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DOI :10.26650/B/LSB21LSB37.2024.023.002   IUP :10.26650/B/LSB21LSB37.2024.023.002    Full Text (PDF)

Palynological and Paleontological Records of Changes From Glacial-Stage (Mis 2) Oxygenated Brackish to Postglacial Hypoxic and Periodically Dysoxic Conditions in the Marmara Sea, Türki̇ye

Petra J. MudıeRichard N. HıscottAli E. Aksu

The Marmara Sea is a crucial gateway for water exchange with the inland Black Sea through the Strait of Bosphorus in the north, and with the Aegean and the Mediterranean Seas through the Strait of Dardanelles in the south. A wide-ranging literature review was made of the complex paleoceanographic history for the Marmara Sea Gateway, based on disparate geomorphological, geochemical, palynological and paleontological records from sediment cores on a millennial time-scale. These earlier studies fail to record rapid climate changes during MIS 2 glacial conditions of oxygenated, low salinity water or transformation to periodically dysoxic conditions during the warm interglacial MIS 1. Variability in calibration of dating methods has also contributed to uncertainty in inter-core correlation of biozones. In this manuscript, we review the characteristics of a wide variety of organisms that live in the Marmara Sea today and contribute to fossil floras and faunas that along with pollen and spores provide archives of past environmental and oceanographic changes. Macrobiota leave a patchy or incomplete record, and some calcareous and siliceous micro-organisms are absent in cold, low salinity water or high bottom water acidity. Hence, we focus here on palynological studies that use updated information on a wide range of organic-walled non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs) from the Marmara Gateway to avoid these shortcomings. The studies also use re-calibrated age models for five cores based on 24 radiocarbon dates including one at the Y2 tephra level. To assist interpretation, we present new surface sample data for a suite of NPPs that is qualitatively calibrated to a salinity and oxygen gradient. We use two high-resolution piston cores (M02-88P and M02-89P) from the İmralı Basin to document vegetation and paleoceanographic changes on a scale of ~15–30 yr cm-1 from the end of MIS 3 to ~10 yr cm-1 for MIS 1 and recent times when human impacts clearly prevail over natural sea level and global climate events. The new palynological data confirm that the MIS 3 to 17.5 cal ka interval was characterized by vegetation indicating local refugia with >600 mm annual rainfall, and enough warmth to support Castanea forest. The Marmara basin was  occupied by the Propontis Lake, which was more saline and/or more oligotrophic than the contemporary Neoeuxine Lake in the Black Sea basin or the Caspian Sea. The sparse lake dinocyst assemblages are most similar to the MIS 2–5a dinocyst flora of Gulf of Corinth, Greece, where there were intermittent marine connections and disconnection over almost one million years. There may have been sea-ice formation on the lake during winter months and we report for the first time, presence of ostracods, and the eggs or egg capsules of herring and trout fish parasites that may have marked a stressed fish population. The entire Propontis Lake interval is notably marked by a prevalence of parasitic chytrid and saprophytic biota (cf. Multiplicisphaeridium) that may reflect the low dinoflagellate population. After the Last Glacial Maximum at ~20 cal ka, the Propontis Lake remained low (~ –100 m) except during meltwater discharge event(s) which raised the Neoeuxine Lake to overspill and increase the Propontis Lake level to ~ –65 m elevation so it overflowed through the Strait of Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea, although the flooding left little trace in the lake biota. Climate was cold and dry, and primary production remained low. However, notable amounts of Crustacean resting eggs and ostracod remains appear in the NPP fraction for the first time, and there are trace numbers of Ammonia spp. benthic foraminifera. A major series of oceanographic changes began at ~13.8 cal ka when rising Aegean Sea waters entered the Marmara basin, affecting its full salinification in less than ~700 yr and triggering more eutrophic conditions, sapropel development, and immigration of calcareous marine phyto- and zoo-plankton. There was a decrease in freshwater Pediastrum coenobia, concurrent with the appearance of benthic foraminiferal linings and planktonic foraminiferal tests, increased dinoflagellate cyst concentrations including the Paratethyan relict Spiniferites cruciformis and other Pannonian Basin Spiniferites species, such as Spiniferites maisensis. From ~13.5–12.9 cal ka, there was a rapid increase in pollen concentration, but reduced arboreal pollen and greatly increased Artemisia sage brush pollen that clearly marks the Younger Dryas cold interval 12.9 to 11.7 cal ka region-wide. Increases of oak and other thermophilous tree taxa mark the early interglacial Greenlandian Age and the start of the Holocene thermal optimum that terminated around the time of the Meghalayan 4.2 cal ka drought event, recorded here for the first time. There is a succession of freshwater algae: the glacial stage chorophyte Pediastrum is followed by the desmid Staurastrum volans around 11 cal ka, ending with the more eurythermal, bloom-forming chlorophyte Botryococcus at ~10.5 cal ka, pointing to progressive eutrophication of the Marmara Sea surface waters. The thermal optimum is marked by higher amounts and greater diversity of dinoflagellate cysts that can generate harmful algal blooms, but their abundances decline abruptly at 3 cal ka for uncertain reasons that may include climate cooling before the industrial age and recent climate warming. 



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