CHAPTER


DOI :10.26650/PB/AA08.2020.001.021   IUP :10.26650/PB/AA08.2020.001.021    Full Text (PDF)

Egyptian, Alexandrian and Arabic Medicine: Trans–Cultural Pathways of Disseminating Healing Knowledge

Alicia Maravelia

Ancient Egyptian Medicine is renowned for developing this Science during Antiquity in the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, being also famous at Asiatic sites, where (as the sources prove) ancient Egyptian medical doctors were invited even by royalty to cure their families and people. At that time (during the New Kingdom, c. 1550-1070 BC) the lingua franca of the Eastern Mediterranean was Assyrian (a Hamito–Semitic language in which the renowned Pact of Peace, after the Qadesh Battle (c. 1274 BC), was signed between Ramses II and the Hittite King Hattusili III, nowadays exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul), a fact that facilitated the dissemination of Egyptian medical practice and knowledge to be spread around Western Asia, thus significantly contributing to the later development of Hebrew, Persian, Arabic and Turkish Medicine. We must, however, demythologize the ancient Egyptian Medicine that was pioneering in Surgery, Anatomy (through the advanced mummification techniques), some Healing Practices and Ophthalmology, but it never understood the importance of the brain, thinking of the heart (because of purely metaphysical reasons) as the centre and abode of the soul and in general as the centre of the human organism functions. If Egyptian Medicine was so advanced, as many esoterists and apocryphists claim, then it would have cured important illnesses that are observed even in the mummies of Pharaohs, the persons who had immediate access to the best Egyptian medical doctors of Antiquity. In this paper we shall briefly examine the Medicine of the ancient Nile–Dwellers, emphasizing in its healing and metaphysical concepts, Surgery, Ophthalmology and Pharmacopoeia, showing that it consisted of a source of healing knowledge towards the East. We shall also examine extensively Alexandrian and Byzantine Medicine, the Alexandrian Medical Doctors, Surgeons, Schools, its methods and medical instruments, upon which the Arabic/ Islamic Medicine was definitely based, progressing and highly developing Medicine during the Middle Ages, a period when the ancient Hellenic knowledge was safeguarded, translated and evolved by Arabic/Islamic Scholars, while in the West people were being burned on the stake by the Roman Catholic Church because of their innovative scientific theories.


DOI :10.26650/PB/AA08.2020.001.021   IUP :10.26650/PB/AA08.2020.001.021    Full Text (PDF)

Mısır, İskenderiye ve Arap Tıbbı: Tedavi Bilgisinin Yayılmasında Kültürleraşırı Yollar

Alicia Maravelia

Antik Mısır Tıbbı, (kaynaklar gösterdiği üzere) antik Mısırlı tabiplerin asilzadelerin ailelerini ve ev halkını iyileştirmek amacıyla davet edildikleri Asya bölgesinde meşhur olduğu gibi, Doğu Akdeniz Havzasının antik döneminde bu bilim dalını geliştirmesiyle ünlenmiştir. Yeni Krallık döneminde (MÖ. Yaklaşık 1550-1070) Doğu Akdeniz’in ortak dili Ünlü Kadeş Savaşı sonrasında (MÖ. Yaklaşık 1274) II. Ramses ve Hitit Kralı III. Hattusili arasında imzalanmış olan ve günümüzde İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzesinde sergilenen Barış Antlaşmasının dili olan Asurca idi. Bu durum Mısır tıbbi geleneği ve bilgisinin Batı Asya bölgesine yaygınlaşmasını kolaylaştırmış ve böylelikle sonraki dönemlerde Yahudi, Farsi, Arap ve Türk tıbbının gelişimine büyük ölçüde katkı sağlamıştır. Ancak bugün cerrahi, ileri seviyede mumyalama teknikleri dolayısıyla anatomi, tedavi pratikleri ve oftamoloji alanındaki ilerlemelere öncülük eden, ancak beynin önemini, tamamıyla metafizik nedenlerden ötürü kalbi ruhun merkezi ve meskeni olarak, genelde ise insan organizmasının işleyişinin merkezi olarak düşünmeyen antik dönem Mısır tıbbını mitolojik unsurlarından ayıklamamız gerekmektedir. Birtakım ezoteristler ve apokriptistlerin savunduğu gibi Mısır tıbbı bu ölçüde ilerlemiş idiyse, antik dönemde en iyi Mısırlı tabiplere ulaşabilecek durumda olan Firavunların mumyalarında dahi görülebilen önemli hastalıkları iyileştirmiş olması beklenirdi. Bu metinde, antik dönem Nil sakinlerinin tıp anlayışını, tedavi ve metafizik kavramlarını, cerrahi, oftamoloji ve ilaç kodekslerini vurgulayarak ve Doğuya doğru yönlenen tedavi bilgisinin kökenini içerdiğini göstererek kısaca inceleyeceğiz. Ayrıca, İskenderiye ve Bizans tıbbını, İskender tıp doktorlarını, cerrahlarını, ekollerini, Arap/ İslam tıbbının üzerine kurulu olduğu ve orta çağlar boyunca –ki bu dönemde Batı’da yenilikçi bilimsel teorileri nedeniyle insanlar Roma Katolik Kilisesi tarafından kazıklarda yakılırken Arap/İslam ilim adamları tarafından antik Hellenik bilgi korunmuş ve tercüme edilerek geliştirilmiştir– büyük oranda geliştirdiği metotları ve tıbbi araçları detaylı bir şekilde ele alacağız.



References

  • c Abd ᾿el-Maksoud, G. & ᾿El-Amin, c A. ᾿el-R. (2011). A Review on the Materials used during the Mummification Processes in Ancient Egypt. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 11, 129–150. google scholar
  • Adams, B. (2 1998 [1 1984]). Egyptian Mummies. Aylesbury. Adams, F. (1846). The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta. London: Sydenham Society. Ἀέτιος Ἀμιδηνός (1534). Τετράβιβλος, Βενετία: Τυπογραφεῖον Ἄλδου Μανουτίου. google scholar
  • Aldred, C. (1987). The Egyptians, London: Thames & Hudson. Allen, J.P. (2005). The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt. New York, New Haven & London: The Metropolitan Museum of Art & Yale University Press. google scholar
  • Aufrère, S. (1991). L’univers minéral dans la pensée égyptienne: I: L’influence du désert et des minéraux sur la mentalité des anciens Égyptiens; II: L’intégration des minéraux, des métaux et des «Trésors» dans la marche de l’univers et dans la vie divine. Le Caire: IFAO / BiÉtud, 105. google scholar
  • Avalon, J. (1927). Imhotep, l’Εsculape des Égyptiens. Paris: Aesculape. Bardis, P. (1967). Circumcision in Ancient Egypt. Indian Journal for the History of Medicine, 121, 22–23. google scholar
  • Baas, J.H. (1889). Outline of the History of Medicine (transl. by Henderson, H.E.). New York. Bliquez, L.J. (1984). Two Lists of Greek Surgical Instruments and the State of Surgery in Byzantine Times. Symposium on Byzantine Medicine (Scarborough, J., ed.), Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 38, 187–204. google scholar
  • Blomstedt, P. (2014). Orthopedic Surgery in Ancient Egypt. Acta Orthopaedica, 856, 670–676. BMD = Shaw, I. & Nicholson, P. (eds) (1996). British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Cairo: AUC Press. google scholar
  • Borghouts, J.–F. (1973). The Evil Eye of Apophis. JEA, 59, 114–150. google scholar
  • Βοσκός, Α. (ed. & transl.) (2007). Ἀπολλώνιος Κιτιεύς: Περὶ Ἄρϑρων Πραγματεία. Ἀρχαία Κυπριακὴ Γραμματεία. Λευκωσία: Ἵδρυμα Λεβέντη, 96-293 & 344-565. google scholar
  • Bouwer, D.S. (2012). Ancient Egyptian Health related to Women: Obstetrics and Gynaecology (MA Thesis). Pretoria: University of South Africa. google scholar
  • Breasted, J.H. (1980 [1930]). The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus Ι-ΙΙ. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. google scholar
  • Bryan, C.P. (1930). The Papyrus Ebers. London. Budge, E.A.W. (1971). Egyptian Magic. New York: Dover. google scholar
  • Campbell, D. (1926). Arabian Medicine and its Influence on the Middle Ages. London. Cave, A.J.E. (1950). Ancient Egypt and the Origin of Anatomical Science. Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., 43, 568–571. google scholar
  • Chhem, R.K. & Brothwell, D.R. (2007). Paleoradiology: Imaging Mummies and Fossils. New York–Berlin: Springer Verlag. google scholar
  • Cocburn, A. & Cocburn, E. (1980). Mummies, Disease and Ancient Cultures. Cambridge: University Press. Dawson, W.R. (1933). Studies in the Egyptian Medical Texts – II. JEA, 19, 133–137. google scholar
  • Dawson, W.R. (1934a). Studies in the Egyptian Medical Texts – III. JEA, 20, 41–46. Dawson, W.R. (1934b). Studies in the Egyptian Medical Texts – IV. JEA, 20, 185–188. google scholar
  • Διοσκορίδης (1914). Περὶ Ὕλης Ἰατρικῆς / De Materia Medica (Wellmann, M., ed.). Berlin: Weidman. google scholar
  • Διοσκορίδης (1998). Περὶ Ὕλης Ἰατρικῆς – Der Wiener Dioskurides: Cod. Med. Gr. 1 (Mazal, O., ed.) I-II. Wien: Nationalbibliothek. Ebbell, B. (1937). The Papyrus Ebers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ebers, G. (1875). Papyros Ebers I-II, Leipzig. google scholar
  • Ebeid, N.I. (1990). Médecine égyptienne au temps des pharaons. Le Monde Copte, 20, 7–14. google scholar
  • Ebeid, N.I. (1999). Egyptian Medicine in the Days of the Pharaohs. Cairo. google scholar
  • EG = Gardiner, A.H. (1988). Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. Oxford: Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum. google scholar
  • ᾿El-Daly, O. (2005). Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings, London: UCL Press. google scholar
  • Εὐτυχιάδης, Α.Χ. (2001). Ἀρχὲς Φιλοσοφίας καὶ Ἱστορίας τῆς Ἰατρικῆς. Ἀϑήνα: Βῆτα. Filer, J. (1996). Disease. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. google scholar
  • Finch, J.–L., Heath, G.H., David, A.–R., & Kulkarni, J. (2012). Biomechanical Assessment of Two Artificial Big Toe Restorations from Ancient Egypt and their Significance to the History of Prosthetics. Journal of Prosthetics & Orthotics, 244, 181–191. google scholar
  • Forshaw, R. (2013). Hesyre the First recorded Physician and Dental Surgeon in History. In R. David (Ed.), Ancient Medical and Healing Systems: Their Legacy to Western Medicine. Manchester: Manchester University Press / Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 181–202. google scholar
  • Fournier, R.L.P. (1933). La médecine égyptienne: des origines à l’école d’Alexandrie. Delmas. google scholar
  • French, R. (2003). Medicine before Science: The Business of Medicine from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. google scholar
  • Fuchs, R. (1902). Médecine grecque [Handbuch der Geschichte der Medizin (Neuburger, M. & Pagel, J., eds), II], Jena: Fischer. Γαληνός (1884-1893). Scripta Minora (Marquardt, J. et al., eds.). Leipzig: Teubner. google scholar
  • Gardiner, A.H. (1935). Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum: 3rd Series I-II. London. Gardiner, A.H. (1938). The House of Life and the Master of the King’s Largess. JEA, 24, 83–91. google scholar
  • Gardiner, A.H. (1955). The Ramesseum Papyri. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gardiner, A.H. (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. London: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Germer, R. (1979). Untersuchung über Arzneimittelpflanzen im alten Ägypten (PhD Dissertation). Hamburg: Universität von Hamburg. google scholar
  • Germer, R. (1991). Mumien: Zeugen des Pharaonenreiches. Zürich–München: Artemis und Winkler. google scholar
  • Germer, R. (2000). La momification. In R. Schulz & M. Seidel (Eds.), L’Égypte: Sur les traces de la civilisation pharaonique. Köln: Könemann, 458–469. google scholar
  • Geroulanos, S. (2007). Surgery in Byzantium. Proceedings of the International Conference on “Material Culture and Well Being in Byzantium”. Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften / Veröffentlichungen zur Byzanzforschung, Bd. XI), 129–134. google scholar
  • Γερουλάνος, Σ. (2012). Ἡ Χειρουργικὴ στὸ Βυζάντιο καὶ ἡ Μεταφορὰ τῶν Γνώσεων τῆς Χειρουργικῆς στὴν Δύση. Δέλτος, 42, 32–46. google scholar
  • Geroulanos, S. (2016). An Introduction to Alexandrian Medicine and Surgery. In N. Guilhou (Ed.), Liber Amicorum – Speculum Siderum: Nūt Astrophoros. Papers Presented to Alicia Maravelia. Oxford: Archaeopress / Egyptology, 17, 321–328. google scholar
  • Geroulanos, S. & Bridler, R. (1994). Wund–Entstehung und Wund–Pflege im antiken Griechenland. Mainz: P. von Zabern. google scholar
  • Geroulanos, S. & Maravelia, Α.–Α. (2012-2014). Alexandrian Medicine and Surgery: An Introduction. In A. Maravelia (Ed.), Ancient Egyptian Science & Meta–Physics: Quintessence of Religious Allegories, Roots of Scientific Thought: Proceedings of the 1st Egyptological Conference of the Patriarchate of Alexandria: 6th May 2011 = Journal of the Hellenic Institute of Egyptology, 2, 233–248. google scholar
  • Athens: Hellenic Institute of Egyptology. Ghalioungui, P. (1963). Medicine and Magic in Ancient Egypt. London. google scholar
  • Ghalioungui, P. (1965). Health and Healing in Ancient Egypt. Cairo. Ghalioungui, P. (1987). The Ebers Papyrus. Cairo: Academy of Scientific Research & Technology. google scholar
  • Ghalioungui, P. (1993). The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt. Mainz. google scholar
  • Ghalioungui, P., Khalil, S. & Ammar, A.R. (1963). On an Ancient Egyptian Method of diagnosing Pregnancy and determining Foetal Sex. Med. Hist., 73, 241–246 & fig. 1-2. google scholar
  • Gillings, R.J. (1982). Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs. New York: Dover. google scholar
  • Γκιάλας, Α.Ι. (1978). Νεώτερα Στοιχεῖα ἀπὸ τὴν Ἰατρικὴν τῶν Ἀρχαίων Αἰγυπτίων. Ἑλληνικὴ Ὀγκολογία, 143, 124–131. google scholar
  • Gödicke, H. (1984). The Canaanite Illness. SAK, 11, 91–105. google scholar
  • Godley, A.D. (1981). Herodotus History II. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 117. google scholar
  • Gordon, A.H. & Schwabe, C.W. (2004). The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt. Leiden: Brill–Styx. google scholar
  • Grapow, H. (1935). Untersuchungen über die altägyptischen medizinischen Papyri. Leipzig. Grapow, H. (1954-1962). Grundriß der Medizin der alter Ägypter. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. google scholar
  • Griffith, F.L. (1898). Hieratic Papyri from Kahūn and Gurōb. London: B. Quaritch. google scholar
  • Griffith, F.L. & Thompson, H. (1904-1909). The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden I-III. London: H. Grevel & Co. [2nd Edition (1974). The Leyden Papyrus: An Egyptian Magical Book, New York: Dover]. google scholar
  • Hand, W. (1986). Magical Medicine. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hannig, R. (2009). Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch–Deutsch (2800-950 v. Chr.), Mainz: P. von Zabern. google scholar
  • Harer, J.B. (1985). Pharmacological and Biological Properties of the Egyptian Lotus. JARCE, 22, 49–54. google scholar
  • Harris, J.R. (1961). Lexicographical Studies in Ancient Egyptian Minerals. Berlin: Akademie–Verlag, Deutsch. Akad. Wiss. Berlin / Veröffentlichungen, 54. google scholar
  • Harris, J.R. & Wente, E.F. (1980). An X–Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. google scholar
  • Hermann, B. & Hummel, S. (Eds.) (1994). Ancient DNA. Berlin: Springer. Iversen, E. (1939). Papyrus Carlsberg, № VIII. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. google scholar
  • Jacq, C. (1985). Egyptian Magic (translated by Davis, J.M.). Warminster: Aris & Phillips. google scholar
  • Jelínkova–Raymond, E. (1956). Les inscriptions de la statue guérisseuse de Djed–her–le–Sauver. Le Caire. google scholar
  • Jonckheere, F. (1958). Les médecins de l’Égypte pharaonique: Essai de prosopographie. La Médecine égyptienne, 3. Bruxelles: Fondation Égyptologique Reine Élizabeth. google scholar
  • Jones, M. (2001). The Molecule Hunt: Archaeology and the Search for Ancient DNA. New York: Arcade. google scholar
  • Kamal, H. (1964). Ancient Egyptian Medicine 1-4. Cairo [in Arabic]. google scholar
  • Kamal, H. (1967). A Dictionary of Pharaonic Medicine. Cairo: The National Publication House. google scholar
  • Khan, A.B. (1964). Surgery in the Medieval Muslim World. Indian J. Hist. Science, 19, 64–74. google scholar
  • Kitchen, K.A. (1997). Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II. Cairo: AUC Press. google scholar
  • König, Y. (1987). La Nubie dans les textes magiques: l’inquiétante étrangère. Revue d’Égypte, 38, 105–110. google scholar
  • Κούζης, Α. (1929). Ἱστορία τῆς Ἰατρικῆς. Ἀϑῆναι: Πυρσός. LÄ = Helck, W. & Otto, E. (Hrsg.) (1975-1989). Lexikon der Ägyptologie I-VII. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. google scholar
  • Lacau, P. (1921-1922). Les statues “guérisseuses” dans l’ancienne Égypte. Monuments Piot. Paris (Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 25), 189–209. google scholar
  • Lambert, J.B. & Grupe, G. (Eds.) (1993). Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level. Berlin: Springer. Lauer, J.–P. (1948). Le Problème des Pyramides d’Égypte. Paris: Payot. google scholar
  • Lauer, J.–P. (1974). Le Mystère des Pyramides. Paris: Presses de la Cité. google scholar
  • Leca, A.P. (1983). La médecine égyptienne au temps des pharaons. Paris. Leek, F. (1972). The Human Remains from the Tomb of Tutcankhamūn (Harris, J.R., ed.). Oxford: University Press. google scholar
  • Lefebvre, G. (1956). Essai sur la Médecine égyptienne de l’époque pharaonique. Paris. google scholar
  • Lucas, A. (1989). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (Harris, J.R., rev. ed.). London. google scholar
  • Lyons, A.S. & Petrucelli, R.J. (1987). Medicine: An Illustrated History. New York: Abradale & Adams. google scholar
  • MacQueen, J.G. (1986). The Hittites and their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. London. google scholar
  • Majno, G. (1975). The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. google scholar
  • Manniche, L. (1987). Sexual Life in Ancient Egypt. London: KPI. Manniche, L. (1989). An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. London: BMP. google scholar
  • Manniche, L. (1999). Egyptian Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy and Cosmetics in Pharaonic Times. Cairo: AUC Press. google scholar
  • Μανιάτης, Π. (2002). Ἱστορία τῆς Ἰατρικῆς. Ἀϑήνα: Ἐντός. google scholar
  • Mαραβέλια, Α.–Α. (2003). Ἡ Μαγεία στὴν Ἀρχαία Αἴγυπτο: Μεταφυσικὴ Πεμπτουσία τῆς Χώρας τῶν Θεῶν. Ἀϑήνα: Ἰάμβλιχος. google scholar
  • Mαραβέλια, Α.–Α. (2014). Τὰ Μαϑηματικά, ἡ Γεωμετρία, ἡ Μηχανικὴ καὶ ἡ Ἀρχιτεκτονικὴ στὴν ἀρχαία Αἴγυπτο. Χρονικὰ Αἰσϑητικῆς, 47, 107–168. google scholar
  • Mαραβέλια, Α. (2020). Οἱ Ἰατροὶ καὶ ἡ Ἰατρικὴ στὴν Ἀρχαία Αἴγυπτο. In A. Tselikas (Ed.), Stephanos: Festschrift in Honorem Prof. Dr Stephanos Geroulanos. Athens, in press. google scholar
  • Μαρασλής, Α. (1983). Ἡ Χειρουργικὴ στὸ Βυζάντιο. Ἀϑήνα: Ἐκδόσεις Παρισιάνου. google scholar
  • Maravelia, A.–A. (2006). Les astres dans les textes religieux en Égypte antique et dans les Hymnes Orphiques. Oxford: Archaeopress / BAR International Series, 1527. google scholar
  • Maravelia, A.–A. (2010). Asklēpios and Ophiuchus: Katasterismoi, Constellations, Transformations and … Heresies. Deltos, 39, 79–92. google scholar
  • Maravelia, A.–A. (2012). Paula Alexandra da Silva Veiga: Health and Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Magic and Science, 2009. AntOr, 10, 163–170 [Book Review]. google scholar
  • Maravelia, A., Bontozoglou, N., Kalogerakou, K., Couvaris, C.M. & Geroulanos, S. (2019). Application of Smart Informatics in Egyptology: The Athens Mummy Project as an Example of Effective Interdisciplinarity. The Oriental Studies / Сходознавство, 84, 127–162. google scholar
  • Maravelia, A. & Filianos, M. (2020). The Kyphi/Κῦφι/KApt–Incense of the Ancient Egyptians. In A. Maravelia & N. Guilhou (eds). Environment and Religion in Ancient and Coptic Egypt: Sensing the Cosmos through the Eyes of the Divine. Proceedings of the 1st Egyptological Conference, Organized by the Hellenic Institute of Egyptology and the Writing & Scripts Centre of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina at the People’s University of Athens (Athens 1-3 February 2017). Oxford: Archaeopress / Egyptology, 30, 257-303. google scholar
  • Margotta, R. (1996). Ἱστορία τῆς Ἰατρικῆς (μτφρ.: Ἀντωνακόπουλος, Γ.Ν.). Ἀϑήνα: Παρισιάνος. google scholar
  • Merck (2006). The Merck Index – Fourteenth Edition (O’Neil, M.J., Heckelman, P.E. et al., eds). Whitehouse Station NJ: Merck Research Laboratories / Merck & Co, Inc. google scholar
  • Milne, J.S. (1970). Surgical Instruments in Greek and Roman Times. New York. google scholar
  • Molinier, A. (Ed.) (1851-1876). Oeuvres d’Oribase: Texte grec traduit par les docteurs Bussemaker et Daremberg I-VI. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. google scholar
  • Nerlich, A.G., Zink, A., Szeimies, U. & Hagedorn, H.G. (2000). Ancient Egyptian Prosthesis of the Big Toe. Lancet, 356, 2176–2179. Nunn, J.F. (1996). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London: BMP. google scholar
  • Ody, P. (1993). The Herb Society’s Complete Medicinal Herbal. London: Dorling Kindersley, Ltd. google scholar
  • Parkinson, R.B. & Quirke, S. (1995). Papyrus. London: BMP. Partridge, R. (1994). Faces of Pharaohs: Royal Mummies and Coffins from Ancient Thebes. London: BMP. google scholar
  • Παντερμαλής, Δ. (1999). Δῖον: Ἡ Ἀνακάλυψη. Ἀϑήνα: Ἐκδόσεις Ἀδάμ. Πεντόγαλος, Γ.Η. (1983). Εἰσαγωγὴ στὴν Ἱστορία τῆς Ιατρικῆς. Θεσσαλονίκη: Παρατηρητής. google scholar
  • Pinch, G. (1994). Magic in Ancient Egypt. London: BMP. Pollard, A.M. & Heron, C. (1996). Archaeological Chemistry. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. google scholar
  • Posener, G. (1958). Les empreintes magiques de Gizeh et les morts dangereux. MDAIK, 16, 252–270. google scholar
  • Posener, G. (1981). Les c afārīt dans l’ancienne Égypte. MDAIK, 37, 393–401. google scholar
  • Posener, G. et al. (Eds.) (1992). Dictionnaire de la civilisation Égyptienne. Paris: Hazan. Reeves, N. (1990). The Complete Tutankhamun. London: Thames & Hudson. google scholar
  • Reisner, G.A. (1905). The Hearst Medical Papyrus. Leipzig: Hinrichs. Riad, N. (1979). Hygiène et médecine cosmétique au temps des pharaons. Le Monde Copte, 8, 44–49. google scholar
  • Ritner, R.K. (2001). s.v. Magic. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt II, Oxford, 321–336. google scholar
  • Roaf, M. (1990). Cultural Atlas of the Ancient Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. Oxford: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Roth, A.M. (1992). The PsS-Kf and the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony: A Ritual of Birth and Rebirth. JEA, 78, 113–147. google scholar
  • Roth, A.M. (1993). Fingers, Stars and the Opening of the Mouth: The Nature and Function of the NTrwi–Blades. JEA, 79, 57–79. google scholar
  • Rutkow, I.M. (Ed.) (1993). Surgery: An Illustrated History. St Louis: Mosby. Sandison, A.T. (1963). The Use of Natron in Mummification in Ancient Egypt. JNES, 22, 259–267. google scholar
  • Sauneron, S. (2000). The Priests of Ancient Egypt. Ithaca–London: Cornell University Press. google scholar
  • Scarborough, J. (2010). Teaching Surgery in Late Byzantine Alexandria. Stud. Anc. Med., 35, 235–260. google scholar
  • Schöne, H. (1903). Zwei Listen chirurgischer Instrumente. Hermes, 38, 280–284. google scholar
  • Sezgin, F. (ed.) (2003). Wissenschaft und Technik im Islam I-V. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch–Islamischen Wissenschaften an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe–Universität. google scholar
  • SGI (2004). News Release. California & London. google scholar
  • Simmance, E.B. (2014). Amenhotep Son of Hapu: Self–Presentation through Statues and their Texts in Pursuit of Semi–Divine Intermediary Status (Master Thesis). Birmingham: University of Birmingham, Institute of Archaeology & Antiquity. google scholar
  • Σκαμπαρδώνης, Γ.Ι., Σίψας, Ν. & Γερουλάνος, Σ. (2012). Ὁ Ξενὼν τῆς Μονῆς Παντοκράτορος: Ἕνα Πρότυπο Βυζαντινὸ Νοσοκομεῖο τοῦ 12ου Αἰώνα. Δέλτος, 42, 47–60. google scholar
  • Smith, G.E. (1908). The Most Ancient Splints. Br. Med. J., 1 (2465), 732–736. google scholar
  • Spencer, A.J. (1986). Death in Ancient Egypt. UK: Penguin Books. google scholar
  • Spencer, W.G. (Ed. & Transl.) (1935-1938). A. Cornelius Celsus: De Medicina I-III. London: Loeb Classical Library. google scholar
  • Steven, J.M. (1975). Gynaecology from Ancient Egypt: The Papyrus Kahūn. A Translation of the Oldest Treatise in Gynaecology that has survived the Ancient World. Medical Journal of Australia, 21, 949–952. google scholar
  • Strouhal, E., Vachala, B. & Vymazalová, H. (2014). The Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians: 1. Surgery, Gynaecology, Obstetrics & Pediatrics. Cairo: AUC Press. google scholar
  • Taylor, J.H. (1996). Unwrapping a Mummy. Austin TX: University of Texas Press. google scholar
  • Taylor, J.H. & Antoine, D. (2014). Ancient Lives – New Discoveries: Eight Mummies, Eight Stories. London: British Museum. google scholar
  • Ternon, Y. & Helmans, S. (1979). Histoire de la Médecine. Paris: Aujourd’hui. google scholar
  • Till, W.C. (1951). Die Arzneikunde der Kopten. Berlin: Akademie–Verlag. google scholar
  • Veiga, P.–A. da Silva (2009). Health and Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Magic and Science. Oxford: Archaeopress / BAR International Series, 1967. google scholar
  • von Känel, F. (1984a). Les prêtres–ouâb de Sekhmet et les conjurateurs de Serket. Paris: Bibliothèque de l’École des Hautes Études, Section des Sciences Religieuses, 87. google scholar
  • von Känel, F. (1984b). La nèpe et le scorpion: une monographie sur la déesse Serket. Paris. google scholar
  • Wagle, W.A. (1994). Toe Prosthesis in an Egyptian Human Mummy. American Journal of Radiology, 1624, 999–1000. google scholar
  • Walton, A. (1979). Asklēpios: The Cult of the Greek God of Medicine. Chicago: Arēs Publishers [translated into modern Hellenic by Maravelia, A.–A. (2007). Ἀσκληπιός: Ἡ Λατρεία τοῦ Ἕλληνα ϑεοῦ τῆς Ἰατρικῆς, Athens: Kardamitsa]. google scholar
  • Westendorf, W. (1966). Papyrus Edwin Smith. Bern–Stuttgart: Verlag Hans Huber. Wildung, D. (1977a). Imhotep und Amenhotep: Gottwerdung im alten Ägypten. Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag. google scholar
  • Wildung, D. (1977b). Egyptian Saints: Deification in Pharaonic Egypt. New York: University Press. google scholar
  • Wilkinson, C. (2004). Forensic Facial Reconstruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. google scholar
  • Wiltse, L.L. & Pait, T.G. (1998). Herophilus of Alexandria (325-255 BC): The Father of Anatomy. Spine, 2317, 1904–1914. google scholar
  • Worth Estès, J. (1993). The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt. USA: Canton. google scholar
  • Wreszinski, W. (1909). Der große medizinische Papyrus des Berliner Museums. Leipzig: Hinrichs. google scholar
  • Wreszinski, W. (1912). Der Londoner medizinische Papyrus (BM 1005) und der Papyrus Hearst in Transkription, Übersetzung und Kommentar. Leipzig: Hinrichs. google scholar
  • Wreszinski, W. (1913). Der Papyrus Ebers. Leipzig: Hinrichs. google scholar
  • Ζηρογιάννης, Π.Ν. & Προβατοπούλου, Σ. (2009). Ἀπὸ τὴν Δράση τοῦ Ἱπποκράτη στὴν Αἴγυπτο. In Σ. Προβατοπούλου, Π.Ν. Ζηρογιάννης et al. (Eds.), Ταξιδεύοντας μὲ τὸν Ἱπποκράτη: Ἀνάλυση τοῦ Πολιτικοῦ καὶ Πολιτισμικοῦ Γίγνεσϑαι τῆς Ἐποχῆς του 4. Κῶς: ΔΙΙΚΩ, pp. 14–44. google scholar
  • Yannakopoulos–Salili, A.B.M. (2011). Die antiken und byzantinischen Chirurgen nach Hippokrates (Inaug. Dissertation). Zürich: Medizinische Fakultät, Universität von Zürich. google scholar
  • Zumla, A. & Lulat, A. (1989). Honey, a Remedy rediscovered. Journal Roy. Soc. Med., 82, 384–385. google scholar


SHARE




Istanbul University Press aims to contribute to the dissemination of ever growing scientific knowledge through publication of high quality scientific journals and books in accordance with the international publishing standards and ethics. Istanbul University Press follows an open access, non-commercial, scholarly publishing.