branch of sociology, the subject of civil-military relations for military sociology is aimed at addressing the areas where this subgroup (the military) differs from the upper group (society) using a holistic approach. The subject of the civil-military gap also takes its reference from here. Civil-military relations in Turkey have been analyzed through an assembly based on concessions and assumptions between civilians and soldiers by ignoring the social processes that have caused differences between the two groups. For this reason, our study attempts to explain the emergence and developmental stages of the civil-military gap debate as a missing dimension in the analysis of civil-military relations in Turkey.As a part of the modern bureaucratic structure, militaries must be strong and organized to protect societal interests but weak enough to not direct this power against the society they protect (Feaver, 1999, p. 215). Upon examining this statement, two main issues of the civil-military relations debates become visible: What is the relationship between civilians and soldiers, who have a duty to protect the society and are equipped with different values and armed forces than the civilians, and how can this relationship be carried out in favor of democratic procedures?One of the traditional concerns of civil-military relations is the military’s direct intervention in power where political authority is deprived of its powers. While this concern is the most serious point, another less worrying issue is that, even if a military does not destroy society, it will engage in a power struggle with the civilian authority and use its power to protect its own interests by not yielding to civilian superiority. Bernard Boëne (1990, p. 27) converted this into the following question: “How can society maintain a relationship of trust and harmony with those responsible for its security?” Answers to this question are grouped under three different designs of control: All the official laws and rules around the chain of command over which the military is accountable to society; integration of the military with social relations; sharing responsibility or providing cooperation through a division of labor among decision makers (Bland, 1999; Feaver, 2003; Huntington, 1957; Janowitz, 1961; Schiff, 1995).In addition to investigating the areas of differences or similarities between soldiers and society, the civil-military gap also examines the dynamics that separate military and political leaders from each other and cause problems in national security assessments, as well as the presence of a potential culture (attitudes, views, values) that negatively threatens the civil-military relationship (Rahbek-Clemmensen et al., 2012). The civil-military gap debate shows “the effects of society, including military activity, on the role, structure and culture of the armed forces” on one hand and “the consequences for the reputation and legitimacy of the behavior of the armed forces as an organization that fights on behalf of society” on the other (Dandeker, 2001, p. 4).&nbsp;Civil-military relations in military sociology include the processes of control over the army by the civilian authority and the state and also examine how society and other state institutions relate to the military using survey-type studies (Başpınar, 2012b, p. 130).Huntington (year) proposed an army of professional soldiers who are politically neutral, isolated from political processes, and fully focused on winning wars. In this direction, an absolute distinction is advocated between armed forces and social values and between the civilian and military spheres of influence in order to maintain military effectiveness and army functionality (Snider &amp; Carlton-Carew, 1995, pp. 3–4). Rejecting the separation of military officers from civil society and creating a different structure, Janowitz viewed the separation between civil and military fields as both unnecessary and impossible (Caforio, 2006, pp. 17–18). Being separate from society, armed forces will cause a loss of reputation and meaning by jeopardizing the social acceptance they need (Janowitz, 1971; Steinbrecher &amp; Biehl, 2021, p. 191). Janowitz additionally stated a dynamic relationship to exist between armed forces and society through personnel exchange (new recruits joining the army and retirees leaving the army).Revisiting the issue in the post-Cold War era, Ricks (1997) was concerned about the potential and dangerous consequence of the weakening of American soldiers’ propensity to represent the community and about the military possibly becoming a semi-autonomous organization too large to be accountable to those it serves. Ricks supported his argument using three changes he had observed in the conditions of civil society, the military, and security: The military power as an actor in political processes has the potential for scaling through (1) the increasing detachment from civilian values with the transition to voluntary forces in the army, (2) the increasing emphasis on liberal values being in conflict with military values in civil society, and finally (3) the encounter with a permanent army larger than in times of peace as a result of changes in the international security environment, thus having the nature of threats be reinterpreted by civilians. The lack of empirical data was eliminated with the project study prepared with the support of the Triangle Institute for Security Studies (TISS) under the editorship of Feaver and Kohn. Later on, a project titled The Civil-Military Gap in the United States: Does It Exist, Why, and Does It Matter was prepared by RAND Cooperation under the editorship of Thomas S. Szayna with the support of the USA Armed Forces and focused on the 9/11 attacks and the impact of the Iraq War on civilian control.The issue of the civil-military gap has also been on the agenda of European countries. Even though the abolition of compulsory military service and the transition to voluntary forces were discussed in the debate in France and Germany, due to the long history of voluntary military service in the UK, the debate involved the decline in the participation in the armed forces among the youth as well as the full inclusion of women, homosexuals, and ethnic minorities in the army (Kümmel, 2007; Strachan, 2010, Vennesson, 2010).&nbsp;The civil-military gap has been at the center of discussions on civil-military relations in the post-World War II era. Institutional approaches have emerged in this period and later turned into a multi-faceted debate over certain problem areas in the United States. Although the Turkish Armed Forces recruit human resources for its professional staff from certain segments of society, how they are distributed is unknown. Similarly, although the operation has expanded its sphere of influence to the international arena, which views are valid in political preferences and how the common values between soldiers differ from civilians are also unknown. Contrary to the political-military model of the past, the facts that significant differences exist in the democratic control processes of the modern period, that civil-military relations crises are experienced, and that solutions are needed in response to this suggest that civil-military gap studies in Turkey will increase.&nbsp;

The Civil-Military Gap Debates in Military Sociology

Umut

Propaganda is viewed as an indispensable element of modern war and has been used as an effective tool since people lived in communities. Propaganda activities carried out during both war and peace times appear as an element that enables societies to act together in line with a specific purpose. Definitions made about the content of propaganda focus on the motives for influencing a group by means of indoctrination. In this process, the owners of the discourse generally attempt to convince any group of the correctness and validity of their ideas without resorting to violence. When looking at the history of propaganda, similar efforts are seen to even have been made in the context of ruler-andruled relations in ancient times. Although such initiatives were not called propaganda in those times, they can be said to have served similar purposes in terms of content and application. Governments in ancient times attempted to transfer their ideas and experiences to society using propaganda-type activities for both political and military purposes. One encounters the means of propaganda to differ at this point. In fact, various tools have been used for this purpose in line with the technical possibilities possessed in the different divisions of civilization. Despite propaganda activities carried out verbally and in writing having quite different techniques, their aims can be said to meet on more or less the same point. In times of war, aims such as providing the motivation war requires by involving society in the process and neutral groups in the struggle or by alleviating suffering from troubles can be said to come to the fore; however, those in power in times of peace can be said to resort to such activities with the intention of ensuring their own legitimacy and strengthening their power.Many examples of propaganda activities being carried out by means of monuments, mausoleums, or inscriptions located at the hub of social life were present in ancient times. Such structures are undoubtedly tools that have left traces on the imagination of the society to which they had visual appeal. These types of structures, especially those in the center of social life in communities with a settled life, ensure that everyone in that group can easily receive the message. In this respect, studies on the history of propaganda have felt the need to search for the first examples of such efforts in ancient Greek sites. Based on this view, these types of activities associated with the art of governing have been sought predominantly in settled societies. In addition to the Greek example, units of ancient civilization as China and Egypt have been referenced as regions where similar efforts had been made. The activities carried out by the church, especially in the Middle Ages, have been evaluated in the context of propaganda after the examples indicative pf very early times. The papal attempts at organizing the Crusades have been frequently mentioned in this context. In 1622, when Pope Gregory XV established the official propaganda office of the Catholic Church under the name of Sacra Congregatio Christiana Nomini Propaganda, the concept began to appear frequently in the literature with its own original content. Propaganda involving predominantly religious discourse became widespread in the West after this date.&nbsp;&nbsp;Technological developments, the spread of mass media, and the acceleration of printing activities in particular have greatly expanded propaganda activities and their sphere of influence. Similar efforts were made in almost every region as an indispensable element of war times, with propaganda beginning to be institutionalized following World Wars I and II. Having gained more systematic usage in modern times, propaganda has appeared with rich content in terms of historical examples. The elements of psychological warfare that can be evaluated within the framework of propaganda are an application that almost every society has resorted with quite a variety of techniques. In this respect, even contemporary propaganda researchers do not hesitate to talk about ancient Chinese example of psychological warfare and Sun-Tzu.Propaganda and psychological warfare practices in history are not limited to settled communities, as current studies are intensely processing. Such efforts have also been seen in the steppe societies since very early times. The methods used by the Mongols with regard to psychological warfare in particular have been frequently mentioned. In addition, the inscriptions belonging to the Göktürk era, known as the Orkhon Inscriptions, also have a narrative that can be evaluated within the framework of propaganda. These inscriptions were erected by the Göktürk leaders and are on a mausoleum complex in terms of their location. This had appealed to the Göktürk society of the period both in terms of content and image. The Khans who prepared the inscriptions stated wanting the texts there to be known by everyone and thus erected them in places everyone could access. The events in the inscriptions are not just a simple battle narrative. The various experiences of the Göktürks and the wars they waged were conveyed in a focused literary language. In this respect, the texts appear quite far removed from a haphazard historical source. The Göktürk state rulers faced their society and ancestors through the inscriptions. They often felt the need to give advice. What should be paid attention to in terms of the survival of the restored state is emphasized over and over again with great complexity. Among the issues raised, particular attention was drawn to the hostile elements. At this point, China comes to the fore more compared to the communities mentioned in the context of hostility in the inscriptions. The inscriptions were erected during the Second Turkic Khaganate, and the information at hand shows the people around Ilterish Qaghan, who’d revived the state, to have been educated people since Tonyukuk. Tonyukuk prepared the first inscriptions and was a statesman who’d grown up in China. Tonyukuk, who knew China and its politics well, advised both Ilterish and his son Bilge Khagan as a consultant. China was where the Göktürks had experienced the most difficult struggles and is evaluated in the inscriptions from a different perspective. Although the Göktürks had light relations with China during the time of Bilge Khagan, the ancient point of view had not changed, and China’s negative aspects were emphasized. While warning society using examples from the past, the Khans also described how China thought from time to time and decorated the inscriptions with the bad events that could happen if they were to be fooled by their policies.&nbsp;One important detail in the Orkhon Inscriptions is the intensity of military terminology. These terms are observed to be repeated in many lines of the Tonyukuk, Kul-Tegin, and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions that we’ve examined. Some of the prominent concepts in the work have been evaluated in the context of military propaganda. However, the military terminology in question has allowed us to make some explanations about the Göktürk army structure. The literary language used while conveying the events in the inscriptions containing military terms is consistent, and the narrative is strengthened with certain similes and belief motifs. Expressions such as “The enemy’s soldier is like a sheep, and my father is like a wolf” are seen as types that would have positively affected the society’s warrior motivations. The extraordinary efforts of the Göktürk khagans in times of war have also ben conveyed very impressively.Apart from the elements that we evaluate within the framework of military propaganda, many statements about the legitimacy of the Orkhon administrative family are understood to be present in the inscriptions. Propaganda is not only seen to have been a method used in times of war throughout history but to also have served as a tool of power for the rulers. Similarly, the Orkhon Inscriptions also have references to the sanctity of the ruling family. Such situations are interpreted together with the concepts of kut [happiness/fortune] and töre [customs] in old Turks within the work. Tonyukuk must be noted as having constructed a different discourse in terms of legitimacy compared to the three inscriptions we’ve evaluated. While describing both his military and administrative activities in the inscriptions he prepared, Tonyukuk lists his own efforts on behalf of the Göktürk community. Some of the struggles observed between the ruling family may also be traced in this narrative, because Bilge Khagan is mentioned only in 2 places in this inscription, while Kul-Tegin’s is not at all. A calmer portrait also stands out in the discourse on enemies. The Kul-Tegin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions have discourses that become a little sharper. Perhaps this denotes a harsher discourse to occur with the title of khagan.This study has evaluated the narratives in the Orkhon Inscriptions within the context of propaganda and is also important in terms of showing the implements the steppe khagans had regarding state administration. Through their discourse in the inscriptions, the khagans appear to have been people who knew their society and were knowledgeable about the policies of those they struggled against. Of course, inscriptions were not texts erected only for the khagans’ legitimacy or for military purposes. However, all the subtleties of the art of administration can be seen in these texts, which also have the quality of a policy book. The parts that we’ve compared with modern propaganda techniques show the Orkhon rulers during the ancient period to have developed a discourse construction that would not fail to fill the shoes of its contemporary elements.&nbsp;

The Evaluation of Köktürk Instructions in the Context of Military Propaganda

Halil

Res. Assist.

Islamic Propaganda by the French During the Occupation of  Egypt (1798-1801)

Sedat

How can a connection be established between the philosophical theory of war and peace and its sociological explanations? For instance, one may pose the question, “Through which variables can a potential link be established between Kant’s text on perpetual peace and the current literature on military sociology?” While Kant does have a philosophical essay on perpetual peace, he does not have a separate text on war; on the other hand, the current military psychology is considered the specific sociological discipline on military service, the military, and war in which peace is viewed as an incidental theme. Despite the relationships philosophy has with the social sciences in general and sociology in particular appear disconnected, some points of contact are still identifiable. This article is based on the assumption that significant direct and indirect connections are present apart from the limited points of contact, especially in the case of Kant.Kant’s critical philosophical project has evolved as a philosophical basis for legitimate science, secular morality, and perpetual peace, both nationally and internationally. Due to the political arena involving perpetual peace ultimately coming face to face with the historical world, however, this field can neither be characterized by moral principles not be the subject of scientific knowledge. Kant identified perpetual peace as a conceivable hope. Not only did European history witness events while Kant was alive that would show this hope to be practically impossible, some of Kant’s contemporaries and disciples appeared more inclined to develop a theory of possible absolute warfare. This situation resulted in Kant’s views on peace coming to a standstill as a frustrated utopia; in terms of the social sciences, the subject was stuck within the framework of political science and international relations. Historians are accepted from the sociological point of view to record individual wars in terms of what occurred, while philosophers explore the nature of war. In terms of sociology, war accordingly can first and foremost be explained or understood in terms of these individual events being social phenomena. In terms of our hypothesis, this scenario is a problematic distinction that was established in the 19th century.In the conditions under which sociology emerged as an autonomous science, it possessed the claim of producing scientific knowledge about “that which is social” in the broadest sense. Since the first founding methodological studies of sociology, however, various sociological approaches have emerged in light of the nature of what is social and the conditions of knowledge, namely the issue of the object and meaning specific to sociology. The categories prominent in terms of the issue of object have perpetuated as social relations, social phenomena, social interactions, and social action. In terms of the issue of meaning, the basic distinction emerges between explanation and understanding. These similar alternatives that propel and govern a prospective research practice are clearly consistent with philosophical theories. In fact, the studies that began under the conditions of World War II in Europe and America and gained momentum since the 1970s have added a detailed critique of the methodological issues in sociology to projects in regard to the general restructuring of the social sciences. However, no adaptation of these criticisms to military sociology has been observed nor the tendency of any study questioning the methodological foundations in military sociology. On the contrary, military sociology presents itself as a discipline that has emerged under the conditions of World War II.The philosophical theories of war and peace within the self-presentation of military sociology clearly have not been able to find room within the discipline. Moreover, the assumption that archaic topics such as military service, the military, and war first came together in specific research within military sociology implicitly neglects classical sociology. In fact, military sociology has presented itself problematically as an autonomous discipline by seeking concrete, practical solutions regarding the issues within the US military since World War II. To accept the self-presentation of military sociology means to implicitly narrow sociology to the boundaries of specific research practices in accordance with American sociology. However, constructing a solid general framework for this discipline cannot be done by simply looking at military sociology studies, as the theoretical and social sources of the discipline are older. The closer one gets to these sources, the clearer the possible links become between the philosophical theories of peace and military sociology.War is a relational notion that operates within a certain dynamic of change and continuity in terms of historical-social relations. The moment a war emerges within historical space, it cannot be positioned between the past and future by considering the war as a concrete object a researcher can hold or oppose with respect to its internal or external borders. For this reason, a given historical moment can by no means be characterized by a certain phenomenon with reference to an obligatory choice between a state of war and peace. However, current ideas have developed in the following directions: (i) historical warfare against an ahistorical ideal of peace, (ii) the historical incarnation of the ahistorical opposition of war and peace, and (iii) the historical dialectic and displacement between war and peace. The ahistorical category of these alternatives in moral and legal character also being essentially historical (i.e., the place of meaning being determined historically) shows the deep relationship among the three possibilities. Kant was the one to establish this relationship for the first time; this is because history as is known in Western thought parallels the relevant modernity, and Kant was the first to declare the original ahistorical context illegitimate by way of historically identifying the place meaning has in relation to the object of research. Thus, both sides of the historical and ahistorical (ideological) distinction in the social sciences are essentially based on a historical-relational ultimate basis in the sense of the “here and now.” The result of Kant’s attempt was the derivation of historical and&nbsp;&nbsp;ahistorical categories from within what is historical contained in the logic of the sciences. The distinction between historical and ahistorical in sociology is seen between positivism and historicism in particular. However, this distinction is fictional, and the prevalent ahistorical category is actually ideological. Namely, this distinction is primarily embedded in a limited historical context through America during and after World War II in terms of contemporary military sociology.The purpose of this article is to attempt to answer the research question using Kant’s text Perpetual Peace. The article first points out the opening of the basic connection between philosophical theory and sociological explanation in general and then the interrelationship between the philosophical theory of perpetual peace and social analysis in particular. As a result, the searches for solutions to the highly diversified concrete, practical problems of military sociology have been conducted over a deep structure composed of theoretical and social sources, and this structure is problematic from a metatheoretical point of view.&nbsp;

Examining the Relationship between Perpetual Peace and Military Sociology

Salih

Assoc. Prof.

Furkan

How Militarization Affects Environmental Pollution in MENA Countries

Birol

The work Sodom and Gomorrah appeared before readers in 1928 and tells of the events that took place between the Allied occupation of Istanbul and the National Struggle. One of the themes of the work is the encounter between self and other on the axis of East and West. This encounter has the occupation forces representing the West, in particular the British and the French, some of the local people who acted alongside these soldiers, the non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire, and the Turks who still believed in independence and did not want to accept this invasion.The Introduction discusses the relationship between self and other and the East-West plane of this relationship. The first heading of the text, which is examined under four main headings, is “The Domination of Foreign Soldiers: The Slave-Master Relationship;” its subject deals with the foreign soldiers’ encounters with Turkish people and is based on Hegel’s master and slave dialectic. In the novel, Captain Jackson Read, who was in Istanbul for the Occupation, had military and administrative duties, and been raised with military discipline, is described as the “master.” The first hero the British officer encounters is the manicurist girl. The girl is attracted to Jackson Read. But the British officer has no feelings for the girl who comes up to his feet to give a manicure. For him, the existence of the girl consists of meeting his own needs. Sami Bey, who hosted Jackson Read at the beginning of the novel, is merely the enslaved type. Retired from Düyun-u Umumiye, Sami Bey has a European style and meets up with Jackson Read thanks to his wide circle in Beyoğlu; after two or three meetings, he invites him to his home and aims to gather benefits. Sami Bey, who opened the doors of his house to the occupation forces until the end, is not disturbed by the fact that his daughter Leyla is seen with foreign soldiers and is also pleased with the situation. After all, at the end of the novel, Sami Bey is seen to have not believed in the National Struggle; he doesn’t think he’ll succeed and feels Istanbul will again be under the domination of the Turks. Sami Bey acts with the reflex of unconditional obedience as one whose self-consciousness has been erased and sees the British as the masters. Necdet opposes the occupation forces in the book and is depicted as an enemy of the British; he hates the foreign soldiers in general for their occupation of Istanbul, as he is particularly interested in Leyla more than Jackson Read. Realizing the situation, the occupation forces try to erase Necdet’s self-awareness as they view themselves as the master (i.e., capable of dominating anyone they want). Necdet is seen to lose the fight to the occupation forces, who are shown as the “self” at this point because his anti-British sentiment did not turn into action; as a result, he evolved to having a slave mentality and was marginalized before he could reach self-awareness. In addition, features such as the French organization of a concert for the injured French soldiers in the Çanakkale Front and its advertisement in the newspapers for days, and the printing of invitations in English and French for Leyla’s invitation, and the marginalization of Istanbul’s Turkish identity indicated that the occupation forces acted with the consciousness of master and that some people like Leyla had accepted the slave mentality.&nbsp;When coming to the final stages of the occupation, Captain Jackson Read and George Marlow make an account of the loss of their struggle with the Turks. Here Jackson Read is seen to belittle the Turks’ victory and to still consider himself the master despite losing this war. Seeing the rest of the world as slaves who are obliged to serve them, the Captain wants to return to his homeland as soon as possible to benefit from this abundance. But Marlow says it’s a sick view. According to him, the British people marginalized everywhere and everyone except themselves. Partial acceptance appears in the letter Jackson Read wrote to his mother near the end of the occupation regarding the lost struggle against the Turks, who are seen as the “other.” For the Captain, who is glad to leave these lands despite the lost war, the Turks should be under the rule of his “self”. In the continuation of the letter, he mentions the Turks’ hatred toward the British. Jackson Read, who takes the shape of the “self” with these expressions, changes the method of struggle and purposes that the other is unable to achieve self-consciousness by always retaining a dependent mentality.Necdet is the only hero to overcome the slavery mentality and create a new consciousness in the novel. He cannot tolerate foreign soldiers persecuting the Turks. Witnessing insults to a crippled soldier on the tram is the particular beginning of Necdet’s self-awareness. Leyla was the reason for Necdet’s lack of self-consciousness at the beginning of the novel. By being isolated from Leyla, he grew to want to remove the othering in his own country and enslaved environment, and even entered a new struggle with the enemy forces.The section Foreign Soldiers as Others, being the second heading of the study, involves the Occidental views of Cemil Kâmi and Necdet from among the heroes of the novel. The most distinctive feature of Necdet is that he had a grudge against the occupation forces, especially the British, and saw them as the other and strangers to the city. The narrator attributes the roots of Necdet’s hostility toward the English to the ideas he’d received from Heine as a result of his education in Germany followed by the invasion of the country. Necdet’s grudge is defined as Anglophobia. The elements that make up Necdet’s “self” are his determination to struggle, self-sacrifice, honor, and patriotism. Cemil Kami, on the other hand, is disturbed by the foreign soldiers he encounters in Istanbul, having returned after a long time away. The identity that forms Cemil Kami’s “self” are racial characteristics such as the language and appearance that are part of this identity. Apart from these, the countenances he encounters and the language he hears appear to him as the “other.”The third heading, The Manifestation of Western Consciousness: Foreign Soldiers and Women, addresses the perspective of women and their attitude toward foreign soldiers in the context of the soldiers’ romances with the women from the perspective of the “self” and the “other.” Leyla stands out from among these women. When Jackson Read is with Leyla, he emphasizes her otherness and expresses his admiration for her exoticism, dark skin, and black eyes. Fearing that falling in love with a Turkish girl in Istanbul, the place he’d come to invade, would cause him disgrace in London, the Captain questions his relationship with Leyla. This is because his tradition encounters everything outside his own race and culture as the “other.” Leyla is depicted as an English enthusiast in the novel; she is a subject of the West who’s been estranged from the society in which she lives, is curious about modern life and a fan of the English, enjoys showing this, appears snobby and snooty in the presence of strangers, runs about from evening tea to morning strolls, and has no livelihood. Leyla’s modern passion for life and European lifestyle are the most important things connecting her to Jackson Read. Leyla has no element that reveals her Turkish identity because she consciously been assimilated. Azize Hanım [Lady Azize] and Madam Jimson show similar characteristics. The only difference between Azize Hanım and Madam Jimson is religion. Although both are members of this society, they are of the type who reject their identity, try to get a high-ranking occupation officer despite being married, and act like Westerners who claim no chastity.The last heading, Imaginary Other, discusses the traces of the image of the Imaginary East as created by the West in the Orientalist discourse. With no experience of the East, the West has made it an object of desire in its mental world, denigrated it when appropriate, and shaped it through the whims of its prejudices. Eastern women, sultans, harems, sexual fantasies, concubines, hamams [bathhouses], sheikhs, and pashas occupy important places in this imagining. In the novel, foreign soldiers use Westernproduced images of the East while describing each of them negatively. The depiction of the Imaginary East is processed through Captain George Marlow in particular. For example, Marlow likens Jackson Read to an Ottoman pasha while expressing his lassitude and relationship with women. In Marlow’s perception of the East, a pasha involves a lazy sexual element of one who is surrounded by beautiful concubines, has a large harem, lays down with a new woman every night, and smokes hash and hookahs. The idea of the Imaginary East is generally presented through Captain George Marlow, stemming from his desire to realize his sexual perversions and fantasies in the geography of the “other.” The traces of the sultan myth from A Thousand and One Nights are seen in Jackson Read’s encounter with Şehnaz Sultan. According to this myth, the “sultan princess,” or Sultana, is beautiful, adorned with various jewels, lives in the palace, is fairy-tale-like, and an object of desire whose husband suddenly chases after due to her inviting demeanor. The Sultana in the novel is the niece of the sultan and wife of Nail Pasha. Jackson Read considers the encounter “an adventure” because he knows the Sultana is married. He emphasizes her mystery by calling her a woman whose “skin has not seen the sun.” Jackson Read carefully examined the palace where the Sultana lived, her clothes and behavior, and then exited the fairy-tale world. Both Marlow and Jackson Read realized that the reality they encountered in Istanbul did not match the East of their dreams.&nbsp;

Foreign Soldiers in Yakup Kadri’s Novel Sodom and Gomorrah in the Context of the Self and the Other

Revisiting Institutional/Occupational Model in Turkish Military

İsmail

Call for Papers (The Cycle of Violence in the Family)

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Alexander

Tradition, Morality and Solidarity in Durkheim’s Theory

Çağrı

Since the 1950s, environmental sociology is hardly accepted despite existing social-environmental issues. These problems have been generated by the rapid industrialization and urbanization causing pollution in the post-war era. Environmental sociology was established in the 1970s when environmental problems gained public attention and the environmental movement emerged. The theories of sociologists Durkheim, Weber, who introduced the rationalization concept, and Marx, who introduced the theory of metabolic rift, were welcomed in environmental sociology. However, Durkheim was criticized that his methodological dictum was excluding society-environment interaction. There are two explanations for the association between Durkheim and societyenvironment interaction. On the one hand, the industrialism of his era caused the exclusion of environment from sociology. On the other hand, Durkheim’s works have significant references to environment that indicate a potential for environmental sociology. This paper aims to examine Durkheim’s sociological approach in terms of society-environment interaction. First, the foundation of environmental sociology is summarized. Then, both examples showing the exclusion of environment and societyenvironment interactions in Durkheim’s studies are shown. The paper concludes with the assessment of Durkheim’s contribution to current environmental sociology challenging ecological crisis that threatens society. Although the first years of sociology were marked by geographical and biological determinism, sociologists favoring a “world view” of development, progress, and modernism in later years ignored environment as an issue (Hannigan, 2006). After a century, when environmental problems had surfaced and threatened industrialized Western societies, environmental concerns and movement were accepted in society and from the cultural perspective. Two pioneers of environmental sociology, Dunlap and Catton (1978) criticized human exceptionalism paradigm of causing the exploitation of nature and Durkheim’s methodological dictum (Madappalli, 2016). The paradigm assumes nature as an endless resource and that the human progress is limitless, while human existence is unique as a result of its developed culture (Catton &amp; Dunlap, 1978) that “covers the dependence of human societies to biophysical environment” (Rice, 2013, p. 238). However, environmental problems and restrictions in the 1960s shook this paradigm and Durkheim’s methodological dictum that reportedly ignored society-environment interaction. Hence, environmental parameters were included in sociological researches. In fact, the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale, developed by environmental sociologists, introduced “environmental facts” against the social facts of Durkheim. The paradigm aims to consider the effects of&nbsp;environmental problems like resource scarcity on main sociological research issues like stratification (Catton &amp; Dunlap, 1978). Hence, environmental sociologists, by using the New Ecological Paradigm, challenge Durkheim’s methodological dictum by accepting the effect of environment on society (Dunlap &amp; Catton, 1979). Durkheim was criticized for excluding the impact of the environment on sociology with his methodological dictum. Sociology, a social discipline excluding environment (Foster, 1999, p. 367), was positioned out of “psychology, biology, economics, and geography” by Marx, Weber, and Durkheim, the three fathers of sociology (Buttel, Dickens, Dunlap, &amp; Gijswijt, 2002, p. 5). However, Marx and Weber were applauded for their concepts, the metabolic rift and rationality, in environmental sociology, unlike Durkheim who was criticized for his methodological dictum that was believed to be against the use of biophysical parameters in sociology (Lidskog, Mol, &amp; Oosterveer, 2015). Durkheim defined social facts only with other social facts, ignoring the biophysical environment (Dunlap, 2016), and implied examination of social systems without using environmental parameters (Norgaard, 1997, p. 159). Durkheim developed a social reductionism to resist biological reductionism (Benton, 1991, as cited in Konak, 2010). Hence, traditional sociology following Durkheim’s approach excluded biophysical environment (Hoyen, 2013). To objectify society within a scientific discipline (Durkheim, 2016, pp. 58, 59, 168), Durkheim defended the use of social facts and collective consciousness against biology and psychology (Hannigan, 2006, p. 5), that social facts can only be explained by social facts (Buttel, 2002) that have power over individuals and are different from non-human and organic facts (Durkheim, 2016). As a result, the methodological dictum made Durkheim and sociologists ignore biological and physical parameters (Dunlap, 1997; Dunlap &amp; Catton, 2007). The exclusion of physical reality by Weberian and Durkheimian authors (Ritzer 1975; Choldin 1978, as cited in Dunlap &amp; Catton, 2007) should be seen as a constructive approach in the early years of sociology (Buttel, 2002). The exclusion of environment was dominant and environmental parameters were ignored in other subdisciplines like rural sociology until the 1970s; these subdisciplines are the foundation of environmental sociology (Dunlap &amp; Martin 1983, as cited in Dunlap, 2002). Durkheim implied the static position of nature throughout history while society changes and evolves (Durkheim, 2010; Gross, 2000; Jarvikoski, 1996). Durkheim separated the concept of evolution, originated from ecology and biology, from nature and integrated it into the social sphere (Durkheim, 2014). Furthermore, he put a sharp distinction between human society and animals, as they lack of morality and collective consciousness (Durkheim, 2010) and they are static unlike human societies (Durkheim, 2014). Although sociological theorists Durkheim, Weber, and Marx did not directly examine society-environment interaction; their studies indirectly included this issue (Hannigan, 2006, p. 5). Hence, Durkheim should be comprehended through the extensive framework of human-nature systems instead of narrow anthropocentricism (Rosa &amp; Richter, 2008). In fact, Durkheim did not deny the importance of biological and physical parameters in sociology (Jarvikoski, 1996). Moreover, Durkheim followed the example of natural science during the exploration of social reality (Durkheim, 2016). Despite a strong and common prejudice in traditional sociology, Durkheim’s studies involve many references to the environment. However, the methodological dictum of Durkheimian scholars reinstructed sociology (Catton, 2002), resulting in Dunlap and Catton, two founders of environmental sociology, strongly criticizing the Durkheimian theory. Contrarily, the limited prevalence of social facts and the emphasis on the environmental parameters in Durkheim’s studies are important objections to their critique (Rosa &amp; Richter, 2008). Çelebi (2007, p. 159) highlighted the importance of the balance between population and land as social facts that affect society. Durkheim considered the effects of the position of sun and the condition of the atmosphere to people, and his social morphology notion had other environmental insights like the use of land (Gross, 2000). He also implied the coevolution of nature and society in his work of Pragmatism and Sociology (Foster, 1999). According to him, nature is not the reverse of society, but a part, the highest representation, and complex form of nature (Durkheim 2010; Jarvikoski, 1996). Moreover, Durkheim (2016) implied similarities between “physical environment” and society and defined society as part of nature. Durkheim often referred to nature in his classical study of totemism. Tribe members lean toward plants, animals, and rocks in understanding their society. They imitate animals in their religious rituals. Safety and domination of nature make up their religion (Durkheim, 2010). Durkheim often used biological terms like species, population density, and resource scarcity in his explanation of social evolution and solidarity concepts (Buttel, 2002). He implied that division of labor exists in all living organisms, and transfers society from nature (Durkheim, 2014). On the other hand, his notion of competition and division of labor undermined environmental concerns like pollution and resource scarcity in urbanization (Lenski, 1984, as cited in Buttel &amp; Humprey, 2002). This paper aims to examine Durkheim’s sociological approach in terms of societyenvironment interaction. The construction process of sociology as a distinct discipline excluded environmental parameters. However, urbanization and industrialization in the 1950s have caused environmental concerns and movements in Western societies.&nbsp;The foundation of environmental sociology was challenged in the 1970s by the methodological dictum of Durkheim. Although some of his studies strongly separate society from environment like social facts, he often referred to environmental concepts like population, balance, organism, and resource scarcity. Durkheim also implied metabolic interaction between society and environment, and that society is a complex part of nature.

Society-Environment Interaction in Durkheim: Exclusion of Social Facts versus Environmental Potential

@JOURNAL_BOX_FEATURED

Eric

Durkheim and the Nation

Bjørn

From Holism to Participation: Three Phases in Durkheim’s Work

@JOURNAL_BOX_MOSTREAD

Published by the Istanbul University Department of Sociology, İstanbul University Journal of Sociology has held an important place in the development of sociology as a scientific discipline in Turkey. 

First published in 1917, İstanbul University Journal of Sociology was the first sociology journal written in Turkish. In its roughly 100-year history, the journal has become the most pioneering and prominent publication within the discipline. The publication languages of the journal are Turkish, English, French and Germany. The print version of the journal has been stopped as of 2022; the publication continues as an electronic only journal.

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology is an open-access, double-blind peer-reviewed, international journal focusing on the publication of research and studies covering all aspects of the social. The journal’s goal is to aid and facilitate both international and interdisciplinary scientific communication, to strengthen the links between scientific research and society in Turkey, and to stimulate and enhance the quality of debate. Representing an interdisciplinary forum for the exchange of recent data and expert opinions, it reflects the importance of a comprehensive approach to resolving the social problems in Turkey.
İstanbul University Journal of Sociology publishes peer-reviewed research reports on sociology, bringing together research conducted within a variety of different disciplines. Articles include theoretical, philosophical, political essays, research papers, research on social behaviors, and historical research related to any social activity. In addition to original research, the journal features both articles and book reviews.
Studies that clearly contribute to the current knowledge of sociology are given priority. Scholarly commentaries on topical issues and systematic reviews are also encouraged.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles. http://istanbul.edu.tr:8080/en/journal/iusd/information/policies                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

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The journal’s goal is to aid and facilitate both international and interdisciplinary scientific communication, to strengthen the links between scientific research and society in Turkey, and to stimulate and enhance the quality of debate. Representing an interdisciplinary forum for the exchange of recent data and expert opinions, it reflects the importance of a comprehensive approach to resolving the social problems in Turkey. İstanbul University Journal of Sociology publishes peer-reviewed research reports on sociology, bringing together research conducted within a variety of different disciplines. Articles include theoretical, philosophical, political essays, research papers, research on social behaviors, and historical research related to any social activity. In addition to original research, the journal features both articles and book reviews.

Aim & Scope

<ul><li>Web of Science Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)</li><li>TÜBİTAK ULAKBİM TR-Dizin </li><li>EBSCO Sociology Source Ultimate​</li><li>EBSCO SocINDEX (with Full Text) </li><li>DOAJ</li><li>ProQuest CSA Sociological Abstract</li><li>Erih Plus</li><li>SOBİAD</li></ul>

Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA), and the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. Plagiarism Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-Review After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Policies

The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a>) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of COPE and ICJME are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA), and the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABCAC0D48F9844D0B211AD7D55559C54" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor-in-Chief to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. Editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor is responsible for the content and overall quality of the publication and must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only editor has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the Editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the Editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. Unless the authors and editor permit, the reviews of referees cannot be published or disclosed. The anonymity of the referees is important. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for double-blind peer review evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.&#65279;

Peer Review

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. Editor-in-Chief provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.​ The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated?- Are the methods described comprehensively?- Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

General Formatting Requirements<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=formatting_guidelines1.pdf" target="_blank">Formatting and content requirements for manuscripts to be submitted to İstanbul University Journal of Sociology </a>Font: The font used in the entire manuscript should be Times New Roman, font size 10. For tables and figures, see below.Page Layout: Page margins for bottom, top, right, and left should be pre-set as 2.5 cm (0.98 inch). Text should be justified with no hyphenation breaks in words at the end of a line. Text should be typed as a single-column document. Paragraphs and headings should not be indented, but aligned with the main text.Paragraph Format: Paragraph indents should be pre-set in the tabs section as follows:before and after: 0.6 nkline spacing: 1.5.Page Limit: Manuscripts prepared in compliance with the guidelines should not exceed 20 pages.Manuscript SectionsTitle: Article titles should be boldfaced and centered. If the study has been submitted before or extracted from a project or a thesis, an asterisk (*) should be placed at the end of the title and an explanation provided as a footnote. (Please refer to the sample).Author (s)’s Names: Author’s names should be written in bold. Authors’ full names, titles, institutional affiliations, postal addresses, and contact details such as e-mail addresses should be mentioned.Abstract: Abstracts should be between150–200 words. No citations should appear in the abstractKey Words: 5–8 words representing the manuscript should be given as keywords.Main Text: Qualitative and quantitative studies should contain the following sections: Introduction, Method, Findings, and Discussion. The Methods section must include Sampling/Study Population, Data Collection Tools,and Procedure as sub-sections if an original research method has been used.Literature reviews should elaborate on the problem, analyze the relevant literature, emphasize the gaps and inconsistencies in the literature, and discuss actions toward solving these problems.Other types of studies can allow slight variations in sections, but they should not contain too many details and sub-sections that could distract readers’ attention and compromise readability.Başlık* Title in TurkishÖz* Öz (Abstract in Turkish) should be between150–200 words. No citations should appear in the “öz”Anahtar Kelimeler* 5-8 Turkish words representing the manuscript should be given as “anahtar kelimeler”Uzun Özet* A 1000-1500 word extended abstract in Turkish that provides the main points of main textReferences: Both in-text citations and references should comply with the APA guidelines as provided in the Publication Manual of American Psychological Association(APA) (6th edition).<ul><li>“Başlık”, “Öz”, “Anahtar Kelimeler” and “Uzun Özet” will be supplied by İstanbul University Journal of Sociology translation office for authors whose native language is not Turkish</li></ul>Tables, Figures, and AppendicesTables and Figures: Tables, figures, pictures, graphics, and similar aspects should be embedded in the text, and not provided as appendices.For tables and figures, use Times New Roman, font size 9.Under the Paragraph tab, ensure that the indentation is as follows:<ul><li>Before and after: 0</li><li>Spacing: Single</li></ul>Tables and figures should be left aligned, and the text wrapping feature should be turned off. Please refer to the sample below for tables.Appendices: Each appendix should be displayed on a separate page after the references section.

Author Guidelines

Before beginning the online submission process please read the Information for Authors and make sure you have the followings available:<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=formatting_guidelines1.pdf" target="_blank">Formatting and content requirements for manuscripts to be submitted to İstanbul University Journal of Sociology</a>Cover letter to the editor<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li>Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li> <li>Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li>Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with APA 6.</li> </ul> </ul><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABCAC0D48F9844D0B211AD7D55559C54" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=iusd_title.docx" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li> <li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li> </ul> </ul>Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (200-250 words) both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Key words: 5 words both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (only for articles which are not in English)</li> <li>Main article sections</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exits)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul>Manuscript Submission<ul type="disc"> <li>ScholarOne manuscript submission site of the journal is: <a href="http://mc04.manuscriptcentral.com/tjs" target="_blank">http://mc04.manuscriptcentral.com/tjs</a> </li> <li>The manuscript must be submitted through the account of the corresponding author. The account of authors other than the corresponding author or someone else who is not included as an author in the work must not be used for submission. All correspondence regarding the submission is made with the corresponding author through e-mail via the ScholarOne system.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>To login to the ScholarOne manuscript submission system, you must have a User ID and password. If you do not have a username and password, you must follow the instructions in the Create Account at ScholarOne manuscript submission site of the journal.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>If you experience problems with your account, please do not create a new one and contact İstanbul University Journal of Sociology Editorial Office via <a href="mailto:sosyolojidergi@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">sosyolojidergi@istanbul.edu.tr</a></li> <li>When you log in, click the Author button at the top of the page.</li> <li>Clicking the Author button, you will access Author Dashboard. By clicking Unsubmitted and Manuscripts in Draft heading on the Dashboard you can access your unsubmitted manuscripts. To make a new submission, please click Start New Submission.</li> <li>Manuscript submission is a 7-step process. At any stage you can stop the submission process; everything you have typed into the system will be saved. You can continue to your semi- completed submission by viewing it in the Unsubmitted and Manuscript in Draft section. </li> <li>The 2nd step in the submission process is to upload your manuscript. </li> <li>To upload files; Select the file you want to upload from the Selection File button. Specify the file type from the File Designation button beside. </li> <li>While uploading Main Document, make sure that the main document has no information that clarify the author’s identity. Due to double blind peer review, Main Document must not include Title Page, the name of author or any other detail that can disclose the author identity. </li> <li>Additionaly, Supplemental File for Review must not include any detail that can disclose author identity as well.</li> </ul>Files to be uploaded separately<ul type="disc"> <li><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/3987D117ECEB471BB87B0B638CAF14C1" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a></li> <li>Permissions obtained for previously published material if used in the present manuscript</li> <li><a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=iusd_title.docx" target="_blank">Title page</a></li> <li>Main Manuscript Document</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (200-250 words) both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Key words: 5 words both in Turkish and in English</li> <li>Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English (only for articles which are not in English)</li> <li>Main article sections</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exists)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>Clicking the Upload Selected Files, the files mentioned above will be uploaded and automatically converted to PDF files on the system.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>After uploading,  please click on PDF button and view your files. If the uploaded files have flaws, you can delete the files and repeat upload process.</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <li>Cover letter can be uploaded on the 6th step in the submission process. The final step in manuscript submission process lists all the information you have submitted.  The complete information will be indicated by a green check (✓). If incomplete, there will be a red cross (x) check. Once you have completed the submission process to your satisfaction click on the submit button.</li> <li>Once the manuscript submission is completed, verification screen including your Manuscript ID will appear, and you will be notified via email.</li> </ul>

İstanbul University Journal of Sociology complies with APA (American Psychological Association) style 6th Edition for referencing and quoting. For more information:-    American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (6th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.-    <a href="http://www.apastyle.org" target="_blank">http://www.apastyle.org</a>Accuracy of citation is the author’s responsibility. All references should be cited in text. Reference list must be in alphabetical order. Type references in the style shown below.Citations in the TextCitations must be indicated with the author surname and publication year within the parenthesis.If more than one citation is made within the same paranthesis, separate them with (;).Samples:More than one citation;(Esin et al., 2002; Karasar, 1995)Citation with one author;(Akyolcu, 2007)Citation with two authors;(Sayıner &amp; Demirci, 2007)Citation with three, four, five authors;First citation in the text: (Ailen, Ciambrune, &amp; Welch, 2000) Subsequent citations in the text: (Ailen et al., 2000)Citations with more than six authors;(Çavdar et al., 2003)Citations in the ReferenceAll the citations done in the text should be listed in the References section in alphabetical order of author surname without numbering. Below given examples should be considered in citing the references.Basic Reference TypesBooka) Turkish BookKarasar, N. (1995). Araştırmalarda rapor hazırlama (8th ed.) [Preparing research reports]. Ankara, Turkey: 3A Eğitim Danışmanlık Ltd.b) Book Translated into TurkishMucchielli, A. (1991). Zihniyetler [Mindsets] (A. Kotil, Trans.). İstanbul, Turkey: İletişim Yayınları.c) Edited BookÖren, T., Üney, T., &amp; Çölkesen, R. (Eds.). (2006). Türkiye bilişim ansiklopedisi [Turkish Encyclopedia of Informatics]. İstanbul, Turkey: Papatya Yayıncılık.d) Turkish Book with Multiple AuthorsTonta, Y., Bitirim, Y., &amp; Sever, H. (2002). Türkçe arama motorlarında performans değerlendirme [Performance evaluation in Turkish search engines]. Ankara, Turkey: Total Bilişim.e) Book in EnglishKamien R., &amp; Kamien A. (2014). Music: An appreciation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.f) Chapter in an Edited BookBassett, C. (2006). Cultural studies and new media. In G. Hall &amp; C. Birchall (Eds.), New cultural studies: Adventures in theory (pp. 220–237). Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.g) Chapter in an Edited Book in TurkishErkmen, T. (2012). Örgüt kültürü: Fonksiyonları, öğeleri, işletme yönetimi ve liderlikteki önemi [Organization culture: Its functions, elements and importance in leadership and business management]. In M. Zencirkıran (Ed.), Örgüt sosyolojisi [Organization sociology] (pp. 233–263). Bursa, Turkey: Dora Basım Yayın.h) Book with the same organization as author and publisherAmerican Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Articlea) Turkish ArticleMutlu, B., &amp; Savaşer, S. (2007). Çocuğu ameliyat sonrası yoğun bakımda olan ebeveynlerde stres nedenleri ve azaltma girişimleri [Source and intervention reduction of stress for parents whose children are in intensive care unit after surgery]. Istanbul University Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 15(60), 179–182.b) English Articlede Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., &amp; Wodak, R. (1999). The discursive construction of national identity. Discourse and Society, 10(2), 149–173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957926599010002002c) Journal Article with DOI and More Than Seven AuthorsLal, H., Cunningham, A. L., Godeaux, O., Chlibek, R., Diez-Domingo, J., Hwang, S.-J. ... Heineman, T. C. (2015). Efficacy of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine in older adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 372, 2087–2096. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1501184d) Journal Article from Web, without DOISidani, S. (2003). Enhancing the evaluation of nursing care effectiveness. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 35(3), 26–38. Retrieved from http://cjnr.mcgill.cae) Journal Article wih DOITurner, S. J. (2010). Website statistics 2.0: Using Google Analytics to measure library website effectiveness. Technical Services Quarterly, 27, 261–278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07317131003765910f) Advance Online PublicationSmith, J. A. (2010). Citing advance online publication: A review. Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a45d7867g) Article in a MagazineHenry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today’s schools. Time, 135, 28–31.Doctoral Dissertation, Master’s Thesis, Presentation, Proceedinga) Dissertation/Thesis from a Commercial DatabaseVan Brunt, D. (1997). Networked consumer health information systems (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9943436)b) Dissertation/Thesis from an Institutional DatabaseYaylalı-Yıldız, B. (2014). University campuses as places of potential publicness: Exploring the politicals, social and cultural practices in Ege University (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://library.iyte.edu.tr/tr/hizli-erisim/iyte-tez-portalic) Dissertation/Thesis from WebTonta, Y. A. (1992). An analysis of search failures in online library catalogs (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley). Retrieved from http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~tonta/yayinlar /phd/ickapak.htmld) Dissertation/Thesis abstracted in Dissertations Abstracts InternationalAppelbaum, L. G. (2005). Three studies of human information processing: Texture amplifica&#173;tion, motion representation, and figure-ground segregation. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B. Sciences and Engineering, 65(10), 5428.e) Symposium ContributionKrinsky-McHale, S. J., Zigman, W. B., &amp; Silverman, W. (2012, August). Are neuropsychiatric symptoms markers of prodromal Alzheimer’s disease in adults with Down syndrome? In W. B. Zigman (Chair), Predictors of mild cognitive impairment, dementia, and mortality in adults with Down syndrome. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.f) Conference Paper Abstract Retrieved OnlineLiu, S. 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Issue Type	Regular
Issue Date	29.03.2022
Editor(s)	İsmail Coşkun
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İstanbul University Journal of Sociology

VOLUME 42, ISSUE 1, 2022

Development and Psychometric Properties of the Social Relationship Scale

A Sociological Study of the Military Profession in Turkey: Profession, Duty, or Lifestyle?

Psychometric Evaluation of the Factors for University Choice Scale in a Military Academy