Özlem

Mustafa

Prof.

Since the 19th century, the change in the understanding of war, the expansion of war zones, and the increasing need for labor force, have made it necessary to channel all resources in a country toward war training. In such an environment, including young people in war required that they will be equipped with military training well before they were enlisted, and so, the contents of civilian schools’ curricula were militarized. While military and shooting training courses in schools became a mainstay, military skills were also taught to youth outside of schools, through paramilitary organizations and scouting.In a short time, these developments in preparing young people for military service in and out of school in Europe were reflected in the Ottoman Empire. As in Europe, especially after the defeat of the Balkan Wars, the contents of the training programs were restructured in order to “raise young people to be war-ready.” During the Second Constitutional Era, militarist elements such as medical training, drilling, games, and target practices were added to the contents of the physical training course, and with military course in the curriculum, students were taken to the shooting ranges. In this way, young people were primed for military training in schools. Outside of schools, through the Boy Scout Organization (İzci Ocağı), which was established and directed by the state, and also through paramilitary organizations, such as the Türk Gücü Derneği, the Osmanlı Güç Dernekleri, and the Osmanlı Genç Dernekleri, the same priming was achieved. It should be noted that the idea of creating a “millet-i müsellaha” (nation in arm) under the mobilization conditions of the First World War was also effective in directing political elites to militarist training in this period.After the proclamation of the Republic, the need to protect the borders of the newly established state amidst the fragile conditions of the 1930s, and the possibility of a new war required constant war preparations. Also, when the effect of shortening the duration of military service is added to this process, it was considered that practical solution for giving basic military knowledge to young people in schools is beneficial. Consequently, the physical education course, which was in the curriculum in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, continued to remain in the curriculum unchanged until 1926. However, in 1926, the basic military skill was removed from the content of physical education and added to military education as a separate course. In the academic year of 1926–1927, basic military skill was re-included in the curriculum under the name, preparation for military service. In the first stage, this course was added to the last two years of boys’&nbsp;&nbsp;high schools and boys’ schools for teaching, but later, it was taught in all schools from middle school to university with a denser content in the unsafe environment emerged in the mid-1930s. In 1937, when the danger of a new war emerged, female students were also taught the preparation for military service courses.In addition, after the course was reincluded in the curriculum, the subjects taught under it were shown to the students in the preparation for military service camps during the summer holidays, and in a practical way as well. At the end of school years, students were taken to the camps in August in the first stage. When the number of students required to attend the camps increased due to the widening of the course’s scope, high school and university students were taken to camps away from the city during the summer holiday. In these camps, where there were no civilian individuals other than the students, and everything was done in military fashion, getting the students accustomed to military training and service.In this study, preparation for military service camps will be examined from the point of view of students with the oral history method. For this, interviews were conducted with individuals who participated in these camps between 1935 and 1947. Thus, by discussing the camps with the living witnesses, the humanitarian dimension of the camp life that is not reflected in the documents will be shown.&nbsp;&nbsp;

An Oral History Study on Preparatory Camps for Military  Service in Schools in the Republican Era (1935–1947)

Umut

Öğretim Görevlisi

The parties of the second-largest war on Earth were spread across three continents. The Republic of Turkey, which was not a party to this war, did not have the military, social, or economic ability to keep the war going. Therefore, it chose to pursue a policy of impartiality toward the Allied and Axis states.&nbsp;The warring states were following new strategies to use the straits that belonged to Turkey, and they organized conferences to attract the Turkish government to the war. Despite these pressures, up until the last three months of the war, the Turkish government managed to maintain its neutrality.Germany’s invasion policy against Soviet Russia, with the increase in the violence of the war, turned to primary and secondary areas. At the breaking point of the war, the German military authorities determined the Black Sea and Crimea to be their strategic fronts. They started activities in line with the increase in the number of fronts throughout the region and the determination of different strategies.There were two main reasons why Hitler attached special importance to the Black Sea and Crimea. The first of these was to reach the oil fields in the Caucasus, and the second was to prevent the Russians from dominating the Black Sea. Germany had to bring Turkey under its control to exert political, social, and military pressure. For this reason, the Germans started an operation aiming for the domination of the area.Germany, which was unable to use the straits under Turkish sovereignty during the war years, and the Axis powers, which were being influenced by it, implemented the Barbarossa Plan that they had developed against the Soviet Union. The Germans required to use the Turkish straits to implement this plan, and they were unlikely to follow the Montreux Convention on the Straits.The Germans first landed six U-boats in the 30th Fleet on a land route, and then took to the Black Sea to envelop the Soviets stationed there. After delivering major losses to the Soviets in the Black Sea, six German U-boats were sunk toward the end of the war.&nbsp;Meanwhile, Romania was separated from the Axis powers under Soviet pressure, making the Black Sea a center of action with significant losses for the Germans.Following successive attempts to defeat the Russians, German officers in the stationary sea planned to sink their submarines in Turkish territorial waters and reach into their country from the Aegean coasts under a decree from their headquarters. German soldiers who landed were soon after arrested by Turkish military authorities, interned, and hosted in the camps in the country. The military and civilian refugees of different countries were also collected in these camps. The Germans were first held in Beyşehir and then in Isparta after 1944.German soldiers had the opportunity to survive after being interned in Turkish camps. Although the Turkish government had endeavored to provide camps with military-level conditions for visiting soldiers, some setbacks were experienced because of the economic, social, and political conditions of the period. Military personnel from different countries, especially German Navy personnel, also tried to reduce the negative impact of war by reaching out to the people in their camps.During their stay in Anatolia, German soldiers lived not as refugees but as guests. The Turkish government, which did not go to war until 1944, tried not to change the status and conditions of the soldiers in the camps even after they were officially involved in the war. However, the Allies divided Germany into occupation zones, and it surrendered to the United States, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. As a result of these developments, the status of the international organizations in Turkey had to change.&nbsp;&nbsp;

The Sinking of German Submarines in the Black Sea During  World War II and the Mandatory Accommodation of  Military Personnel in Turkey

Esra

Uzman

Adem

Assist. Prof.

To a large extent, the conveyor of academic military history and publishing in Turkey has been the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF). In this sense, TAF is the most significant institution that governs military history through its periodicals. Understanding the features presented by military history in Turkey is considered impossible without addressing the TAF itself and its publications. Within this framework, this article analyzes the Askeri Tarih Bülteni (Military History Bulletin), which is the main periodical on academic military history in Turkey. Specifically, Askeri Tarih Bülteni is one of the most significant periodicals published by the General Staff of TAF for 44 years. As an academic actor in the field, the TAF warrants scholarly attention.This study profiles the publications of Askeri Tarih Bülteni between 1976 and 2020 and conducts a procedure for content analysis adapted from various studies that employed this method. All issues of the journal published have been scanned. However, the journal is unavailable on any online database; as such, a computer-based word coding program cannot be used. Instead, the study created a data collection and processing form, where information on each publication was entered into the form.Qualitative and quantitative analyses were then conducted. Frequency and percentage calculations were used for quantitative analyses, or, specifically, the bibliometric processes, whereas classifications, such as regional ones, were applied to qualitative analyses.The study noted a lack of increase or decrease in the number of articles published per year. Therefore, the study was unable to reach conclusions or interpretations in terms of bibliometrics based on the number of articles published by the journal per year.Out of 837 authors, females compose 12.19% (n = 102) of the sample, whereas the majority (87.81%) comprises male authors. Articles whose authors are institutions or are unspecified were excluded from analysis.Moreover, we classified articles with respect to the historical period covered. The majority of manuscripts fall within the scope of the Modern Age (662 articles; 78.8%) followed by the New Age with 43 publications (5.1%).Moreover, the articles were grouped according to geographical region. Accordingly, 475 (56.5%) of the publications covered the Anatolian region followed by the Balkans (n = 65; 7.6%) and Europe (n = 57; 6.6%). The least represented region is America with seven publications (0.8%).&nbsp;According to topic, the majority of the publications are related to politics (n = 538; 64%) followed by institutions (n = 142; 15.2%), culture (n = 127; 15.2%), and international relations (n = 91; 10.0%).Citations were then used to evaluate the issues. Citations were undetected in the Web of Science or Scopus indexes. For this reason, citations to the journal on Google Scholar were scanned. The study identified a total of 112 citations to the journal.As a publication of the TAF, the majority of authors (n = 107; 12.8%) were members of the Turkish Armed Forces followed by members of Gazi University and the Turkish Military History Commission with 19 articles each.Askeri Tarih Bülteni began its publication in 1976 and maintained this status by publishing two issues per year. In 2003, the journal became a peer-reviewed national journal, which consequently changed its name to Askerî Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi (Journal of Military History Studies). In 2017, the decision was made to publish one issue per year; since then, it continued to publish on an annual basis. The current study, which covers Askeri Tarih Bülteni, conducted content analysis by adapting the procedures used in previous studies to extract the publishing profiles of all articles published in the journal between 1976 and 2020.The results indicated that the objective of Askeri Tarih Bülteni was to establish the general status of all articles in the archive for the current Askerî Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi and to obtain general information about the journal for scholars who intend to conduct studies on military history. In addition, detailed author information remains lacking, as observed in articles published in the journal in 2020. Thus, resolving this issue is considered to provide convenience for researchers and readers. Studies that employ content analysis in Turkey are lacking; moreover, resources on military history are insufficient. Thus, understanding and obtaining detailed information on this journal, which has written extensively on military history, will be an important resource for the two abovementioned fields and will provide substantial assistance for readers and individuals who want to follow it.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Content Analysis of Askeri Tarih Bülteni (Military History Bulletin)

Fatih

After the Ottoman Empire’s navy bombed the Russian cities in the Black Sea on October 29, 1914, Russian forces crossed the Turkish border on November 1, 1914. Despite the success of the Turkish Army in the first battles in 1914, no significant victory was gained over the Russian army due to their more advanced strategies. Terrain and climatic conditions blocked the plans of the Turkish Army to defeat the Russian Caucasian Army with a siege operation in Sarıkamış. Encouraged by the defeat of the Turkish Army in Sarıkamış, the Russian Caucasian Army began to advance on the Anatolian lands.From the first months of 1915, the Russian Caucasian Army advanced from the Black Sea coast and the Coruh valley, occupying Borcka on February 22, Hopa on February 28, Arhavi on March 13, and Artvin on March 28. Taking advantage of the Armenian revolt in Van, the Russian Caucasian Army captured Malazgirt on May 11 and Van on May 16. From the second half of 1915, no important developments occurred on the Caucasian front.At the beginning of 1916, the Russian Caucasian Army proceeded to capture Erzurum on February 16, 1916. In this study, the developments in the region after the occupation of Erzurum were explained.The Russian press was closely following the military developments on the Caucasus front and informing the Russian public with comments and analyses. İn this study, Birjeviya Vedomosti, Den, Pravitelstvennıy Vestnik, and Russkiy Invalid newspapers, which are prominent newspapers of the capital city, Petrograd, and Tbilisiy Listok, Kavkazskoe Slovo, Kavkazskaya Kopeyka, Batumskiya Vesti newspapers published in the Caucasus were used. In addition, the military periodicals Vestnik X Armii, Voennaya Letopis, and Listok Voyni, and Kubanskiy Kazachiy Vestnik magazines were used as sources. Furthermore, the memories and observations of Russian officers and soldiers who participated in the Erzincan operation were also included in the study.The Russian Caucasian Army captured Erzurum on February 16, 1916, and Trabzon, which was the gateway to Anatolia from the Black Sea, on April 18, 1916. The Russian Caucasian Army were determined to advance to the west and south as their new target. Meanwhile, the newspapers of the period were quick to announcing Russia’s achievements, reporting that the next targets of the Russian Caucasian Army were Erzincan and Bayburt.&nbsp;&nbsp;On May 30, 1916, the Turkish Army liberated Mamahatun from the Russian occupation. After the ongoing battles in the region, the Russian Caucasian Army recaptured Mamahatun on July 11, 1916, and occupied Bayburt on July 16, 1916, surpassing the forces of Fevzi Pasha, who had a strong defense in the Kop Mountains for a long time. After the occupation of Mamahatun and Bayburt, the Russian press announced to the public that the new target of the Russian army was Erzincan.The Russian Caucasian Army captured Erzincan on July 25, 1916. This success of the army became a current issue in Russian newspapers. Newspapers were following the occupation process of Erzincan closely, announcing any update to the public. The Russian press was also reporting on the military events that took place before the occupation of Erzincan and the battles that determined the fate of the city. Noting that the occupation of Erzincan had an impact in the European press, the Russian press also broadcast congratulatory messages sent to the Russian tsar and his commanders, giving the message that Russia’s success was known and supported by the allies. In the following days, the Russian press reported a wide variety of information about the city’s location, history, population, architecture, economy, strategic importance, nature, and climate. This information in the Russian press was remarkable and showed that Russia had a lot of information about the Ottoman Empire.While the Russian press reported that the Russian Caucasian Army completed the occupation process in Eastern Anatolia after the occupation of Erzincan, they sustained the agenda that advancing into Anatolia was the new target of the army. Some newspapers even began writing that the target was Istanbul. As a matter of fact, the thought of the command center of the Russian Caucasian Army was in this direction.&nbsp;However, the post-invasion events did not take place as reported by the Russian press, and the developments in both armies brought the end of the war closer than initially planned or anticipated. The Russian army started to withdraw as a result of the Bolshevik revolutions in Russia, and the war ended with the Erzincan Armistice signed on December 18, 1917.&nbsp;With the withdrawal of the Russian troops, the extermination activities of the Armenian military units against the Muslim people living in the Erzincan began. With the forward attack of the Turkish Army, Erzincan was liberated from the enemy occupation on February 13, 1918.&nbsp;

According to the Russian Press, the Occupation of Erzincan  During the First World War

Murat

The Dilemma of Ottoman Ex-Soldiers: Returning Home or Entering a New War

Cevdet

İbret

Turkey participated on the side of the United Nations in the Korean War that began in the summer of 1950. A brigade was sent from Turkey to fight in the war, including soldiers from the Kadirli district. In this study, 3 of the 50 soldiers from the district were interviewed and communicated their views on the war.When Japan withdrew from the Korean Peninsula at the end of World War II, the territory was divided into two countries along the 38th parallel. The northern part was occupied by the Soviet Union and the southern part by the United States.Two separate governmental administrations have been established in Korea, one under the control of the Soviet Union and/or China, and the other under the control of the United Nations. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops invaded South Korea’s territory under the guidance and support of the Soviets. A United Nations force was set up against the invasion, the main burden of which was borne by the United States.Meanwhile, Turkey, whose territory was threatened by the Soviet Union and who wanted to join NATO, accepted the war on the side of the United Nations and acted with a sense of security. The Korean‒Turkish Brigade, number in excess of five thousand, was formed to be sent to war.For the purpose of this oral history study, the authors conducted interviews with three people who had been soldiers sent to Korea. Among the total number of soldiers sent from Korea, 50 were from the Kadirli district, which was then part of Adana. The information obtained from the interviews was transcribed and coded, the interview texts were compiled by specific topics, and the results were studied using descriptive analysis methods.Two of the veterans had traveled to Korea on the US ships that came off Iskenderun to carry Turkish soldiers. One of the soldiers, on the other hand, left on a ship departing from Izmir because he was late. Soldiers were sent on their way in large crowds which included family members. Veterans recall that the trip took about a month or a little longer. However, if we look at the news reported in the press with Brigade Commander Tahsin Yazıcı, it is clear that the actual period was shorter.The starting point for Turkish soldiers in Korea was the city of Pusan. Turkish soldiers who entered the city on October 18, 1950, were greeted by governors and city officials who sang marches, accompanied by Korean and American bands, young girls with Turkish, Korean, and American flags, and children with flowers. From here, the soldiers were sent to Taegu.Soldiers found it extremely difficult to find shelter, food and, most importantly, sleep, on the front lines. During their time in Korea, the soldiers were fed mostly canned food and stayed in tents and underground shelters. Soldiers from other countries also experienced similar situations.The soldiers also relayed various information about the war environment, the effects of the war on the land and its people, and the climate, vegetation, and landforms of the Korean settlements. According to their impressions, Korea had a cold climate, and its geography was mountainous and forested. The Korean people were deeply affected by the war by being exposed to hunger, thirst, and general misery.All three veterans actually fought in combat and were injured. The most seriously injured veteran was treated in Japan and the others in Korea. The soldiers said that at the end of their service they returned to Turkey by ship, landing in the port of Izmir where they were greeted by a large and enthusiastic crowd.The veterans involved in the Korean War received medals, certificates, and diplomas from the authorities of the Republic of Korea. The South Korean state has always expressed its gratitude to the veterans in written documents.It is understood that the public’s perception of and access to veterans has changed since the war, with the war’s veterans having gained renown. According to the stories told by the veterans, in the immediate postwar period, the public’s view of them changed, their real names were almost forgotten, and they were called “Koreans.” With the law numbered 1985, published on 27 April 1976, veterans were paid a pension by Turkish government. In this regard, those who actually participated in the war from October 1950, when the Turkish Brigade entered Korea, to the signing of the Panmunjom Armistice Agreement in 1953 in October 1950, were entitled to a pension.This oral history study brought to light and recorded the individual memories, information, feelings, and thoughts of the selected veterans. These thoughts, memories, and feelings are probably not those reflected in the official documents relating to the Korean War. In this way, the authors obtained important information about the role of Turkish soldiers in the Korean War. The authors also uncovered information about the veterans on impact of the war in general and also specifically on the veterans’ lives.&nbsp;

Understanding the Past with Oral History: The Korean War  from the Perspective of the Veterans of Kadirli

Yasemin

Oaths can be defined as “undertaking a duty by promising oneself through vows or treaty”; they have been used from the ancient Turkish era to the present to establish friendship and solidarity, distinguish lie and truth, and reach agreement. After the adoption of Islam, oaths became a cultural and social phenomenon, dominated by religious wording, symbols, and rituals, such as swearing in God’s name and putting a hand on the holy book.Oaths gained a political character when Sultan Abdülmecit promised that he would regulate the state administration and institutions according to the laws to be enacted, depending on the Gülhane Hatt-ı Hümayunu announced on November 3, 1839, and that the state officials, including himself, would abide by these laws. Subsequently, oaths gained a constitutional character when the first constitution, Kanun-i Esasi, was implemented on December 23, 1876, with the provision that the members of the parliament, Meclis-i Umumî, would take oaths when sworn in. In this specific oath, loyalty to the Sultan had priority over loyalty to the homeland and compliance with the constitution—the oath wherein the Sultan declares his loyalty to the constitution or the regime was not included in Kanun-i Esasi. This weakness in the constitution vis-a-vis oaths stemmed from the fact that the commission which prepared the constitution was appointed by the Sultan. Even the declaration of the Meclis-i Ayan despite being an institution born by the new regime, albeit appointed house of the parliament revealed that the idea of constitutionalism had not fully penetrated the Ottoman political life yet.The Young Turks, the opposition movement that emerged during the suppression regime, which started with the suspension of the constitutional regime by Sultan II. Abdülhamit, took precedence from the Carbonari Society’s cell models and Russian nihilists, using oaths during the induction of new members into their organizations. The Young Turks’ oaths contained rituals, such as holding guns and the holy book,&nbsp;blindfolding the candidates, and preserving/prioritizing confidentiality and loyalty to the organization over the constitutional oppositional regime. The leader of this movement, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) continued to use oaths to sustain the existence of the regime even after the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in 1908, due to its lack of social base. After the Committee had come to power, transitioning into a political party, oaths lost their importance within the organization.The political experience achieved in the suppression period, developed the parliamentarians’ perception of constitutionalism such that some members took official oaths to demonstrate their loyalty to the Sultan, on the condition that the Sultan himself complied with the provisions of the constitution. Moreover, after the March 31 Incident where the reactionary uprising of the Islamic fundamentalists, supporters of absolutism, and opponents of the CUP endangered the regime, the entire parliament voted for the Sultan’s dethronement because he did not comply with his unofficial oath to adhere to the constitution. The constitutional regulations made in 1909, therefore, limits the Sultan’s power over the legislature. In addition, the regulations ensured that the Sultan took an official oath to obey the constitution and to be loyal to the homeland.The extraordinary conditions of the National Struggle period were reflected in the oaths of the Istanbul administration based on personal sovereignty and the Ankara administration based on national sovereignty with different contents, goals, and political ideals. For instance, 14 days after the members of the last Ottoman parliament took an oath to be “loyal to His Holiness the Sultan and the homeland and to obey the Laws of the Constitution,” they declared the National Pact, which aimed at a fully independent state, because the developments of this period proved that loyalty to the Sultan was an obstacle to the principle of full independence. The developments had effects on the oaths taken by the members of the Turkish Grand National Assembly as well. Following the establishment of the new Turkish State and the declaration of the Republic, “loyalty to national sovereignty” in the words of the oath was changed to “loyalty to the principles of the republic.” Since the Ottoman-Turkish political life entered the process of secularization, the oath’s wording and symbols based on the traditional-religious phenomenon that prevailed until that time, left their place to the earthly and secular verities.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Oaths in Turkish Political Life from the Constitutional Monarchy to the Republic

Sacit

The DP embodied hope both for those tired of the one-party regime and for some officers in the army. Although Turkey was one of the few countries in Europe to avoid major damage in World War II due to İsmet İnönü’s leadership, it had shouldered an additional economic burden due to the war, and this was perhaps harder for the military than for other members of the public. Thus, one reason for the May 27 coup was the low social status of military personnel due to economic difficulties. Immediately after the war, the reaction was directed against the CHP (Republican People’s Party) for the period of 1946 – 1950. This necessitated examining the attitude of some army members toward the CHP. The CHP, which founded modern Turkey, was dominant in the military before turning to the DP. Alternatively, the positions of military bureaucrats during the DP period acted as triggers for the events that led to the 1960 coup. This caused polarization within the army and differences of opinion between the members of the army who followed a management approach in favor of the DP and those who did not. Several groups reacted against the DP during the 1950 –1960 period, including intellectuals, civil bureaucrats, and some of the press members. As a matter of fact, especially in the second half of the 1950s, the economic policies followed by the DP led part of the public to react against the DP government. Parallel to this, the pressure exerted by the DP to take control of the social sphere resulted in reverberations among universities and thus students, which in turn, resulted in protests, mostly among the young people. Therefore, as the coup began to develop, these protests were severely suppressed by the senior management of the military, who acted in favor of the DP, with the exception of the police forces. Therefore, the military coup of May 27 was largely conducted by lower-ranking personnel.Commander of the Turkish Armed Forces Rüştü Erdelhun was brought down from the administration is also important in this context. This article investigates the 1960 coup in a novel way, asking the main question, “Have military command echelon been sufficiently emphasized in the study of military coups?” In fact, the aforementioned issue -after the dismissal process of the superiors- has not been sufficiently emphasized, as the main issue investigated in relation to coups is the governments that are overthrown. In our case, the people most commonly mentioned in the 1960 coup context are a few powerful people in the DP. After the military coup of May 27, 1960, however, not only the military cadres who supported DP, but also politicians, bureaucrats, journalists, and others were affected from the coup process and Yassıada trials. For these groups, the injustices in the Yassıada trials are obvious. Therefore, both Yassıada defendants, who were members of the army on May 27, 1960, and the defendants who entered politics in the DP received their share of these negative trials. However, especially in the second half of 1965, when the Justice Party, a supporter of the DP political line, came to power alone, the political pressures in the post-May 27 coup period were broken to some extent. Thus, after the Yassıada process, the defendants who served their sentences mostly in Kayseri and Adana prisons were released first. Then, the defendants of military origin overcame the grievances arising from their professional rights -such as military rank reinstatement, retired pay-, even if this occurred late. This article discusses the adventures of the defendants of military origin for the 1960 coup investigating the subject beginning with the start of the DP’s rule in 1950 and ending with the rights offered to military personnel based on their ranks.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Position of the Military-Based Yassıada Defendants before the  1960 Coup and the Restoration of Their Honor: 1950 – 1967

Yunus

Res. Assist.

Bekir

The Democratic Party regime came to power through the May 14, 1950 elections, which ended with the military intervention on May 27, 1960. After this intervention, a court was established in Yassıada to try the members of the previous government. During the court proceedings, several lawsuits were seen, both political and financial, and one of such cases is the Disguised Allowance case. The disguised allowance is an appropriation placed in the state budget to be spent within the framework of intelligence and defense services, national security, and the high interests of the state. The Disguised Allowance was the Prime Minister’s initiative, and the record of the money spent under this allowance had to be destroyed together with the receipt. However, the receipts were retained when the Democratic Party was in power. After May 27, the Supreme Court of Justice examined the receipts, which resulted in the Disguised Allowance case. The purpose of the lawsuit was the illegal use of disguised allowance. The defendants in the case are Adnan Menderes, the Prime Minister of the time, and Ahmet Salih Korur, the Chief of the Premiership Private Secretary.The case involved a large number of expenditures from disguised allowance. The subjects within the scope of our study are the press within that period and expenditures made on some government institutions. Indeed, the Democratic Party has helped many media outlets and journalists, especially the Great East, from disguised allowance during its rule. The court claimed that these expenditures were illegal and therefore accused Adnan Menderes. In response to these accusations, Adnan Menderes mentioned that aids to various press organizations had become almost a tradition in every period. He, therefore, stated that he sees no harm in the aid provided to both Büyük Doğu and other journalists from the disguised allowance. Thus, several witnesses were heard in this context, and they admitted that they received support from the Prime Ministry, but did not know which budget item of the state that the support came from.Consequently, another issue that is the subject of a lawsuit is the expenditures made from Disguised Allowance to the Presidency and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. According to the court, money was constantly transferred to two institutions of the state, including banquets, travel expenses, personal gifts, aid to associations and individuals. According to Menderes, the president of the Turkish state has a position to spend from the disguised appropriation whenever he deems necessary. These transferred funds were unspent for the interests of the state but the interests of the Democratic Party, which Adnan Menderes disagreed with the court.Finally, the court also addressed the increasing budget of the Turkish Intelligence Agency, and the reasons for this increase were asked. In response to the questions, Adnan Menderes and Ahmet Salih Korur defended themselves. Accordingly, the Americans were paying the salaries of the members of the Turkish Intelligence Agency in the 1950s. Adnan Menderes wanted an end to this situation as it would tarnish the honor of the Turkish state and appointed Ahmet Salih Korur. Korur, who became the head of the Turkish intelligence, ensured that all salary payments were paid from the Turkish budget. Simultaneously, the budget’s intelligence expenditures increased.Therefore, the conclusion of the proceedings within the scope of this case reflects the political conjuncture of the period. The defense of former Prime Minister Adnan Menderes to rebut the allegations against him was not taken into account by the court committee. Because the covert appropriation was available not only during the Democratic Party period but also during all other governments. These governments provided aid to the press organizations that supported them, and to other institutions and individuals they deem necessary, from a disguised appropriation.&nbsp;

Disguised Allowance Case in Yassıada: The Expenditures on  Press and Official Institutions

Songül

Muhittin Memduh Üstündağ was born on October 20, 1884 in Chios, one of the territories of the Ottoman Empire. Muhittin Bey, son of an Ottoman governor, received his primary education in Istanbul. His graduation from the Istanbul Civil Service High School in 1902 was followed by another from the faculty of law of the university in 1909. After serving as an assistant prosecutor in Anatolia, he was appointed to the Beyoğlu Arnavutköy Police Center as an officer, between 1913 and 1915. In 1918, he became the Director of the Uskudar Municipality Office. Due to frequent health problems, he was dismissed from his duty after a short time. He was appointed as the Central Trust Inspector in 1919, and he continued this duty until 1923. He was appointed as Director General of the Public Security of the Republic of Turkey in February 15, 1924, after the abolition of the caliphate. He also played a role in driving abroad the last Caliph Abdülmecid Efendi.Muhittin Bey resigned from his Director General duties in June 1925. Thereafter, he worked as the General Inspector of the Republican People’s Party of Thrace for a short time and was later appointed as the Mayor of Istanbul on January 27, 1926, making him the 49th and last Mayor of Istanbul during his reign, the Mayoralty of Istanbul was nullified and transformed into the Istanbul Municipality with the enactment of the Municipal Law No. 1580. The Law was the first municipal law in the history of the Republic and was implemented in 1930. In 1928, he was appointed the Governor of Istanbul, although he had already been acting by proxy, and so, he served as both the Governor and Mayor of Istanbul between 1930 and 1938. In 1936, governors also assumed the task of Republican People’s Party (RPP) Provincial Presidency of their cities, in line with the decision taken by the ruling Republican People’s Party in the Seventh Congress. Thus, the RPP Istanbul Provincial Presidency became part of his responsibility, in addition to his duties as governor and mayor.The period which Muhittin Bey had a duty in Istanbul was a period when reconstruction activities were underway after the occupation and war years of the city. The French architect Henry Prost who was invited by Atatürk has prepared the development plan of the city. In 1929, the effects of the global economic crisis also impacted on Istanbul and at a time when the new capital Ankara was being reconstructed, that is, Istanbul faced a serious lack of resources. Important investments such as the reconstruction of the Unkapanı Bridge and its consequent renaming as the Gazi (Atatürk) Bridge, the extension of the Eminönü Square, and implementing the&nbsp;reconstruction plan of Istanbul took a long time. During the reign of Muhittin Bey, the Zincirlikuyu Cemetery was constructed, and electricity was delivered to the Anatolian Sides and the Islands. Many actions, such as putting the Üsküdar-Kadıköy Tram into service, installing the first traffic lights of the city, and consummating the Heybeliada Quay were also implemented during his reign.The 1930s were also the period of reforms in the history of the Republic. During the term of Muhittin Bey’s mayoralty in 1927, President Atatürk came to Istanbul for the first time after a long hiatus. Atatürk went on to spend a significant part of his time in Istanbul, except for the capital city, Ankara. During these years, he became close friends with Muhittin Bey. Revolutions have largely progressed in Istanbul. Two weeks after the death of Atatürk, however, Muhittin Bey, was dismissed from his position as governor and mayor.He retired from administrative regulation in 1939, but still served as an Independent Deputy of Istanbul between 1945 and 1946. In 1951, he wrote a letter in Arabic to Adnan Menderes, the prime minister of the time, and demanded an administrative duty. He did not receive any response for this request. He passed away on April 30, 1953.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Istanbul Governorship and Mayorship Period of Muhittin Memduh Üstündağ (1926-1938)

A Contribution to the Turkish-Soviet Relations Literature

Haçadur

The Shocking Effect of the Revolution in Iran on Iranian  Armenians

Hulusi

The Concept of the Middle East and the Historical Breaking Points of the Middle East (1878-1979)

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

After nearly thirty years of Sultan Abdülhamid’s rule, the Constitutional Monarchy was reinstated on July 23, 1908, through the efforts of the Committee of Union and Progress. The Unionists, who had lived in exile in Europe for many years, believed that an Ottoman Empire with a parliamentary system and a constitution would restore its lost prestige in the West. The Committee of Union and Progress saw the salvation of the Ottoman Empire, which was considered a “sick man” by the West, in adopting Western systems. Motivated by these ideas, the Unionists forced Sultan Abdülhamid to declare the Constitutional Monarchy following a rebellion they initiated in Macedonia.&nbsp;The re-proclamation of the Constitutional Monarchy aroused great excitement in Europe. Both statesmen and the press took the issue seriously. European statesmen congratulated the Ottoman authorities on the proclamation of the Constitutional Monarchy as a matter of diplomatic courtesy, but they also rigorously analyzed the potential impacts on their own countries. Especially Britain and France seemed pleased with the declaration of the Constitutional Monarchy. Britain, which had conflicted with Sultan Abdul Hamid’s administration for years, thought that it could better align with the new regime and increase its investments in the Ottoman Empire. For this reason, many British statesmen, particularly British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, supported the Constitutional Monarchy. However, they harbored doubts about its success and followed this movement with a mix of sympathy and skepticism. France adopted a similar attitude.Conversely, other European states such as Germany and Russia were apprehensive about the Constitutional Monarchy. Germany, the only European state that had long enjoyed healthy relations with the Ottoman Empire, feared losing this influence under the new regime. Russia, on the other hand, was concerned that the new regime would strengthen the Ottoman Empire, thwarting its longstanding aim to dismantle it and seize its territories in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. Russia also feared that Britain might sympathize with the Ottoman Empire after the declaration of the Constitutional Monarchy and return to its policy of preserving its territorial integrity. However, Britain had no intention of reverting to its traditional Ottoman policy; it only wanted to keep the Ottoman Empire in a position that would not harm European politics.&nbsp;The small Balkan states of Greece and Bulgaria were also concerned about the Constitutional Monarchy. Both states, having claims over Macedonia, preferred the continuation of unrest in the region. The declaration of the Constitutional Monarchy, however, brought an end to the unrest in Macedonia and ceased the activities of local gangs, restoring Ottoman authority in the region. This situation worried Greece and Bulgaria.In addition to the official views of states, the Western press also followed the Constitutional Monarchy closely. The British and French press, in particular, were largely positive about the Constitutional Monarchy. Headlines such as “The End of the Eastern Question” and “The Awakening of the East” reflected hopes that the Constitutional Monarchy would elevate the Ottoman Empire to the level of European states. However, this goodwill and support in Europe came to an abrupt end in October 1908. A chain of events, including Bulgaria declaring its independence, Greece annexing Crete, and Austria annexing Bosnia, put the Ottoman Empire in a difficult situation early on.Faced with these crises, the Ottoman Empire expected support from European states and public opinion. However, it did not receive the anticipated support from any state or organization. European states found it in their interest to support the perpetrators of these events rather than the Ottoman Empire. Consequently, the Committee of Union and Progress realized that the idea of European support for the Ottoman Empire through the Constitutional Monarchy was merely a dream. This realization led the Unionists to intensify their rhetoric against Europe in the subsequent years. Ultimately, these tensions culminated in the Ottoman Empire opposing the European powers in the Great War.

The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 and the Restoration of Constitutional Rule According to the Press Organs of the Great European Powers

Nuran

Macedonia (including Thessaloniki, Bitola, Kosovo), with its diverse population including Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbs, posed significant challenges for the Ottoman Empire between 1878-1908. Initially acquired by Bulgaria through the Treaty of San Stefano, Macedonia was subsequently transferred to the Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Berlin. Consequently, after 1878, Bulgarians aimed to regain the borders established by the Treaty of San Stefano. They initially focused on securing independent churches and schools in Macedonia and attempted to convert Greeks and Serbs to the Bulgarian Church to bolster their population. The Greeks and Serbs responded in kind, forming committees to counter Bulgarian activities. Moreover, amidst internal conflicts, these groups clashed with Ottoman soldiers. Another tactic employed by Bulgarians to reclaim the San Stefano borders was to incite European intervention through organized revolts. The Bulgarian rebellions in 1902 and 1903 were particularly bloody, leaving Macedonia embroiled in prolonged instability. The European States (Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy) had conflicting interests in the Balkans and considered the situation in Macedonia crucial. Their compromise in 1878 aimed to prevent the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, even amidst territorial losses, to maintain European peace. Four reform programs were implemented between 1903 and 1907, each aimed at restoring order and diminishing Ottoman influence.&nbsp;With the implementation of the first reform program, Austria-Hungary and Russia gained influence over the administration of Macedonia. In the Vienna Reform Program, the two states agreed that the police and gendarmerie in the region would be organized by European officers. However, the program could only be implemented for a very short time. The large-scale revolt of the Bulgarians in 1903 drew the attention of the European &nbsp;States to Macedonia. Thus, in 1904, a broader program to restore order in Macedonia was adopted by the Ottoman government. As part of the Mürzsteg Program, two civil servants, an Austrian and a Russian, were appointed to assist the inspector general assigned to Macedonia by the Ottoman government. Their purpose was to conduct inspections and address the complaints of the Christian population. In addition, the organization of gendarmerie units was to continue in order to maintain public order. The final two reforms aimed to ensure that the financial and judicial affairs of Macedonia were under the control of the European states. The implementation of the reform programs, initially planned for two years, was continuously extended until 1914.&nbsp;However, these reforms were deemed insufficient, prompting Britain and Russia to propose the Anglo-Russian reform program. This program aimed to appoint a Christian governor to Macedonia, reduce the number of soldiers, and increase the number of gendarmes under European control. With the implementation of the Anglo-Russian reform program, Macedonia was intended to have an autonomous structure under the control of the European states, allowing it to make its own decisions while remaining tied to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire declared that it would never accept this reform program. The reform draft was also not immediately accepted by other states.On the other hand, the Anglo-Russian reform bill mobilized the Committee of Union and Progress, which had been rapidly organizing among the officers of the Third Army in Macedonia since 1907. Working towards the declaration of the Constitutional Monarchy for the second time, the Committee was closely monitoring developments in Macedonia. The Committee of Union and Progress opposed Europe’s intervention in Macedonia once again, believing that the last proposed reform program would lead to the loss of Macedonia. Additionally, the proposal to reduce the number of soldiers in the Anglo-Russian reform draft would weaken the Committee’s power in Macedonia and hinder the declaration of the Constitutional Monarchy. Consequently, the draft had unexpected repercussions for the European states. The Committee of Union and Progress, which had been secretly organized in Macedonia, emerged into the open to demonstrate its power to the European states. The Anglo-Russian reform bill, along with other factors, delayed the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Monarchy from the planned time. In this study, the Anglo-Russian reform bill will be analyzed, and its consequences will be emphasized.

The Last Reform in Macedonia: The British-Russian Reform Bill (8 March 1908)

Ümüt

Prof. Dr.

Cholera, which occurs due to consuming food and drinks contaminated with the vib rio cholerae bacterium, is a severe disease characterized by watery diarrhea. The bacte rium is a comma-shaped gram-negative pathogen that can survive in both oxygenated and anaerobic environments. After an incubation period of 1-4 days, symptoms such as muscle aches, exhaustion, nonstop vomiting, and rice-water-like diarrhea appear. Excessive fluid loss causes tissues to shrink, and the skin changes color between black and blue. Death is inevitable as kidney failure occurs due to unrecoverable fluid loss.The spread of cholera in the 19th century also impacted the Ottoman Empire due to its geopolitical and geostrategic position. This study examines the global and local his torical development of cholera, particularly during the Second Constitutional years. It aims to shed light on the disease’s agenda between 1908 and 1914, examining its place in intellectual and social contexts in terms of raising social awareness about cholera. This qualitative research uses documentary scanning to obtain valid data from archival documents, minutes, periodicals, regulations, and books. A literature review was also conducted for documentary validation. Data from these scans were classified and evalu ated through document analysis.Cholera’s ability to survive in varied environments has enabled epidemics to turn into pandemics amid climatic changes and socio-economic conditions. Although chole ra had been present in India for centuries, it became a global issue in the 19th century due to industrialization and urbanization. Due to its geopolitical and geostrategic positi on, the Ottoman Empire faced several cholera epidemics in 1831, 1846, 1849, 1854, 1865, 1871, 1893, and 1902, particularly in Istanbul. Measures against these epidemics were hampered by technical failures, financial difficulties, rigid ideologies, and unplan ned policies. Nevertheless, the state continued to combat epidemics by strengthening legal regulations, improving the conditions for physicians, and enhancing the quality of health institutions.Between 1908 and 1914, the chaotic environment, compounded by internal and ex ternal political conditions, was further strained by epidemics. Cholera epidemics, parti cularly severe in Istanbul from 1909 to 1913, were added to a series of events including the proclamation of Constitutionalism and the Balkan Wars. The surge in the disease during 1910 and 1911, exacerbated by refugees from the Balkan Wars, mobilized burea ucrats, physicians, and media. Parliamentary debates at the time show that combined efforts of civil and military bureaucrats, doctors, and vaccination processes helped miti gate cholera’s impact. The chaos in Istanbul due to cholera also highlighted the impor tance of social awareness. The early years of the period saw a boom in press and publis hing, which, coupled with print capitalism and logistical modernization, expanded information channels. The set of ideas that defined cholera and its characteristics aimed to break the misconceptions about the disease. These ideas focused on the relationship between nutrition and cholera, emphasizing how dietary habits could influence the spre ad and severity of the disease. Attention was drawn to the fine line between the digesti ve system and cholera, highlighting the importance of understanding how the disease affects and is affected by digestive health. The correct cleaning methods were pointed out, emphasizing their role in preventing the spread of cholera. Furthermore, practices that should be carried out to avoid contracting the disease were clearly explained. These comprehensive ideas and guidelines kept both individuals and institutions alert and in formed about the development and spread of cholera.&nbsp;Between 1909 and 1913, the problems caused by cholera, in addition to existing do mestic and foreign policy issues, intensified both collective and individual efforts to enhance intellectual discourse. When examining the intellectual atmosphere of the peri od, it is evident that reactions to epidemics such as cholera accelerated the public’s and individuals’ engagement with everyday, objective knowledge. As can be easily seen when the intellectual atmosphere of the period is investigated, the reaction to epidemics such as cholera accelerated the activities of the individual and society’s acquaintance with every day, objective knowledge. Cholera epidemics, which played a pivotal role in transforming the dynamics of the industrialized world, catalyzed significant changes during the Second Constitutional Monarchy years. The collective awareness, planning, and institutionalization developed during these epidemics significantly impacted health and municipal policies inherited by the Republican Era. The psychological distress cau sed by epidemics among individuals, cities, and states also shaped these policies.

Efforts to Raise Social Awareness Against Cholera During the Second Constitutional Years (1908-1914)

Sadık

Yusuf

While some intellectuals who expressed their views on the definition of a nation highlighted the importance of culture, the desire to live together and historical awareness, others emphasized lineage. Some intellectuals claimed that states create nations, arguing that a nation emerges only when it can be organized into an independent state. In contrast, Ernest Gellner argued that nationalism creates the nation by reviving dead languages and inventing traditions. During the deliberations of various draft laws in the parliament, it is understood that minority deputies in Ottoman society aimed to highlight their own identities and cultures and have them accepted by other communities. It was emphasized that, particularly in the parliament’s early period, efforts in this direction were curtailed by the president of the parliament, asserting that everyone should unite under the name “Ottoman” regardless of ethnic identity. Additionally, the speaker of the parliament frequently warned deputies not to engage in debates on the definition of a nation. While some minority deputies advocated for uniting under the Ottoman umbrella, others were accused of attempting to disrupt this unity. For instance, Filip Mise Efendi claimed that the Vlachs were proud of being Ottoman, while the Greek deputies made attempts to disrupt this unity.Fierce debates also occurred during the discussions on the Law of Associations. Deputies expressed differing opinions on whether societies bearing ethnic identity names could be established. Minority deputies argued that such associations were crucial for minorities to preserve their culture and would not lead to the state’s disintegration. Tekfurdağı Deputy Adil Bey disagreed, warning that such associations could fuel separation. Serfiçe Deputy Yorgo Boşo argued that minorities were known to be part of the Ottoman subjects, and such societies would not aim for separation. He suggested that if associations with ethnic identity names were not allowed, changing the names of Turkish and non-Muslim deputies like Ohannes and Yorgi would also become a topic of discussion. As a result, the establishment of societies with the names of tribes was prohibited.After the Balkan Wars, it became apparent that Turkish deputies increasingly emphasized Turkish identity and language in their parliamentary speeches. Following the minorities’ independence from the Ottoman Empire, deputies such as Istanbul Deputy Şefik Bey, Karahisar-ı Sahip Deputy Ağaoğlu Ahmet Bey, and Antalya Deputy Hamdullah Suphi Bey frequently emphasized Turkish identity and the importance of the Turkish language from the parliamentary rostrum. Trabzon Deputy Mehmet Emin Bey highlighted that minorities had strengthened their national feelings through the nationalist movement, and Turks could no longer ignore this situation, choosing instead to assert their own identity and culture. This issue gained prominence in parliament after Şerif Pasha’s efforts to establish Kurdistan at the Paris Peace Conference. Telegrams sent by Kurds to the parliament indicated that they did not see themselves as a separate nation from the Turks and disapproved of Şerif Pasha’s activities. Although some deputies increasingly emphasized Turkish identity, the term “Ottoman” continued to be used as the name of the nation, claiming it was inclusive.

Debates on the Definition of Nation in the Ottoman Chamber  of Deputies between 1908 and 1920

Mehmet

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

From the Armistice period through the Republican era, the approach of both the state and the society towards disabled veterans was quite problematic. The state had difficulty providing a satisfactory welfare umbrella for disabled veterans and, on the other hand, it was also reluctant to let them establish large-scale autonomous civic associations through which they could demand measures to improve their situation. On a more general social level, despite the glorification of military culture within the framework of national identity and the abundant use of militarist motifs, ableist biases towards disabled veterans were still very strong. This article focuses on how disabled veterans of the Ten-Year War (1912-1922) were represented in Turkish literature from the Armistice through the Republican periods. By using the literary texts that were produced in the period under study from a historian’s point of view, its aim is to better understand the existing perception of disabled veterans in particular and disability in general. Dealing specifically with novels and stories, the article discusses that the existing approach to disabled veterans, which was quite problematic in the era under study, was also reflected in the literary texts produced in this period. However, the article also discusses that these literary texts themselves were among the factors that shaped this troubled perception. In that respect, the article underlines three main problems.&nbsp;Firstly, it seems that persistent ableist biases and the masculine perspective fed by militarist motifs led to the creation of an almost stereotyped disabled veteran character in literary texts. A main distinctive feature of this stereotype is that it tends to regard disabled veterans as incompatible with the image of “an ideal masculine soldier”. That ideal image was actually very strong the literature of the era. For example, Yakup Kadri &nbsp;Karaosmanoğlu’s Kiralık Konak (1922) [Mansion for Rent] is one of the perfect texts to trace this masculine soldier image. Hakkı Celis, its main male character, turns into a “real man” when he is enlisted as a reserve officer to serve in Çanakkale. Becoming a soldier is portrayed as a kind of catharsis, a transition from being a fragile and snob boy into a strong and well-built masculine man. In this perspective, disability is seen as a cause of incompatibility primarily because it would undermine the manliness and masculinity of a soldier. For example, the story of Ali Seyfi, a reserve officer serving in Çanakkale in Peyami Safa’s (aka Serve Bedi) Ateş (1944) [The Fire] is a perfect case of this anxiety. When severely wounded on the front, Ali Seyfi loses not only a leg, but also his genital organ. In the novel, this loss is described as the greatest disaster that can happen to a soldier. As discussed in the article, this anxiety of losing manliness, both literally and metaphorically, has also had wider repercussions in Turkish nationalism.&nbsp;Secondly, instead of being analyzed in depth within their own real and complex contexts, disabled veteran characters are usually used as auxiliary elements to strengthen a different message in the political-ideological or moral agenda of authors and their literary texts. In other words, in such cases a disabled veteran character is used as a tool to convey to the reader another, and possibly more “lofty” mission. For example, Ahmet Celâl in Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu’s Yaban (1932) [The Alien], a disabled ex-reserve officer who lost his right arm in the First World War and re-settled in a village near Eskişehir, is actually a functional character to underline the legitimacy of the Turkish National Struggle.And thirdly, in the shadow of the hegemonic masculine and militarist body image blended with ableist biases, disabled veteran characters are often forced to achieve extraordinary duties in the literary texts produced during the period under study. They are forced to take an extraordinary action, as if they need to do this to compensate their physical deficiencies or, as if this is necessary for them to become “legitimate” literary characters. For example, although Tarık Buğra’s Küçük Ağa (1974) [The Little Agha] is a relatively recent literary text, it does not make any “revision” in terms of the stereotyped disabled veteran characters in Turkish literature; as a matter of fact, it reproduces many of the symptoms that those characters suffer from, through the character of Salih the One Armed (Çolak). Salih lost his right arm on the Iraqi front in the First World War. As soon as he returns to his hometown Akşehir, not only is his disability not appreciated by local people, he is also forced to constantly re-prove himself. That appreciation is only shown when Salih trains himself to become a sharpshooter with a pistol, joins the Nationalist Forces (Kuvayı Milliye) and becomes a warrior again.Though the main focus of the article is the early Republican era (1923-1946), it also extends its time period until the 1980s. It deals with the social realist literary perspective in order to make a comparison. In that respect, disabled veteran characters in the novels of Orhan Kemal and Kemal Tahir are analyzed and compared to those portrayed during the early Republican period.&nbsp;

Disabled Veteran Characters in Turkish Literature from the  Armistice through the Republican Period and the Perception of Disabled Veterans

Çağlar

Following the Battles of Kütahya-Eskişehir, the Turkish Army halted the Greek forces in the Polatlı-Haymana region, east of Sakarya. Mustafa Kemal Pasha declared, “There is no defense of the line. There is a defense of the surface. That surface is the entire homeland. The homeland cannot be abandoned unless every inch of the homeland is watered with the blood of its citizens.” The Turkish Army’s defense culminated in a 22-day battle, preventing the Greek forces from advancing further. This marked the end of Turkish defensive operations since 1683 and initiated the army’s preparation phase for an offensive.On September 13, 1921, the Turkish Army underwent a reorganization. The 5th Cavalry Group was renamed the 5th Cavalry Corps, with the 14th Cavalry Division remaining under its command. From September 14 to 30, Greek commander Anastasios Papoulas realized that the 4th Greek Division was isolated in Afyonkarahisar and sent the 1st Corps to reinforce it. An army group consisting of four divisions and one regiment was established under General Yorgos Kondilis. On October 1, the Greek forces aimed to capture the hills dominating the Afyonkarahisar Plain. The Turkish 2nd and 5th Corps decided to attack the Greek forces from the southeast of Afyonkarahisar.On September 30, 1921, the Turkish Army postponed the attack against the Greek forces in Afyonkarahisar, which had been there since September 24, to October 2, 1921. The Western Front headquarters, situated in the eastern part of Afyonkarahisar, was approximately 140 kilometers away from the 2nd and 5th Corps. This distance caused significant delays in troop communications. Furthermore, adverse seasonal conditions compounded these challenges, rendering the operation more difficult and leading to further delays. The 5th Corps and its affiliated 14th Division commenced the attack&nbsp;from the northeast of Afyonkarahisar on October 1. However, due to the 2nd Corps joining the attack on October 2, its impact was diminished, leading to the Turkish Army’s failure in the battle that concluded on October 8. Had the 2nd Corps acted on time, the Greek Army could have been defeated in Afyonkarahisar, eliminating the need for the subsequent Great Offensive and Pursuit Operation.The 14th Cavalry Division, under the command of Mehmet Suphi Bey, participated in the attack with its three regiments. The division was in close contact with Greek forces during the Afyonkarahisar Battles. War reports indicate that the division tried to implement the orders received from the Corps and relayed them to the affiliated regiments. However, the delayed transmission of orders from the Western Front Command to the 5th Corps Command hindered the operation. Fahrettin Pasha, the 5th Cavalry Corps Commander, received orders late and subsequently sent delayed orders to Mehmet Suphi Bey. Despite this, Mehmet Suphi Bey issued orders in accordance with the Corps’ directives and the operation’s progress.War reports from the 14th Division reveal that it received situation reports from its regiments and informed the Corps about the division’s general progress. These reports detailed the movements of Greek forces, areas of engagement, and casualties. The war report was maintained daily by the division, with at least two reports written each day.The battle’s failure necessitated the preparation of the “Sad Offensive Plan”, followed by the “Kaf Defense Plan”. The Battle of Afyonkarahisar served as a rehearsal for the Great Offensive ten months later, providing valuable experience to the Turkish Army’s command level. Due to the lessons learned from the battles, it was decided to gather Turkish forces to the southwest of Afyonkarahisar. The shortcomings identified during the Battle of Afyonkarahisar were addressed. Consequently, leveraging the insights from this engagement, the offensive launched on August 26, 1922, proved to be triumphant.

The Battle of Afyonkarahisar According to the War Report of the 14th Cavalry Division (October 1-8, 1921)

Hadiye

Assoc. Prof.

Deniz

Images of “the Republican Citizen” Designed in  the Context of National Identity Construction in Türkiye during the Early Republican Period

Ferhat

This study scrutinizes debt consolidation from 1958 to 1965, with a focus on the pivotal year 1960. The study argues that this consolidation is a product of preceding economic policies (1946-1958) and explores the preconditions leading to debt emergence. It utilizes quantitative data from the Directorate of State Archives and Turkish Diplomatic Archives, alongside Grand National Assembly minutes, the Official Gazette, and periodicals. Grand National Assembly minutes serve as the primary source. This unique study offers a comprehensive historical narrative, addressing both quantitative and qualitative aspects of debt consolidation, filling a notable gap in research.Two pivotal mechanisms shaped Türkiye’s economic policies in the post-World War II period. First, despite criticism, a deliberate devaluation in September 1946 aimed to align domestic and international trade terms, thereby promoting liberal integration into the global economic system. Second, although never implemented, the 1947 Türkiye Economic Development Plan emphasized allowing the private sector to develop “with complete freedom and safety” throughout the 1950s. As the primary actors shaping Türkiye’s post-1945 era, commercial capitalists played a critical role. Both agribusiness merchants and importers of manufactured goods and means of production benefited from the 1946 devaluation and the subsequent liberalized foreign trade regime. These conditions facilitated capital accumulation for both agribusiness merchants and large landowners involved in exports and imports dealing with manufactured goods and means of production.The 1946 devaluation was perceived positively as it stimulated agricultural production, bolstered heavily exported goods, and fostered expanded trade. Indeed, owners of commercial capital played a decisive role in the liberalization of imports in 1950. With devaluation and liberalized imports, economic growth averaged 10% per annum until the first quarter of the 1950s, with a significant share of agricultural output at the forefront. However, persistent challenges in the form of balance of payment deficits emerged as a consequence of the economic expansion. The 1954 pamphlet titled “Kalkınan (Developing) Türkiye”, published by the Democrat Party, asserted that a deficit in the balance of payments was deemed necessary to “equip and develop the country.” Concurrently, the global discourse echoed the sentiment that “Development is not possible without foreign aid!”&nbsp;By the first quarter of the 1950s, when the financing capacities for foreign trade had reached their limits, a shift in the developmental paradigm occurred. The focus turned towards considering domestic conditions as pivotal factors for development. Efforts to address external dependence involved expanding credit and domestic demand facilities provided by institutions such as the Central Bank, state banks, and State Economic Enterprises (SEEs). Despite these endeavors, economic policies encountered an impasse in 1958, exacerbated by the inclusion of inflation alongside the persistent foreign trade deficit. In response to these challenges, a stabilization program was implemented in 1958. This initiative sought to resolve existing problems through strategies such as removing SEEs from the state budget, regulating the money and credit markets, streamlining the foreign exchange system, promoting exports, and establishing a price system aligned with global prices. However, it is noteworthy that this program marked the commencement of a consolidation phase for preceding economic policies.This paper examines the consolidation of public and nationalized private sector debt in Türkiye between 1958 and 1965, which amounted to approximately 16 billion TL. Although the consolidation process started in 1958, the actual consolidation took place in 1960 and extended until 1965. The consolidated debts were gradually liquidated in a prescribed manner, with maturities of 10–100 years and interest rates ranging from 0.5 6%. In this study, this consolidation process is referred to as gradual consolidation. Private sector debts stemmed from foreign trade and imports on credit, liquidated banks and farmers’ debts. Farmers’ resort to loan sharks to settle their debts was emphasized in connection with delays in the repayment of loans from Ziraat Bank and Agricultural Credit Cooperatives. Moreover, the process that started in the second half of the 1950s with the liquidation of small banks in the banking sector and the enactment of Law No.7129 continued after the 1960 coup. Public debt consists of the debt of public institutions, enterprises, the Central Bank and other public banks. The consolidated public debt was not redeemed until 1973, with the enactment of Law No. 154 in 1963 and additional laws, and was then liquidated with interest-free government domestic debt securities until 1985. In conclusion, the study reveals that public debt and certain private sector debts, which emerged as a result of the economic policies of the 1946–1958 period, were gradually deferred to the 1970s and 1980s through debt relief.

The Cost of Imported Goods Filling The Showcases: Gradual  Debt Consolidation (1958-1965)

Enes

Türkiye-Israel diplomatic relations started with the recognition of Türkiye regarding the State of Israel on March 28, 1949, approximately one year after its establishment on May 14, 1948. Türkiye’s diplomatic crises with Israel as a result of the Arab-Israeli wars became an important determinant of the relations between the two countries over time. Türkiye’s recall of its ambassador in Tel Aviv during the 1956 Arab-Israeli War, its condemnation of Israel during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, demanding Israel’s withdrawal from Arabian territories occupied by Israel (June 22, 1967), and the declaration that Türkiye would allow the Soviet Union to use its airspace to deliver military supplies to Arab countries affected the relations between the two countries negatively. Similarly, Türkiye’s bilateral relations with Israel followed a fluctuating course until the 1980s after it accepted Zionism as racism at the meeting of the United Nations on November 10, 1975. Israel’s declaration of Jerusalem as the eternal and unchanging capital on July 23, 1980, caused a new crisis in the relations between the two countries. After this decision of Israel, Türkiye condemned Israel with the Resolution 478 of the United Nations by recalling the Chargé D’affaires and reducing its diplomatic relations with this state to the lowest level.Türkiye tried to improve its relations with the Islamic World after reducing the level of diplomatic representation with Israel to the level of Second Clerk. The thoughts and political understanding of Turgut Özal, who served as the Prime Minister and President of Türkiye in the 1980s and 1990s, also affected Türkiye’s decision to develop bilateral relations with Islamic countries. During his tenure, Turgut Özal argued that the Muslim population living in the Ottoman remnant regions had a privileged place in Turkish foreign policy, and for this reason, Türkiye must lead the Islamic countries. Another factor that affected Özal’s political thoughts was his economy-oriented foreign policy approach. Özal adopted an economy-oriented foreign policy understanding throughout his political life and believed that the political problems between states could be&nbsp;resolved through the development of economic relations and interdependence, and he built his policies in the field of international relations on economic foundations.&nbsp;Turgut Özal’s understanding of economy-based foreign policy was a determining factor in Türkiye’s relations with the Middle Eastern countries between 1983-1993 when he served as the Prime Minister and President. Although Türkiye’s total exports to the Middle East were 18% and imports 22% in the 1970s, its exports increased to 40% and imports to 35% in the 1980s, when Özal remained in power. Although Türkiye established closer ties with Islamic states to find solutions to the problems, it did not prioritize the development of its bilateral relations with Israel and remained distant from this state.&nbsp;Despite Türkiye’s development of economic relations with Islamic states, its distance from Israel caused serious discomfort during these years. As a result, although Turkish statesmen in the 1980s believed that Israel should withdraw from the Arabian lands occupied in 1967 to achieve peace in the Middle East, Türkiye-Israel relations could not develop further until the early 1990s. This study aims to uncover the political relations between Türkiye and Israel between the years 1983 and 1993 when Turgut Özal was the Prime Minister and President. To understand how Türkiye’s policies towards Israel were shaped during this period, Türkiye-Israel relations after September 12, 1980 were also discussed. The sources of this historical study, that was based on document analysis, include the newspapers Cumhuriyet, Milliyet, Hürriyet, and Güneş, as well as statements of Turgut Özal given to the press, other periodicals, books, and archive documents of the same period. The findings of the study were collected using the document analysis technique, and the data were analyzed with the content analysis technique. The political relations of the two countries were discussed under four headings: “A General Overview of Türkiye-Israel Political Relations after September 12, 1980 (1980-1983)”, “Türkiye Israel Political Relations during the 1st Özal Government (1983-1987)”, “Türkiye-Israel Political Relations during the 2nd Özal Government (1987-1989)”, and “Türkiye-Israel Political Relations during the Presidency of Turgut Özal (1989-1993)”.The study found that Türkiye’s political relations with Israel did not develop significantly as a reflection of Turgut Özal’s foreign policy understanding between 1983-1991 when he served as Prime Minister and President. The idea of establishing bilateral relations remained at the level of mere discourse until 1991. The establishment of the Demirel-İnönü Coalition Government in Türkiye decreased Özal’s influence in foreign policy, and the level of diplomatic representation between Türkiye and Israel was raised to the level of an embassy in December 1991.

The Reflections of Türkiye-Israel Political Relations in the Turkish Press (1983-1993) during the Period of Turgut Özal

Onur

The elements of traditional Ottoman music that appealed to elite tastes were associated with the category of classical music for the first time at the end of the nineteenth century. This new category emerged as an attempt to maintain and elevate the status and demarcate the boundaries of this music, whose place in hierarchies of taste had become blurred and which was beginning to experience a crisis of legitimacy. This reformulation was also part of the efforts to incorporate it into the discourses of national music. Unlike many popular music genres, critics, intellectuals, and writers are essential in shaping the values and standards of highbrow cultures, such as classical music traditions. Through the discourses they generate, they demarcate the boundaries between the genre and the other music cultures, define its canons, and formulate arguments to maintain and elevate its position in the hierarchies of taste. This study argues that Rauf Yekta played a pivotal role in constructing the category of Turkish classical music, delineating its boundaries, and developing arguments to establish its superiority over other music genres. Rauf Yekta’s social and educational background, his upbringing in elite music circles, his knowledge and authority in various fields of music, the public duties he undertook at the Istanbul Conservatory and official boards, his reputation in Türkiye as well as in the international community as a respected musicologist, and his influential polemical articles in newspapers made him the best person to assume this role. This does not mean that he completely invented the category of Turkish classical music. Rather, this article argues that he reformulated components that had already existed for centuries in the oral and written traditions of elite music culture to which he belonged.In this context, the primary documents written by Rauf Yekta, spanning from the late 1800s to his death in 1935, as well as his interviews and polemics, were analyzed from &nbsp;the perspective of music sociology. This allowed for the identification of the taste hierarchies he established between Turkish classical music and other music cultures along different axes. On the horizontal axis, Rauf Yekta compares highbrow music cultures, which he believes are somewhat equivalent to each other. On the vertical axis, he contrasts these highbrow musical genres with popular and folk music cultures, which he considered to be beneath them in the hierarchy of taste. Finally, he evaluates whether these musical genres have a national character, contrasting them along the nationality axis. In each of these axes, which contrast various music cultures along binary oppositions, he places Turkish classical music at the top of the hierarchy of taste.When he refers to Western classical music as the counterpart of Turkish classical music, he makes positive statements about it, viewing both as superior to popular music genres. However, because he was always skeptical about the mutual understanding and enjoyment of musical cultures by listeners from different societies, he labeled Western music as something totally alien to the Turkish soul. He reformulated Ottoman/Turkish classical music as the national music of new Türkiye, positioned folk music as a primitive and plebeian branch of national music, and classified Western music and Western-oriented Turkish polyphonic music, which he called “the new school of composition,” as non-national. Although he justifiably opposed the Eurocentric approach, arguing for the non-hierarchical coexistence of different musical systems with their own values and standards, he developed an ethnocentric approach motivated by his polemical language, conservative/nationalist leanings, and prejudices against Western music culture. Accordingly, he attempted to prove the superiority of Turkish classical music over Western music by reversing the Eurocentric scheme and contrasting polyphonic and maqam-based music cultures from a dichotomous perspective.In his early writings, he was relatively more favorable towards innovations in Turkish music using Western music techniques. However, he gradually hardened his stance against all Western-oriented musical practices. Regarding popular music, he was rigorously strict about demarcating the boundaries between popular and classical music, viewing commercialized popular music- which he frequently referred to with derogatory terms like “market,” “tavern,” or “vulgar” music, etc.- as lacking aesthetic value and not deserving of inclusion in national music. Throughout the Republican era, the Turkish classical music community’s mentality patterns have been influenced by Rauf Yekta’s framework. As a result, this community transformed into an insular, conservative group that adopted a hostile attitude towards popular music, restricted its repertoire to specific eras in a way that extols the old while being skeptical of anything new, and set rigid boundaries between Turkish classical music and other musical genres and styles. On the other hand, Rauf Yekta’s efforts played a pivotal role in maintaining the aesthetic standards and values of the classical tradition, preventing its assimilation into popular entertainment culture, and reinforcing its status and group identity at a time when its symbolic status and legitimacy were declining.

The Emergence of the Category of Turkish Classical Music  and Rauf Yekta:Turkish Classical Music Versus Other Musics

Hanife

A Music-Oriented Analysis of the Cultural Relations between Türkiye and the USSR

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Yakup

Merve

Resolution or Interest Oriented Policy?  International Influence on the Cyprus Conflict  Between 1960-1974

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Yasin

Cyprus has for many years attracted international attention due to its strategic location. The island came under Ottoman rule in 1571. In 1878, British forces took over the island from the Ottoman administration, in exchange for protection against Russian attacks. In response to the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War on the side of Germany, Britain added the island unilaterally to its own territory on 5 November 1914. During the negotiations in Lausanne, the Turkish side accepted that Cyprus belonged to Britain. The declaration of the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Cyprus took place on 16 August 1960, with both Turkish and Greek Cypriots taking part in the administration of the country. However, the Republic of Cyprus was not able to continue for long. Clashes resumed on the island after Makarios attempted to restrict the rights acquired by the Cypriot Turks in the 1960 constitution.Following the collapse of the Republic of Cyprus in December 1963, Turkish Cypriots established their own administration on the island. First, a separate Turkish administration called “General Committee” was established in 1964. Then, in November 1967, the Provisional Turkish Cypriot Administration was established. Thus, Turkish Cypriots tried to ensure their security in a more organized way. Britain did not support the steps taken by the Turkish Cypriots on the island. After Turkey’s 1974 military intervention, the Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration was established in October 1974 in the north of the island. On February 13, 1975, the founding of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (TFSC) was announced.Against this background, this study deals with the response of the British parliament to the declaration of the establishment of the TFSC by Turkish Cypriots in 1975. One of the countries that reacted strongly to the Turkish military intervention on the island in 1974 was Britain. The announcement of the establishment of the TFSC also provoked a strong reaction from Britain. In the statements made by the British government, the establishment of the TFSC was declared to be an “undesired development”. This study examines the approach of British MPs to the TFSC through discussions in the House of Commons.The first result of the study shows that British MPs did not support the announcement of the establishment of the TFSC. British MPs reacted to this and they questioned whether the British government knew about this announcement beforehand. British MPs also sought an answer to the question of why the government had not taken any steps to prevent the establishment of the TFSC. British government officials emphasized in their statements that they did not know that the founding of the TFSC would be announced. In addition, they expressed with certainty that the newly established Turkish administration would not be recognized by Britain. Another point that the study draws attention to was that because Ankara supported the TFSC, some MPs wanted the British government to “punish” Turkey. Moreover, one member of parliament wanted the British government to work for the suspension of Turkeys’ UN membership. However, British government officials stated that they did not support such a proposal.Some MPs expressed in the British parliament that Britain, which is one of the guarantor states in Cyprus, should take more initiative in seeking a resolution to the Cyprus problem. In response to this proposal, government officials pointed out the necessity to continue negotiations between the Turkish and Greek Cypriots for peace in Cyprus. British deputies expressed that there would be no results from long-standing inter-communal talks. They argued that the British government should follow a more active policy for peace in Cyprus. Government officials disagreed with these suggestions and stated that Britain could not act alone. Other guarantor states in Cyprus would have to agree together on a solution. Thus, the government did not take into consideration the active policy proposal for a solution to the Cyprus problem. Finally, another issue that came up after the announcement of the establishment of the TFSC was the situation of British citizens on the island. Some MPs proposed to open an official representative office within the boundaries of the TFSC for British citizens. However, British government officials opposed this proposal.&nbsp;As a result, MPs in the British parliament did not accept the announcement of the TFSC. Furthermore, there were deputies who said that the Turks should not be declared solely responsible for the Cyprus problem. However, this view did not cause any change in the policy of the British government and the TFSC was not recognized by the British government.

The Reaction of the British Parliament to the Establishment of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (1975)

THE PERCEPTION OF BISMARCK IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: THE CASE SPECIFIC TO ABDULHAMID II

İsmail

At the end of the Second World War, a fast decolonization process started in the British Empire. This situation re-triggered the sovereignty debate in Cyprus. Repre-sentatives of the Greek Cypriots had been trying to make Cyprus a territory of Gree-ce for many years. Enosis, which meant the annexation of the island to Greece, was a strong feeling among Greek Cypriots. They also wanted to take advantage of the decolonization process. However, Great Britain did not favor the annexation of the island to Greece due to its interests in the Middle East. Great Britain favored making a more libertarian constitution on the island instead of enosis. The Greek Cypriots responded to this approach of the British government by declaring that they would never step back from the enosis.Enosis was not only prevented by Britain’s interests in the Middle East. Tur-kish Cypriots were also strongly opposed to enosis. Because Turks living on other islands, especially in Crete, had to leave their homeland due to Greek pressure, they were concerned the same outcome would happen on their own. That is why the Tur-kish Cypriots defended the continuation of the British rule on the island, or it should have been given to Turkey, which was the former owner of the island. On the other hand, Turkey was also against enosis because Turkey saw the enosis as an instrument of the expansionist politics of Greece. Despite the Turkish Cypriots’ and Turkey’s objections, Greek Cypriots insisted on demanding Enosis.The date of 18 October 1950 was a turning point for enosis because of Maka-rios III, whose original name was Mikhail Christodoulos Mouskos, was elected as archbishop. Makarios was ready to use all the facilities of the church for enosis. Eno-sis was a historical task, a national and religious issue for him. For that reason, he regarded leading the struggle for enosis as a great honor. According to Makarios, there were two ways to achieve enosis: diplomacy or armed struggle. He applied all the diplomatic methods he knew between 1950 and 1955. In this context, he organi-zed demonstrations in Athens and Nicosia; directed the public opinion, sought sup-port from the Greek lobby in the USA; and pressured the British administration.&nbsp;&nbsp;All the diplomatic initiatives of Makarios and Greece failed to persuade Bri-tain for enosis. Therefore, Greece applied to the United Nations to obtain the right of self-determination for Cyprus on August 16, 1954. However, the United Nations rejected Greece’s application. In the same period, besides diplomatic initiatives, an armed terrorist organization was established to carry out terrorist acts on the island, but this organization declined to take any action until the United Nations made its decision on Cyprus. The name of this&nbsp;organization was EOKA. It was founded under the leadership of retired Colonel Grivas and Makarios, and its aim was to carry out enosis through terrorist attacks.&nbsp;&nbsp;The establishment activities of EOKA began secretly in 1951, and had comp-leted all preparations by 1 April 1955. EOKA carried out all its activities on the is-land mostly through youth organizations such as PEON and OHEN. The Cyprus Church provided financial support to EOKA. Thanks to this financial support, the necessary weapons could be purchased. In order to become a member of EOKA, it was necessary to be Greek, a supporter of enosis and not be a communist. Therefore, EOKA was a pan-helenic fascist organization whose purpose was limited to enosis. Consequently, EOKA cannot be described as an organization that is fighting against colonialism to gain independency for its own folk because it wanted only enosis, not national independence. It was clear that EOKA’s motivation to resort to armed struggle against the British colonial administration was never independence.

EOKA: From Thought to Action

Instructor

TURKISH PRISONERS SENT TO INDIA BY THE BRITISH IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR

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Hüseyin

This study’s purpose is to provide information about Ali Saib Bey, who was in service in various provincial offices in the Ottoman State for many years and was the author of the annex which constitutes the main subject of the article. On the other hand, another purpose of the study was to determine the issues and recommendations stated in the annex and reveal whether these recommendations were realized through archive documents.The civil service life of a public servant who served in the Ottoman provinces for many years will be examined in this study. Many issues such as his duties, assignments, and rewards taken by this officer in the provinces will be revealed in this section. In addition, the presentation of the annex that Ali Saib Bey wrote was also important in terms of showing what problems he had in Shkoder, which would come out shortly after the Ottoman Empire, and what recommendations were put forward to overcome these problems. The question of whether these recommendations were taken into consideration were examined through documents in the Presidential Ottoman Archives. It is thought that the findings obtained within the framework of this annex, which reveal the central-provincial relations and have not been studied before, will contribute to the history of this territory.The first step in the method followed during the study was to collect data about the civil service life of Ali Saib Efendi, the owner of the annex. Later, it was evaluated in accordance with the original partition by making content analysis of the annex. And then, the documents obtained as a result of the review carried out in the Presidential Ottoman Archive on the subjects mentioned in the annex were compared. The studies conducted on the related territory were utilized for the data related to Shkoder. In this respect, the main source of the study was the annex of Ali Saib Bey and the documents obtained in the Presidential Ottoman Archive.Ali Saib Bey, the son of a soldier father, started his career as a correspondence clerk in Malatya sanjak at a very young age and served in many parts of the country. Ali Saib Efendi, who came to Shkoder with his position as a provincial letter officer on February 1, 1909, also served as deputy governor of Shkoder during this duty. Ali Saib Bey, who briefly summarized his civil service life in this way, wrote an annex dated October 29, 1911 that formed the subject of this study. Initially, he transferred the geographical borders and population information of the province. In the section titled political and social situation and urgent needs of Shkoder, he emphasized the issue of Malesori, for which he was also assigned. One of the important determinations he made was that it was the most important problem of the people in this place to be in ignorance and misery. Also, the efforts of Austria and Italy to influence here are another issue that was mentioned in the annex. It was understood from the statements of Ali Saib Bey that they took the hearts of the people through the great investments they made in the region and that even some of the Muslims in the Malesori region left their religions for this reason. It was a remarkable determination that the people in Malesori and Shkoder took refuge in the patronage of Montenegro, which was their enemy. An important determination in this section was that the Ottoman ambassador in Çetine was acting as if he were supporting Montenegro. After this section, Ali Saib Bey gave information about the law that he defined as “not fit for civilization and humanity” under the title of Dukakin Law. The next title was education. In the annex stating that Shkoder was not at the desired level in education, it was worth noting that many of the teachers with insufficient salaries did not know Ottoman Turkish. The most important recommendation in this section was that an industrial school should be opened there. Under the title of Public Works, it mentioned that the situation of the roads was very bad and that it was necessary to do something as soon as possible. Another point mentioned in this section was that foreign engineers and conductors did not want to go to their places owing to various excuses. Under the public order title, it determined that the coast of Shkoder Lake, up to Boyana and Drac, was open to smuggling and that it was a necessity to set up observation towers in suitable places on the coast, and he emphasized the necessity of installing a telephone line between them. In the title on agriculture, he stated that agriculture was done in the old way due to the financial deficiencies of the people. Therefore, he emphasized that it was necessary to increase the capital of the agricultural bank there and to open the branch of the bank in some towns. Opening a sample field on which Ali Saib Bey was standing was one of the recommendations put into practice. Another important determination in this section is that Shkoder was very rich in terms of forest but it was not utilized properly. Under the heading of civil service, some significant opinions were given about administrative arrangements that needed to be made by giving the current administrative division of Shkoder. The most noteworthy of these was the proposal to assign the Muslims or Christians in Shkoder, who could speak the local language, as the head of the district. Under the heading of officers to be assigned to Shkoder, it was requested that the unqualified ones be taken from there and replaced by experienced officers, and that the salaries and liabilities of the officers who would work there should be made regularly. The most striking point in the headline of politics to be implemented in Shkoder was that almost all of the people across the province had an attitude towards the government and that the people of the territory should not behave violently as a result of their nature, but it would not also result in being too soft. The only thing to do was to meet in the middle. It was another recommendation that mobile doctors should be assigned there and that these doctors should constantly treat people who were sick in the villages and mountains and make the state propaganda. Finally, it was recommended that the loyalty of the people to the state should be provided through the Muslim and Christian opinion leaders and that the financial support should be provided to poor people as much as possible.The annex written by an officer who worked in different parts of the Ottoman Empire as the correspondence clerk of Shkoder was an important document in order to understand center-provincial relations. There were some recommendations by Ali Saib Bey that were realized as well as those that could not be realized due to financial difficulties. As a result, thinking about how to manage Shkoder better and how to handle the current problems, Ali Saib Bey explained these issues in detail. However, neither this annex nor the efforts of the Ottoman State yielded any results, and Shkoder came out of the hands of the Ottomans as a result of the Balkan Wars.

A Public Official in the Ottoman Province, Ali Saib Bey and His Annex on Shkoder Province

Davud

The Ottoman Empire, which joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers, had to fight actively on many fronts due to its strategic and geopolitical position. These fronts stretched from the Caucasus to Iraq, from the Suez Canal to the Dardanelles. In addition, Ottoman forces also operated in areas that were not actively involved in conflict, taking active or passive defensive measures. The Ottoman Empire’s Deputy Commander-In-Chief in Thrace carried out military operations in case of a military landing by the Allied forces and as such took various measures in the Black Sea, Marmara, western Anatolia and around Iskenderun.&nbsp;The Ottoman Empire’s Western Anatolian coasts being under the threat of the British and French Navy , and having the assistance of the Allied Forces to carry out air operations with aircraft carriers wherever they wanted, led to the deployment of aviation units by the Ottoman Commander-in-Chief in the relevant regions.The Ottoman Empire entered the First World War with six aircraft at the beginning of the war. After some time, the Ottoman Empire was in active at the front with 1500 personnel and 450 aircraft which were received from its ally Germany. At the beginning of the war, the Ottoman Deputy Commander-in-chief sent two aircraft to the Dardanelles and one plane to Izmir, taking into account the strategic and geopolitical situation of the Dardanelles and Izmir region. Over time, air troops were deployed in the region with aircraft from Germany and the amount of aircraft was increased.At the beginning of the First World War, measures were taken by sending planes around Çanakkale and Izmir, and in 1915, also to the Dardanelles Front battles began with the offensive of the Allied Forces. On March 18, 1915, the Allies did not succeed in their naval operation, followed by a landing on the Gallipoli peninsula on April 25, 1915. However, the Entente forces withdrew from the region at the beginning of 1916, failing to achieve any success as a result of the joint defence of the Turkish land, air and naval forces.After the victory of the Turkish forces in the Dardanelles, the Allied forces carried out operations until the end of the war in the western Anatolia region with the air and&nbsp;naval forces they had gathered in the islands . The Allied tactical operation was aimed at maintaining the control of the Straits and preventing entry and exit from there. Consequently, the region was constantly supervised by both sea and air elements due to its strategic importance. In addition, from time to time western Anatolian coasts, cities and ports were harassed and bombed by Allied naval and air elements.The activity of the Allied forces was marked by the formation of 1st and 6th divisions in and around Çanakkale, which included the Western Anatolia region, and 5th and 12th divisions around Izmir, in order to follow, explore, monitor and report the situation to the command levels as quickly as possible. The possibility and expectation that the Entente forces would make a landing over Gallipoli or Izmir after the battles of the Dardanelles made the formation of the air defense forces mandatory in addition to the precautionary measures of the Ottoman State. The aim was to secure the capital Istanbul with air troops from the relevant regions in the Dardanelles and to advance against the Allied Air Forces. It was also intended to preempt possible landings into the region with the air forces in Izmir.The Aegean Sea and the islands were monitored by the units and platoons established, and from time to time the allied bases there were bombed. Air battles took place with the aircraft of the Allied forces. From the point of view of the opposing forces, the strategic importance of the Ottoman territory led to Allied aircraft carrying out aerial attacks on Istanbul and Izmir from time to time. Although these aerial attacks did not affect the outcome of the war, they played their part in terms of psychological effects. The Allied elements demonstrated effectiveness, particularly by bombing strategic public institutions, air bases and warships.The headquarters of the British Air Force in the Mediterranean was assembled and directed at a command post in Malta. The air operations against Istanbul and Izmir were carried out by the air units based at Mondros, under the command of Colonel Gordon. After the battles of the Dardanelles, 34 French and British aircraft based on the islands in the Aegean Sea operated on Western Anatolia. French aircraft served in Bozcaada, and a Greek aircraft station that was under the supervision of the Greek Ministry of War, was located in Mondros. Meanwhile, a base between Thasoz and Lesbos served the Entente aircraft. All these squadrons were managed under the command of the commander at Mondros.Turkish coasts were blockaded from 1915. French naval forces were completely under the control of Beirut, Iskenderun, and the Antalya coasts. The French, assisting their naval forces, began to conduct aerial reconnaissance from the Egyptian ports and the small islands of Ruad and Meis between Cyprus and Syria. Upon the increase of enemy activities in the Aegean Sea and Izmir region, the 5th Airborne Division was assigned the task of reconnaissance and control against the Entente activities in the region. In this context, flights were made from the islands of Chios, Sisam, Rhodes, Lesbos and Kösten (Uzunada), and mobility in the region was monitored.&nbsp;From all academic studies carried out on behalf of the history of aviation thus far, it can be seen based on archival documents that no studies have been conducted on the topic of the air operations carried out in the western Anatolia region after the Gallipoli victory. Having remedied this with this study, aviation activities realized in the said region have now been examined in the light of archival documents.

Aviation Activities in Western Anatolia Following the Victory at Gallipoli (1915-1918)

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Recent Period Turkish Studies - Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları is the official publication of Istanbul University Institute of Ataturk’s Principles and Reforms. It is an open access, peer-reviewed,and regionally concentrated international journal  that targets audiences primarily in historically related regions in the neighbourhood of Turkiye; such as Balkans, Eastern Europe, Eastern Mediterrenean, Central Asia, and Middle East,   The journal has been published biannually  in June and December. It was founded in 2002.  As of 2024, the print version has been stopped. The journal has become an online-only publication.

The journal publishes original articles and studies from the disciplines of history, History of the Republic of Turkey, Atatürk’s Principles and History of Turkish Reforms, Ottoman History, sociology, literature, art history, law, political science and economics within the framework of Modern Turkish and World History. The objective of the journal is to contribute to science by publishing research articles and reviews in Turkish, English, German and French.

The journal publishes, research articles and reviews evaluating and criticizing the studied subjects and presenting new and remarkable opinions on the basis of a rich bibliography. Translations related to the field and texts of unpublished papers that were previously presented at a scientific congress; introductory letters about treatises, personalities and scientific activities about the Turkish National Struggle and Republic of Turkey are included in the journal as well.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

ResearchBib

Scopus

Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)

EBSCO

ERIH PLUS

İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi (İSAM)

TR Dizin

DOAJ

SOBIAD

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@METRIC_ISSUES

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Recent Period Turkish Studies

RPTS

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Editor in Chief

Co Editor in Chief

Editorial Management Board Member

Book Review Editor

Editorial Assistant

Language Editor

Editorial Board Member

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Recent Period Turkish Studies – Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları is a scientific, open-access and peer-reviewed journal published biannually (June &amp; December). The journal publishes original articles and studies from the disciplines of  history, History of the Republic of Turkey, Atatürk’s Principles and History of Turkish Reforms, Ottoman History, sociology, literature, art history, law, political science and economics within the framework of Modern Turkish and World History. Thus it serves as a bridge between the world of science and academicians at the national and international levels.The objective of the journal is to contribute to science by publishing research articles and reviews in Turkish, English, German and French.Recent Period Turkish Studies – Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları has a scope that covers the disciplines of  history, History of the Republic of Turkey, Atatürk’s Principles and History of Turkish Reforms, Ottoman History, sociology, literature, art history, law, political science and economics within the framework of Modern Turkish and World History. The journal publishes, research articles and reviews evaluating and criticizing the studied subjects and presenting new and remarkable opinions on the basis of a rich bibliography. Translations related to the field and texts of unpublished papers that were previously presented at a scientific congress; introductory letters about treatises, personalities and scientific activities about the Turkish National Campaign and Republic of Turkey are included in the journal as well.

Aim & Scope

<ul style="font-size: 14px;"><li>Web of Science – Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) </li><li>TÜBİTAK ULAKBİM TR Index</li><li>DOAJ</li><li>ERIH PLUS</li><li>EBSCO Central &amp; Eastern European Academic Source</li><li>Research Bible (ResearchBib)</li><li>İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi (İSAM)</li><li>Sosyal Bilimler Atıf Dizini (SOBIAD)</li><li>Scopus</li></ul>

Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. Plagiarism Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-Review After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Policies

The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a> ) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of &#65279;<a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a>&#65279; and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

Recent Period Turkish Studies- Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

Recent Period Turkish Studies- Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.<ul><li>Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.</li><li>The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.</li><li>The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.</li><li>Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.</li><li>Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.</li><li>The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.</li><li>In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.</li><li>If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.</li><li>In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.</li></ul>

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/0DA91259FA4F4088A8E8E118F732E651" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form.</a> The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor-in-Chief to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. Editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor is responsible for the content and overall quality of the publication and must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only editor has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the Editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the Editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. Unless the authors and editor permit, the reviews of referees cannot be published or disclosed. The anonymity of the referees is important. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for double-blind peer review evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Peer Review

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-inChief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated? - Are the methods described comprehensively? - Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

All correspondence will be sent to the first-named author unless otherwise specified. Article is to be submitted online via <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/login" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/login</a> that can be accessed at <a href="http://rpts.istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">http://rpts.istanbul.edu.tr</a>. It must be accompanied by a title page specifying the article category (i.e. research article, review etc.) and including information about the essay (see the Submission Checklist), and a cover letter. Articles should be prepared in Microsoft Word 2003 and upper versions. In addition, Copyright Agreement Form that has to be signed by all authors must be submitted. The <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/5F6D4670B67C4790A572D04B335EB2C3" target="_blank">Cover Page</a> and <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/5027B8C00BB74DE99856B11550661D9D" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a> must be completed in full. 1. Studies should be in A4 paper standards: having 4 cm margin from left and 2.5 cm margins from right, bottom and top, Times New Roman font style in 12 font size, line spacing of 1.5 and “justify align” format. If there are footnotes, they must remain within these limits and be written in 10 font size. Before and after paragraphs, 6 point space should be left. 2. The headings of sections and subsections of the article should be in 14 font size. Before and after headings, 6 point space should be left. 3. Headings and subheadings should not be in the last line of a page; in such a case they should be on the next page. The first line of a paragraph should not be the last line of a page and the last line of a paragraph should not be the first line of page. 4. Abbreviations, table, figure and symbol list, preface, abstract, references list, appendix and explanations of tables and captions of figures should be written in 1 line spacing. 5. The author/authors’ names and information should not be included in the text of the article, and all information about the author/authors should be indicated on the Cover Page that will be uploaded to the system along with the Full Text and Copyright Form. The Cover Page should include the title of the article, the author or authors’ affiliations and titles, the addresses where they can be reached, mobile, business and fax numbers, ORCID and e-mail addresses.6. Before the introduction part, there should be an abstract of 100-200 words both in Turkish and in English. An extended abstract in English between 600-800 words, summarizing the scope, the purpose, the results of the study and the methodology used is to be included following the abstracts. Underneath the abstracts, 5 keywords that inform the reader about the content of the study should be specified in Turkish and in English. 7. The article should contain mainly these components: Title, abstract and keywords in the language of the article; English title, abstract and keywords; extended abstract in English, main sections of article, references and tables and figures. 8. Tables, graphs and figures can be given with a number and a defining title if and only if it is necessary to follow the idea of the article. Otherwise, data that can be given in the text, such as demographic characteristics, should not be expressed in separate tables. 9. All responsibility for the articles/writings published in the journal and the opinions expressed belong to the authors; Istanbul University Institute of Ataturk’s Principles and Revolution History does not assume any responsibility. 10. In line with the editorial board and referee reports, authors may be asked to make some corrections on the text.

Author Guidelines

Citations (Reference, Cross Reference)In the article, quotations from other sources are either quoted exactly or summarized or interpreted by the author’s own words, provided that the essence is not changed. In both cases, the cited source (including text, table, figure etc.) must be referenced. The following principles are applied in this regard:a. Information taken exactly from the source (quotation) is shown in double quotes (“.....”). Quotations made by the author by changing the format, not the essence of the information in the source, are shown without double quotes. In both types of citations, reference is made to the relevant source and each citation is given a consecutive number in the form of footnotes on the bottom of the page.b. In the article, the whole of the information quoted from the source can be given, but for example, only certain parts of the information in the form of sentences, paragraphs or pages can also be given. In this case, the omitted places are indicated with three dots (…) to show that certain words, various sentences, paragraphs and pages are omitted in the sentences.c. If the information in other sources is quoted verbatim, inaccuracies such as letters, sentences, dates, places, etc. in the sources are also repeated, including punctuation marks and translation errors. If the author of the article wants to give correction of inaccuracies in the source text, then the correct information is indicated in a parenthesis immediately after the incorrect information.d. Exact quotations from the sources are given within the text of the article, if they are not longer than one sentence. In longer quotations, at least double-spaced space is left between the first and last lines of the quotation and the text of the article, so that the quotation and the text are distinguished. For such citations, a smaller font size than the font used in the article text is used.Rules about Reference FootnotesIn the reference footnotes, if a reference is made to the relevant source for the first time, the full bibliography of the work (author’s name, surname, name of the work, translator/editor/compiler information, if any, place of publication, publisher and date) should be given. Namely:Salahi Ramazan Sonyel, Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı ve Dış Politika I, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara, 1973, s. 10.Erol Güngör, Kültür Değişmesi ve Milliyetçilik, 2. Baskı, Ötüken Yayınları, İstanbul, 1984, s. 24.If a second or more reference is made to the same source in reference footnotes, the above information is abbreviated accordingly:Erol Güngör, Kültür Değişmesi …, s. 35.Reference to the author’s article/book chapter in the edited book:First reference:Hüseyin Bağcı, “Demokrat Parti’nin Ortadoğu Politikası”, Türk Dış Politikasının Analizi, der. Faruk Söylemezoğlu, Der Yayınları, İstanbul, 1994, s. 93-94.Next references:Hüseyin Bağcı, “Demokrat Parti’nin Ortadoğu Politikası”, s. 98.Reference to the article in the periodical:First reference:Fahrettin Kırzıoğlu, “Mustafa Kemal Paşa-Erzurum İlişkileri (1919-1920)”, Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, VII/20, 1991, s. 223-266.Mustafa Budak, “Ermeni Meselesi Açısından Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi’nin Önemi”, Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları Dergisi, C. 17, S. 34, 2018, s. 209.Next references:Fahrettin Kırzıoğlu, “Mustafa Kemal Paşa-Erzurum İlişkileri (1919-1920)”, s. 225.Articles and news in newspapers should be displayed as follows:“Hükümet-i Osmaniyye’nin Sulh Konferansına Teklifâtını Hâvi Muhtıra”, İkdam, 3 Mart 1335 (1919), s. 1.“DP Kongresi Saat 10’da Açıldı”, Vakit, 15 Ekim 1955, s. 1-2.“İnönü ve Gülek’in Menderes’e Geçmiş Olsun Telgrafları”, Ulus, 19 Şubat 1959, s. 1-2.Reference to archival documents:Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Devlet Arşivleri Başkanlığı Osmanlı Arşivi (BOA), Bab-ı Âlî Evrak Odası (BEO), 3733/236781 (Sadaret’ten Harbiye Nezareti’ne gönderilen 1 Teşrîn-i Sânî 1326 [14 Kasım 1910] tarihli tezkire).Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Devlet Arşivleri Başkanlığı Cumhuriyet Arşivi (BCA), 030-01-37/222-1 (6-7 Eylül olaylarında zarar görenlere maddi destekler hakkında).The names of the same archives and fonds should be written with their codes in the second and subsequent citations:BOA, BEO, 3733/236781.Reference to the electronic/internet source:TBMM, Süreli Yayınlar, III. Menderes Hükümeti, (Çevrimiçi), <a href="http://www.tbmm.gov.tr">www.tbmm.gov.tr</a>, 8 Aralık 2013.Ayhan Kamel, “İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nın Bitiminden Günümüze Kadar Türk-Rus İlişkileri”, (Çevrimiçi), <a href="http://www.dispolitika.org.tr">www.dispolitika.org.tr</a>, 7 Aralık 2013.John N. Berry, “Educate Library Leaders”, Library Journal, February 15, 1998 (Çevrimiçi), http//www.epnet.com/ehost, 3 Nisan 2019.BibliographyIn the bibliography, books and articles should be shown as follows:Satan, Ali: Türk ve İngiliz Belgelerinde Halifeliğin Kaldırılması, Yazıgen Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2017.Türkmen, Zekeriya: “Mustafa Kemal Paşa ve Yıldırım Orduları Grup Komutanlığı”, Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, C. XVI, S. 47, Temmuz 2000, s. 395-419.Appendix/AppendicesThe appendix section of the article contains text-related pictures, tables, forms, lists of survey questions, copies of important documents, photographs, maps, etc. For such a single material, only one annex is included, and for more than one material, if deemed necessary, multiple annexes are included. If the appendices are to be distinguished from each other, they shall be numbered consecutively as “Appendix-1”, “Appendix-2”, and so on. It is recommended that each number be followed by a title indicating the content of the each appendix. A title describing the contents of the appendix is recommended to be put next to each number.If the information in the appendix is conveyed from other sources, references to these sources must be indicated in the footnote.

<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/ABBFA2BDDD2C43E88F6C9575E40F6CDC" target="_blank">Title Page</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/0DA91259FA4F4088A8E8E118F732E651" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/FFA980E737EA432B8AD4235E301677F0" target="_blank">Author Form</a>

Ensure that the following items are present:● Cover letter to the editorü  The category of the manuscriptü  Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.ü  Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.ü  Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.ü  Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.ü Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with notes and bibliography system.<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/0DA91259FA4F4088A8E8E118F732E651" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/FFA980E737EA432B8AD4235E301677F0" target="_blank">Author Form</a>Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/3CA9A768A43843E38B57F329D7244835" target="_blank">Title page</a>ü  The category of the manuscriptü  The title of the manuscript both in Turkish and in Englishü  All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country),ü  e-mail addressesü  Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax numberü  ORCIDs of all authors.● Main Manuscript Documentü  The title of the manuscript both in Turkish in Englishü  Abstracts (100-200 words) both in the language of article and in Englishü  Key words: 5 words both in the language of article and in Englishü  Extended Abstract (600-800 words) in English for the articles which are not in Englishü  Acknowledgement (if exists)ü  Referencesü  Acknowledgements, grant supports, conflicts of interest should be indicatedü  All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)

Editor-in-ChiefName: Prof. Dr. Mustafa BUDAK E-mail: mustafa.budak@istanbul.edu.tr Phone: (0212) 440 00 00 (Dahili: 11950) Address: İstanbul Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Süleymaniye Mah. Besim Ömer Paşa Cad. No: 19 Kat: 4 Fatih - İstanbulEditorName: Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayrünisa ALP E-mail: hyralp@istanbul.edu.tr Phone: (0212) 440 00 00 (Dahili: 11956) Address: İstanbul Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Süleymaniye Mah. Besim Ömer Paşa Cad. No: 19 Kat: 4 Fatih - İstanbulEditorName: Asst. Prof. Dr. Yakup AHBAB E-mail: yakupahbab@hotmail.com Phone: (0212) 440 00 00 (Dahili: 10627) Address: İstanbul Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Süleymaniye Mah. Besim Ömer Paşa Cad. No: 19 Kat: 4 Fatih - İstanbulJournal ContactName: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Önder KOCATÜRK E-mail: onder.kocaturk@istanbul.edu.tr Phone: 1) 05362689505 2) 02163189780 3) 0212440 00 00 (Dahili: 10443) Address: İstanbul Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Süleymaniye Mah. Besim Ömer Paşa Cad. No: 19 Kat: 4 Fatih - İstanbulJournal ContactName: Res. Assist. Duygu SAYGIN E-mail: duygu.saygin@istanbul.edu.tr Phone: (0212) 440 00 00 (Dahili: 10437) Address: İstanbul Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Süleymaniye Mah. Besim Ömer Paşa Cad. No: 19 Kat: 4 Fatih - İstanbulJournal ContactName: Res. Assist. Umut DERE E-mail: umutdere@istanbul.edu.tr Phone: (0212) 440 00 00 (Dahili: 11955) Address: İstanbul Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Süleymaniye Mah. Besim Ömer Paşa Cad. No: 19 Kat: 4 Fatih - İstanbul

Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	Mustafa Budak
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Recent Period Turkish Studies

RPTS

ISSUE 40, 2021

An Oral History Study on Preparatory Camps for Military Service in Schools in the Republican Era (1935–1947)

The Sinking of German Submarines in the Black Sea During World War II and the Mandatory Accommodation of Military Personnel in Turkey

Content Analysis of Askeri Tarih Bülteni (Military History Bulletin)

According to the Russian Press, the Occupation of Erzincan During the First World War

The Dilemma of Ottoman Ex-Soldiers: Returning Home or Entering a New War

Understanding the Past with Oral History: The Korean War from the Perspective of the Veterans of Kadirli

Oaths in Turkish Political Life from the Constitutional Monarchy to the Republic

Position of the Military-Based Yassıada Defendants before the 1960 Coup and the Restoration of Their Honor: 1950 – 1967

Disguised Allowance Case in Yassıada: The Expenditures on Press and Official Institutions

Istanbul Governorship and Mayorship Period of Muhittin Memduh Üstündağ (1926-1938)

A Contribution to the Turkish-Soviet Relations Literature

The Shocking Effect of the Revolution in Iran on Iranian Armenians

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