Journal of Penal Law and Criminology

SUBMITINFORMATION
EnglishTürkçe

Review Article


DOI :10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123   IUP :10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123    Full Text (PDF)

Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?

Efe Can Karabulut, Hüseyin Nergiz

Prison sentences are utilized as one of the most common punishment tools, but they also have a number of negative consequences that contradict the goals of punishment. Some common and well-known negative consequences of being in a penal institution is that convicts learn new crimes and criminal methods, meet other convicts and commit crimes together, join criminal organizations, or commit new crimes in the institution. Reasons for these situations exist, such as physical proximity, adopting the penal institution subculture, prisonization, and stigmatization. Differential association is one theory that explains why individuals turn to crime and also explains why convicts tend to commit new crimes in the penal institution. According to the theory of differential association, lawful and unlawful thoughts in a person’s mind are in constant conflict, and these thoughts are shaped according to the relationship they establish with their environment. Having the convict establish positive social relations while keeping existing ones and avoid negative relations and criminal thoughts is essential in order to protect convicts from the harmful effects of crime transference. To achieve this, various changes are needed in both the structure of penal institutions as well as the rehabilitation programs implemented in penal institutions.

Keywords: Crime transference, differential association, punishment
DOI :10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123   IUP :10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123    Full Text (PDF)

Suç Aktarımı: Ceza İnfaz Kurumları Suç Üniversiteleri mi?

Efe Can Karabulut, Hüseyin Nergiz

Günümüzde en yaygın cezalandırma aracı olarak kullanılan hapis cezasının, cezalandırmanın amaçlarıyla çelişen birtakım sonuçları da bulunmaktadır. Hükümlünün ceza infaz kurumunda yeni suçlar ve suç yöntemleri öğrenmesi, başka hükümlülerle tanışıp birlikte suç eyleminde bulunma kararı alması, suç örgütlerine katılması veya kurumda yeni suçlar gerçekleştirmesi yaygın ve iyi bilinen olumsuz sonuçlardandır. Bu durumun fiziksel yakınlık, ceza infaz kurumu alt kültürünü benimseme ve mahkumlaşma, damgalama gibi nedenleri bulunmaktadır. Bu nedenlerin hükümlü üzerindeki etkisi ise infaz kurumunun türü, kurumda geçirilen süre, diğer hükümlüler ve hükümlünün sosyal çevresi ile ilişkileri gibi etkenlere göre değişmektedir. Ayırıcı Birliktelikler Kuramı, bireylerin neden suça yöneldiğini açıklayan kuramlardan biri olup, hükümlülerin ceza infaz kurumunda yeni suçlara neden yöneldiklerini de açıklar. Ayırıcı Birliktelikler Kuramı’na göre, kişinin zihninde yasaya uygun ve aykırı düşünceler sürekli bir çatışma halindedir ve bu düşünceler kişinin çevresiyle kurduğu ilişkilere göre şekillenmektedir. Bu nedenle hükümlüler arası suç aktarımını olabildiğince azaltmak için hükümlü cezasını infaz ederken olumlu toplumsal ilişkiler kurması, var olan olumlu ilişkilerini koruyup geliştirmesi, olumsuz ilişkilerden ve suç düşüncesinden uzak tutulması temel alınmalıdır. Bunu sağlamak için ise hem ceza infaz kurumlarının yapısında hem de kurumlarda uygulanan iyileştirme programlarında çeşitli değişiklikler yapılması gerekmektedir.

Keywords: Suç aktarımı, Ayırıcı Birliktelikler Kuramı, cezalandırma

EXTENDED ABSTRACT


The attempt is being made these days to design and manage penal institutions as institutions that function to deter, rehabilitate, and prevent criminal behavior. Crime is a natural part of everyday life, especially for repeat offenders, and changing this pattern can be difficult for various reasons. Individuals adopt the social rules that are presented to them in the social environment in which they live; they behave similarly to the behaviors they see.

A prisoner joins a new social circle in prison, one that has a significant impact on their future behavior. From this point of view, this study will revise the theories and findings regarding the social causes of crime in terms of prison and will discussed what characteristics an institute should have that will not result in the convict learning new criminal behaviors or methods. Crime transference is the main subject of the study and refers to how a convict with no intention, knowledge, or opportunity to commit a crime is directed toward criminal behavior due to their criminal experiences. Regardless of what crime was committed to get sent to prison, convicts may also conduct various criminal behaviors within the institution. Due to a prison’s structural features, convicts are likely to learn new crimes in order to gain power, status, and money; they may even start and continue to commit these crimes after being released.

The first reason for crime transfer is physical proximity. After a convict enters prison, they meet prisoners who were convicted for many different crimes, and these convicts find the opportunity to meet and share their criminal experiences. Having individuals who’ve been convicted of different crimes stay together in crowded wards is a risk factor. In addition to physical proximity, how people spend their time at prison also becomes an important issue. As the time spent with other convicts during the day increases, so does crime transference among these convicts. Being away from emotionally important people (e.g., family, close friends) decreases positive social support factors that help prevent one from committing a crime and increases the likelihood of becoming close with criminals in jail. Society also needs to step in and take responsibility in addition to one’s family and friends. The type of prison is also another factor associated with crime transference. In open prisons, convicts have more opportunities to interact with different people and participate in events (e.g., trainings, workshops). Because of the greater security measures, these opportunities are quite limited in closed prisons, though sometimes convicts may have to contact more serious criminals. As the length of time in prison increases, the likelihood and severity of crime transference also increases. Day by day, prisoners lose their everyday skills (finding a job, avoiding criminals), and the likelihood of becoming a repeat offender also increases.

Completely eliminating crime transfer in penitentiary institutions is not a realistic goal. However, measures can be taken to minimize it. Which measures to take and which legal regulations and possible changes in the physical and administrative structures of penitentiary institutions undoubtedly are in conflict in terms of priority. Although the existence of crime transfer is a real thing, the majority of convicts in prisons do not commit these crimes, do not join a crime organization, and do not establish crime partnerships. Therefore, having individuals stay in non-crowded units housing 4-6 people at maximum and having them avoid individuals guilty of other crimes may reduce crime transfer that is a result of physical proximity. Employing detainees and convicts in a workshop for regular, 8-hour work periods while taking into account security measures will not only reduce the possibility of crime transfer in their free time but also ensure that the individual does not wander away from their normal life responsibilities and order. Expanding measures to maintain relations external to a prison (e.g., e-meetings, e-mail opportunities) will protect convicts from crime transference and prepare them for life after release. Improving reliable assessment tools for measuring recidivism risks and suitability for release will help isolate highand low-risk prisoners from each other. Proper and successful isolation procedures prevent crime transference in institutions.

While convicts are imprisoned, non-governmental organizations can support and become models in a variety of ways such as through correspondence, financial support, and role-playing projects. Carrying out projects in institutions can help rescue convicts from a passive and assisted position. Having prisoners adopt an effective attitude where they are responsible and a direct part of change, applying an approach that protects prisoners from crime transference, and preparing them for post-release are all very important.  


PDF View

References

  • Aebi, M. F., Cocco, E., Molnar, L. ve Tiago, M. M. (2022). Prisons and Prisoners in Europe 2021: Key Findings of the SPACE I Report. Series UNILCRIM 2022/3. Council of Europe and University of Lausanne. google scholar
  • Akers, R. L. (2002). A Social Learning Theory of Crime. In Ed. Suzette Cote, Criminological Theories: Bridging the Past to the Future (135-143), Sage Publications. google scholar
  • Alam, S. (2021). Adult Delinquency and Victimization: A Test of Differential Association Theory with New Data. Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 8030, West Virginia University. google scholar
  • Albrecht, H. (2014). Concepts and Potentials of Recidivism Statistics: An International Comparison, in: National Reconviction Statistics and Studies in Europe. Göttingen Studies in Criminal Law and Justice, 25, 13-25. google scholar
  • Balaban, Ö., Özen, S. (2015). Ceza İnfaz Kurumlarındaki Tutuklu ve Hükümlülerin Eğitim Faaliyetlerine İlişkin Algıları: T Tipi Kapalı Ceza İnfaz Kurumu Örneği. Çalışma İlişkileri Dergisi, 6(1), 37-52. google scholar
  • Bayer, P., Hjalmarsson R., & Pozen, D. (2007), Building Criminal Capital Behind Bars: Peer Effects in Juvenile Corrections, NBER Working Paper Series No. 12932, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research. google scholar
  • Becker, H. S. (2013). Hariciler (Outsiders) Bir Sapkınlık Sosyolojisi Çalışması (çev. Şerife Geniş ve Levent Ünsaldı), Ankara: Heretik Yayıncılık. google scholar
  • Bilgiç, Ş. (2014). Mahkumların Suç Algısı, KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 16(I), 8-17. google scholar
  • Braithwaite, J. (2006). Crime, Shame and Reintegration (16. Baskı), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. google scholar
  • Bruinsma, G. J. (1992). Differential Association Theory Reconsidered: An Extension and its Empirical Test. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 8(1), 29-50. google scholar
  • Bosiakoh, T. A., & Andoh, P. K. (2010). Differential Association Theory and Juvenile Delinquency in Ghana’s Capital City - Accra: The Case of Ghana Borstal Institute. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 2(9), 198-205. google scholar
  • Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü. (2019). 2019 Genel Bilgi, https://cte.adalet.gov.tr/Home/SayfaDetay/ cik-genel-bilgi adresinden 07 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • Cheater, D. (2009). Universities of Crime Young Adults, the Criminal Justice System and Social Policy, A Report by the Transition to Adulthood Alliance, Cadbury: Transition to Adulthood. google scholar
  • Cressey, D. R. (1960). The Theory of Differential Association: An Introduction. Social Problems, 8(1), 2-6. google scholar
  • Çıvgın, U. (2015). Hükümlülerin Suç ve Kaldıkları Cezaevleri Türlerine Göre Ruh Sağlıklarının, Psikolojik Başetme ve Psikolojik Dayanıklılıklarının İncelenmesi (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), İstanbul: Gediz Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. google scholar
  • Damm, A. P., & Gorinas, C. (2016). Prison as a Criminal School: Peer Effects and Criminal Learning Behind Bars. The Journal of Law and Economics, 63(1), 149-180. google scholar
  • Demirbaş, T. (2021). İnfaz Hukuku (8. Baskı), Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. google scholar
  • Demirbaş, T. (2020). Kriminoloji (7. Baskı), Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. google scholar
  • Demirel, P. (2017). Yetişkin Suçluluğuna Neden Olan Sosyoekonomik Faktörler. (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi), Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. google scholar
  • Dolu, O. (2012). Suç Teorileri (4. Baskı), Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. google scholar
  • Duman, E. (2016). Türkiye’de Kadın Mahpuslar, In Ed. Ayşegül Algan, Türkiye’de Mahpus Olmak (69-80), İstanbul: TCPS Kitaplığı. google scholar
  • Erem, F. (1987). Adalet Psikolojisi (8. Baskı), Ankara: Sevinç Matbaası. google scholar
  • European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT). (2019). Report to the Turkish Government on the Visit to Turkey Carried Out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Strazburg: European Committee. google scholar
  • Fazel, S., Wolf, A. (2015). Systematic Review of Criminal Recidivism Rates Worldwide: Current Difficulties and Recommendations for Best Practice, Plos One, 10(6), 1-8. google scholar
  • Glaeser, E. L., Sacerdote, B., & Scheinkman, J. A. (1996). Crime and Social Interactions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(2), 507-548. google scholar
  • Glaser, D. (1960). Differential Association and Criminological Prediction. Social Problems, 8(1), 6-14. google scholar
  • Graffam, J., Shinkfield, A. J. ve Lavelle, B. (2014). Recidivism Among Participants of an Employment Assistance Program for Prisoners and Offenders. International Journal Offender Therapy, 58(3). 348-63. google scholar
  • Harris, H. M., Nakamura, K., & Bucklen, K. (2018). Do Cellmates Matter: Causal Test of the Schools of Crime Hypothesis with Implications for Differential Association and Deterrence Theories. Criminology, 56(1), 87-122. google scholar
  • Haynes, F. E. (1949). The Sociological Study of the Prison Community. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 39, 432-440. google scholar
  • Jaffe, M. (2012). Peer Support and Seeking Help in Prison: A Study of the Listener Scheme in Four Prisons in England (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Keele: Keele University. google scholar
  • Jensen, G. F. (1972). Parents, Peers, and Delinquent Action: A Test of the Differential Association Perspective. American Journal of 'Sociology, 78(3), 562-575. google scholar
  • Irwin, J., & Cressey, D. (1962). Thieves, Convicts and The Inmate Culture. Social Problems, 10, 142-155. google scholar
  • Işıktaç, Y. (2013). Ceza Adaleti Açısından Hapis Cezası ve Rehabilitasyon İlişkisi. Journal of Istanbul University Law Faculty, 71(1), 625-638. google scholar
  • Karakaş-Doğan, F. (2010). Cezanın Amacı ve Hapis Cezası, İstanbul: Legal Yayıncılık. google scholar
  • Karakartal, D. (2018). Cezaevinden Çıkan Eski Hükümlülerin Yaşadıkları Sorunların İncelenmesi. Uluslararası Beşeri Bilimler ve Eğitim Dergisi, 4(9), 72-85. google scholar
  • Kızmaz, Z. (2007). Cezaevinin ve Hapsetmenin Suçu Engellemedeki Etkisi. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 17, 44-68. google scholar
  • Koçak, O., & Altun, S. (2010). Ceza Infaz Kurumundaki Mesleki Eğitim Faaliyetlerinin Hükümlü İstihdamına Katkıları. Çalışma İlişkileri Dergisi, 1(1), 95-117. google scholar
  • Kropotkin, P. (1913). Prisons: Universities of Crime. Mother Earth, 8(8), 1-3. google scholar
  • Latessa E. J., & Lowenkamp, C. (2006). What Works in Reducing Recidivism? University of St. Thomas Law Journal, 3(3), 521-535. google scholar
  • Leipold, A. (2006). Recidivism, Incapacitation, and Criminal Sentencing Policy, University of St. Thomas Law Journal, 3(3), 536-558. google scholar
  • Liska, A. E. (1969). Interpreting the Causal Structure of Differential Association Theory. Social Problems, 16(4), 485-492. google scholar
  • Lombroso, C. (2006). Criminal Man (çev. Nicole Hahn Rafter ve Mary Gibson), Londra: Duke University Press. google scholar
  • Matsueda, R. L. (1988). The Current State of Differential Association Theory. Crime and Delinquency, 34(1), 277-306. google scholar
  • Mears, D. P., Cochran, J. C., Bales, W. D., & Bhati, A. S. (2016). Recidivism and Time Served in Prison. The Journal of Law and Criminology, 106(1), 83-124. google scholar
  • Monteiro, C. (2015). Understanding Persistent Offending Among Incarcerated Offenders Through General Strain Theory (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Boston. google scholar
  • Nagin, D.S., Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L. (2009). Imprisonment and Reoffending. Crime and Justice, 38(1), 115-200. google scholar
  • Nergiz, H. (2020). Ceza İnfaz Kurumlarındaki Yetişkin Hükümlülerde Yineleyen Fiziksel Şiddet Suçu Davranışını Yordayan Psikolojik Değişkenler (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi. google scholar
  • Nguyen, H., Loughran, T. A., Paternoster, R., Fagan, J., & Piquero, A. R. (2017). Institutional Placement and Illegal Earnings: Examining the Crime School Hypothesis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 33(2), 207-235. google scholar
  • Nygaard, R. (1996). Is Prison an Appropriate Response to Crime?, Saint Louis University Law Journal, 40(3), 677-698. google scholar
  • Orsagh, T., & Chen, J. (1988). The Effect of Time Served on Recidivism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 4(2), 155-171. google scholar
  • Ouss, A. (2011). Prison as a School of Crime: Evidence from Cell-Level Interactions, SSRN Online, 1-23. google scholar
  • Özbay, Ö. (2011). Does General Strain Theory Account for Youth Deviance in Turkey?, Nevşehir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1, 107-129. google scholar
  • Özgenç, İ. (2020). Türk Ceza Hukuku Genel Hükümler (12. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. google scholar
  • Özgenç, İ. (2022). Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğünün Aktüel Hükümlü İstatistikleri Üzerine Tespit ve Değerlendirmeler. https://izzetozgenc.com/makale/ceza-ve-tevkifevleri-genel-mudurlugunun-aktuel-hukumlu-istatistikleri-uzerine-tespit-ve-degerlendirmeler adresinden 07 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • Paterline, B. A., & Petersen, D. M. (1999). Structural and Social Psychological Determinants of Prisonization. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27(5), 427-441. google scholar
  • Reiss, A. J., & Rhodes, A. L. (1964). An Empirical Test of Differential Association Theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 1, 5-18. google scholar
  • Rocque, M., Bierie, D., MacKenzie, D. (2011). Social Bonds and Change During Incarceration: Testing a Missing Link in the Reentry Research, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 20(10), 1-23. google scholar
  • Roxell, L. (2011). Co-Offending Among Prison Inmates. The Prison Journal, 91(3), 366-389. google scholar
  • Samaritans, (2022). The Listener Scheme. https://www.samaritans.org/how-we-can-help/prisons/listener-scheme/ adresinden 07 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • Samenow, S. E. (2014). Inside The Criminal Mind (3. Baskı), New York: Broadway Books. google scholar
  • Saruç, S. (2013). Kadın Hükümlüler: Cezaevi Yaşantısı ve Tahliye Sonrası Gereksinimler (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. google scholar
  • Schubert, C. A., Mulvey, E. P., Loughran, T. A., & Losoya, S. H. (2012). Perceptions of Institutional Experience and Community Outcomes for Serious Adolescent Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(1), 71-93. google scholar
  • Sirisutthidacha, W., & Tititampruk, D. (2014). Patterns of Inmate Subculture: A Qualitative Study of Thai Inmates. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 9(1), 94-109. google scholar
  • Song, L., & Lieb, R. (1993). Recidivism: The Effect of Incarceration and Length of Time Served, Washington State Institute for Public Policy Report, https://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1152/Wsipp_Recidivism-The-Effect-of-Incarceration-and-Length-of-Time-Served_Full-Report.pdf. adresinden 15.05.2020 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • Sutherland E. H., & Cressey, D. R. (1978). Criminology (10th ed.), Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. google scholar
  • Şahin, C. (2002). Tahliye Öncesi ve Sonrası Hükümlüye ve Eski Hükümlüye Yardım. Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 5(2), 1-32. google scholar
  • Şen, Ş. (2016). Ceza İnfaz Kurumlarında Verilen Eğitim Faaliyetlerinin Yaşam Boyu Öğrenme Açısından Değerlendirilmesi (Zonguldak İli Örneği) (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Bartın: Bartın Üniversitesi. google scholar
  • Short, J. (1957). Differential Association and Delinquency. Social Problems, 4(3), 233-239. google scholar
  • Tannenbaum, F. (1938). Crime and the Community. New York: Columbia University Press. google scholar
  • T. C. Adalet Bakanlığı, Ceza İnfaz Kurumları ile Tutukevleri İşyurtları Kurumu. (2019). 2018 Faaliyet Raporu. https://iydb.adalet.gov.tr/Resimler/BilgiBankasi/2822019181508faaliyet_raporu_2018.pdf. adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • T. C. Adalet Bakanlığı, Ceza İnfaz Kurumları İle Tutukevleri İşyurtları Kurumu (2020). 2019 Faaliyet Raporu. https://iydb.adalet.gov.tr/Resimler/BilgiBankasi/2822020202750Faaliyet%20Raporu%202019.pdf adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • T. C. Adalet Bakanlığı, Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü. (2022). Ceza İnfaz Kurumlarımız Genel Bilgi, https://cte.adalet.gov.tr/Home/SayfaDetay/cik-genel-bilgi adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • T. C. Adalet Bakanlığı, Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü. (2022). Cinsiyete ve İnfaz Durumuna Göre Ceza İnfaz Kurumları Mevcutları. https://cte.adalet.gov.tr/Resimler/Dokuman/6072022143955istatistik-1.pdf adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • T. C. Adalet Bakanlığı, Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü. (2022). Denetimli Serbestlik Daire Başkanlığı İstatistikleri. https://rayp.adalet.gov.tr/resimler/581/dosya/mayis-2022-istatistikleri06-06-202211-47-am.pdf adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • T. C. Adalet Bakanlığı, Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü. (2022). Personel Durumu. https://cte.adalet.gov. tr/Home/SayfaDetay/personel-durumu adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • T.C. Cumhurbaşkanlığı İletişim Başkanlığı (2020). Cezaevlerinde e-görüş dönemi başlıyor, (23 Ekim 2020). https://www.iletisim.gov.tr/turkce/yerel_basin/detay/cezaevlerinde-e-gorus-donemi-basliyor adresinden 13 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır. google scholar
  • Thomas, C. W. (1977). Theoretical Perspectives on Prisonization: A Comparison of the Importation and Deprivation Models. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 68(1), 135-145. google scholar
  • Topses, M. (2013). Mükerrer Suçluların Sosyo-Kültürel Özellikleri: Çanakkale E Tipi Kapalı Ceza İnfaz Kurumu Örneği. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 18(18), 257-287. google scholar
  • Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. (2019). 2018 Yılı Hükümlü ve Tutuklu Sayısı. Erişim adresi: http://tuik.gov.tr/ PreIstatistikTablo.do?istab_id=1621. google scholar
  • Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. (2020). Ceza İnfaz Kurumu İstatistikleri, 2019. Erişim adresi: https://data.tuik.gov. tr/Bulten/Index?p=Ceza-Infaz-Kurumu-Istatistikleri-2019-33625. google scholar
  • Walker, N. (1983). Side-Effects of Incarceration. Britain Journal of Criminology, 23(1), 61-71. google scholar
  • Weerman, F. M. (2003). Co-offending as Social Exchange: Explaining Characteristics of Co-offending. British Journal of Criminology, 43, 398-416. google scholar
  • Wittenberg, P. M. (1996). Language and Communication In Prison, Federal Probation, 60(4), 45-50. google scholar
  • Woods, D., Hassan, D., Breslin, G. (2017). Positive Collateral Damage or Purposeful Design: How Sport-based Interventions Impact the Psychological Well-being of People in Prison. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 13, 152-162. google scholar
  • Wooldredge, J. D. (1997). Explaining Variation in Perceptions of Inmate Crowding, The Prison Journal, 77(1), 27-40. google scholar
  • Yarsuvat, D. (1992). Bir Sosyolojik ve Kültürel Alt Grup Olarak Cezaevi Toplumu. İstanbul Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2). google scholar
  • Yinger, M. (1960), Contraculture and Subculture. American Sociological Review, 25(5), 625-635. google scholar
  • Yukhnenko, D., Sridhar, S., Fazel, S. (2019). A Systematic Review of Criminal Recidivism Rates Worldwide: 3-Year Update, Wellcome Open Research, 4, 1-10. google scholar

Citations

Copy and paste a formatted citation or use one of the options to export in your chosen format


EXPORT



APA

Karabulut, E.C., & Nergiz, H. (2022). Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, 10(2), 459-490. https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


AMA

Karabulut E C, Nergiz H. Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology. 2022;10(2):459-490. https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


ABNT

Karabulut, E.C.; Nergiz, H. Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, [Publisher Location], v. 10, n. 2, p. 459-490, 2022.


Chicago: Author-Date Style

Karabulut, Efe Can, and Hüseyin Nergiz. 2022. “Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?.” Journal of Penal Law and Criminology 10, no. 2: 459-490. https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


Chicago: Humanities Style

Karabulut, Efe Can, and Hüseyin Nergiz. “Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?.” Journal of Penal Law and Criminology 10, no. 2 (Sep. 2024): 459-490. https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


Harvard: Australian Style

Karabulut, EC & Nergiz, H 2022, 'Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?', Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 459-490, viewed 12 Sep. 2024, https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


Harvard: Author-Date Style

Karabulut, E.C. and Nergiz, H. (2022) ‘Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?’, Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, 10(2), pp. 459-490. https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123 (12 Sep. 2024).


MLA

Karabulut, Efe Can, and Hüseyin Nergiz. “Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?.” Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, vol. 10, no. 2, 2022, pp. 459-490. [Database Container], https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


Vancouver

Karabulut EC, Nergiz H. Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology [Internet]. 12 Sep. 2024 [cited 12 Sep. 2024];10(2):459-490. Available from: https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123 doi: 10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123


ISNAD

Karabulut, EfeCan - Nergiz, Hüseyin. “Crime Transference: Are Prisons Universities of Crime?”. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology 10/2 (Sep. 2024): 459-490. https://doi.org/10.26650/JPLC2022-1093123



TIMELINE


Submitted25.03.2022
Accepted19.10.2022
Published Online26.10.2022

LICENCE


Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC)

This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-commercially, and although their new works must also acknowledge you and be non-commercial, they don’t have to license their derivative works on the same terms.


SHARE




Istanbul University Press aims to contribute to the dissemination of ever growing scientific knowledge through publication of high quality scientific journals and books in accordance with the international publishing standards and ethics. Istanbul University Press follows an open access, non-commercial, scholarly publishing.