Temporal and Spatial Variations of Marine Litter Scattered on the Soft Seabed in The Sea of Marmara
Ahsen Yüksek, Firdes Saadet Karakulak, Ahmet Erkan KıdeyşIn this study, marine litter from the seafloor in the Sea of Marmara obtained through several trawl surveys between 1994 and 2021 is evaluated. When the levels of marine litter on the seabed of the Sea of Marmara are considered, there appears a significant increase in the quantity after the year 2000, with this increase particularly concentrating in the Gulf of İzmit and Gemlik, where the effect of current systems is prominent. In 2000, the quantity of plastic waste per unit area was approximately 40 items/km2, while in 2016 it exceeded 800 items/km2. Considering the total area for the 20-200 m in the Sea of Marmara, seafloor litter accumulation was calculated as 335 tons in 1994 but 5037 tons in 2021. In 2000, plastic waste accounted for 54% of the total, rising to 75% in 2016, 95% in 2019, and 67% in 2021. The L1 group, which represents plastic waste, is mainly contributed by plastic bags. In 2000, plastic bags accounted for 23% of the total, increasing to 83% in 2019. However, this value significantly decreased in 2021 whilst the “Packaging Plastic” subcategory also increased from 4% in 2000 to 48% in 2016 and 2021. Our analyses revealed that as the depth increases, the quantity and diversity of marine litter decrease, with plastic litter remaining dominant even in deeper waters.
References
- Akdogan, Z., Guven, B., & Kideys, A.E. (2023). Microplastic distribution in the surface water and sediment of an industrially polluted river in Turkey. Environmental Research, 116500. google scholar
- Alvito, A., Bellodi, A., Cau, A., Moccia, D., Mulas, A., Palmas, F., Pesci, P., & Follesa, C.M. (2018) Amount and distribution of benthic marine litter along Sardinian fishing grounds (CW Mediterranean Sea). Waste Management 75, 131-140. google scholar
- Anastasopoulou, A., Mytilineou, C., Smith, C.J. & Papadopoulou, K.N. (2013). Plastic debris ingested by deepwater fish of the Ionian Sea (Eastern Mediterranean). Deep-Sea Research I, 74, 11-13. google scholar
- Andrady, A.L., (2011). Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62 (8), 1596-1605. google scholar
- Ayaz, A., Acarli, D., Altinagac, U., Ozekinci, U., Kara, A., & Ozen, O., (2006). Ghost fishing by monofilament and multifilament gillnets in Izmir Bay, Turkey. Fish. Res. 79, 267-271. google scholar
- Baysal, A., Saygin, H. & Ustabasi, G.S. (2020). Microplastic Occurrences in Sediments Collected from Marmara Sea-Istanbul, Turkey. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 105, 522-529. google scholar
- Benzik, A.N., Orlov, A.M., & Novikov, M.A., 2021. Marine seabed litter in Siberian Arctic: A first attempt to assess. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 172, 112836. google scholar
- Bertrand, J., Souplet, A., Gil de Soula, L., Relini, G., & Politou, C. (2007). International bottom trawl survey in the Mediterranean (Medits), Instruction manual, Version 5. pp. 62. google scholar
- Büyükdeveci, F., & Gündoğdu, S. (2021). Composition and abundance of benthic marine litter in the fishing grounds of Iskenderun Bay, northeastern Levantine coast of Turkey. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 172, 112840. google scholar
- Carr, A., Amaral, E., Hulbert, A., & Cooper, R. (1985). Underwater survey of simulated lost demersal and lost commercial gill nets off New England. In: Shomura, R., Yoshlda, H., (Eds.). Proceedings of the workshop on the fate and impact of marine debris, 27-29 November 1984, Honolulu, Hawaii, pp. 439-447. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS. NOAA-TMNMFSSWFC., Laist, D. Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarded plastic debris in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18, pp. 319-326. google scholar
- Chiggiato, J., Jarosz, E., Book, J.W. Dykes, J., Poulain, P.M., Gerin, R., Horstmann, J., & Beşiktepe Ş. (2012). Dynamics of the circulation in the Sea of Marmara: numerical modeling experiments and observations from the Turkish straits system experiment. Ocean Dynamics 62, 139-159 (2012). google scholar
- Compa, M., Alomar, C., Mourre, B., March, D., Tintore, J., & Deudero, S., (2020). Nearshore spatio-temporal sea surface trawls of plastic debris in the Balearic Islands. Mar. Environ. Res. 158, 104945. google scholar
- Çevik, C., Kideys, A.E., Tavşanoğlu, Ü.N., Kankılıç, G.B., & Gündoğdu, S. (2022). A review of plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems of Turkey. Environmental Science & Pollution Research 29: 26230-26249. google scholar
- Çullu A.F., Sönmez, V. Z., & Sivri, N. (2021). Microplastic contamination in surface waters of the Küçükçekmece Lagoon, Marmara Sea (Turkey): Sources and areal distribution. Environmental Pollution 268. google scholar
- Donohue, M.J., Boland, R.C., Sramek, C.M., & Antonelis, G.A., (2001). Derelict fishing gear in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands: diving surveys and debris removal in 1999 confirm threat to coral reef ecosystems. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42, 1301-1312. google scholar
- Eriksen, M., Lebreton, L. C. M., Carson, H. S., Thiel, M., Moore, C. J., Borerro, J. C., Galgani, F, Ryan, P.G., & Reisser J. (2014). Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: more than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS ONE 9:e111913. google scholar
- Erüz, C., Terzi, Y., Öztürk, R.Ç., Karakoç, F.T., Özşeker, K., Şahin, A., & Ismail, N.P. (2022). Spatial pattern and characteristics of the benthic marine litter in the southern Black Sea shelf. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 175, 113322. google scholar
- Eryaşar, A.R., Özbilgin, H., Gücü, A.C., & Sakinan, S. (2014). Marine debris in bottom trawl cages and their effects on the selectivity grids in the northeastern Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 81(1), 80-84. google scholar
- European Commission (2008). Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Marine Environmental Policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive). Brussels: Official Journal of the European Union L164, 19-40. google scholar
- European Commission (2010). Commission Decision of 1 September 2010 on Criteria and Methodological Standards on Good Environmental Status of Marine Waters (Notified under Document C (2010) 5956) (2010/477/EU). Brussels: Official Journal of the European Union L232, 12-24. google scholar
- Galgani, F., Hanke, G., Werner, S., Oosterbaan, L., Nilsson, P., Fleet, D., Kinsey, S., Thompson, R.C., Van Franeker, J.A., Vlachogianni, T., Scoullos, M., Veiga, J.Mira., Palatinus, A., Matiddi, M., Maes, T., Korpiunen, S., Budziak, A., Leslie, H., Gago, J., & Liebezeit, G. (2013). Guidance on monitoring of marine litter in European Seas. google scholar
- Gall, S.C., & Thompson R.C., (2015), The impact of debris on marine life, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 92, Issues 1-2, P 170-179, ISSN 0025-326X. google scholar
- Gartia-Rivera, S., Lizaso, J.L.S., & Millân, J.M.B. (2017). Composition spatial distribution and sources of macro-marine litter on the Gulf of Alicante seafloor (Spanish Mediterranean). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 121, 249259. google scholar
- Gartia-Rivera, S., Lizaso, J.L.S., & Millân, J.M.B. (2018). Spatial and temporal trends of marine litter in the Spanish Mediterranean seafloor. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 137: 252-261. google scholar
- Goldstein, M.C., Rosenberg, M., & Cheng, L. (2012). Increased oceanic microplastic debris enhances oviposition in an endemic pelagic insect. Biol. Lett. 8, 817-820. google scholar
- Good, T.P., June, J.A., Etnier, M.A., & Broadhurst, G., (2010). Derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound and the Northwest Straits: patterns and threats to marine fauna. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 60, 39-50. google scholar
- Gönülal, O., Oz, I., Ozan, S., & Ozturk, B. (2016). Abundance and composition of marine litter around Gökçeada island (northern Aegean Sea). Aquatic Ecosystem Health, 19(4), 461-467. google scholar
- Gündoğdu, S., Çevik, C., & Karaca, S. (2017). Fouling assemblage of benthic plastic debris collected from Mersin Bay, NE Levantine coast of Turkey. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 124(1), 147-154. google scholar
- Güven O., Gülyavuz H. & Deval M.C. (2013). Benthic debris accumulation in bathyal grounds in the Antalya Bay, Eastern Mediterranean. Turkish J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 13:43-49. google scholar
- Kaladharan, P., Singh, V.V., Asha, P.S., Edward, L., & Sukhadane, K.S., (2020). Marine plastic litter in certain trawl grounds along the peninsular coasts of India. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 157, 111299. google scholar
- Kühn, S., & Van Franeker, J.A., (2020). Quantitative overview of marine debris ingested by marine megafauna. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 151, 110858. google scholar
- Mghili, B., Keznine, M., Hasni S., & Aksissou, M. (2023). Abundance, composition and sources of benthic marine litter trawled-up in the fishing grounds on the Moroccan Mediterranean coast. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 63, 103002, ISSN 2352-4855. google scholar
- Mutlu, E., Ozvarol, Y., Sahin, A., Duman, G.S., & Karaca, D. (2020). Macro litter distribution of the Turkish Mediterranean coasts dominated by pleasure crafts. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 151, 110833. google scholar
- Neves, D., Sobral, P., & Pereira, T. (2015) Marine litter in bottom trawls off the Portuguese coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull. google scholar
- Olguner, M.T., Olguner, C., Mutlu, E., & Deval, M.C. (2018). Distribution and composition of benthic marine litter on the shelf of Antalya in the eastern Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 136, 171-176. google scholar
- Pace, R., Dimech, M., & Camilleri, M., (2007). Litter as a source of habitat islands on deep water muddy bottoms. Rapport Commission International pour l’ exploration scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee 38, 567. google scholar
- Papadopoulou, K., Anastasopoulou, A., Mytilineou, C., Smith, C., & Stamouli, C. (2016). Seabed Marine Litter, Comparison of 4 Aegean Trawling Grounds. 11th Panhellenic Symposium on Oceanography and Fisheries, Mytilene, Lesvos island, Greece . 2015. google scholar
- Pasquini, G., Ronchi, F., Strafella, P., Scarcella, G., & Fortibuoni, T. (2016) Seabed litter composition, distribution and sources in the Northern and Central Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean). Waste Manage. 58, 41-51. google scholar
- Pinheiro, L.M., Junior, E.Lupchinski., Denuncio, P., & Machado, R. (2021). Fishing plastics: a high occurrence of marine litter in surf-zone trammel nets of Southern brazil. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 173, 112946. google scholar
- Ramos, J.A., & Pessoa, W.V. (2019). Fishing marine debris in a northeast Brazilian beach: Composition abundance and tidal changes. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 142,428-432. google scholar
- Rodrigues, M.O., Abrantes, N., Gonçalves, F.J.M., Nogueira, H., Marques, J.C., & Gonçalves, A.M.M. (2019). Impacts of plastic products used in daily life on the environment and human health: What is known? Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 72, 103239. google scholar
- Scotti, G., Esposito, V., D’Alessandro, M., Panti, C., Vivona, P., Consoli, P., Figurella, F., & Romeo, T., (2021). Seafloor litter along the Italian coastal zone: An integrated approach to identify sources of marine litter. Waste Manage. 124, 203-212. google scholar
- Selvam K., Xavier K.A.M., Shivakrishna A., Bhutia T.P., Kamat S., & Shenoy, L. (2021). Abundance, composition and sources of marine debris trawled-up in the fishing grounds along the north-east Arabian coast, Science of The Total Environment, Science of the Total Environment 751 (2021) 141771, ISSN 0048-9697. google scholar
- Song, S.H., Lee, H.W., Kim, J.N., Jeong, J.M., Ji, H.S., Jo, H.S., Kim, D.H., & Park, C. (2021). First observation and effect of fishery of seabed litter on sea bed by trawl survey Korea waters. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 170, 112228. google scholar
- Strafella, P., Fabi, G., Spagnolo, A., Grati, F., Polidori, P., Punzo, E., Marceta, B., Fortibuoni, T., Raicevich, S., Cvitkovic, I., Despalatovic, M., & Scarcella, G. (2015). Spatial pattern and weight of seabed marine litter in the northern and central Adriatic Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 91 (1), 120-127. google scholar
- Suaria, G., & Aliani, S. (2014). Floating debris in the Mediterranean Sea. Mar. Pollut.Bull. 86 (1-2), 494-504. google scholar
- Şirin, M., Daban, İ.B., İşmen, A., & Arslan İhsanoğlu, M. (2022). Benthic marine litter in the Sea of Marmara, Turkey. Ege Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 39(2), 111-119. google scholar
- Topçu, E.N., & Öztürk, B. (2010). Abundance and composition of solid waste materials on the western part of the Turkish Black Sea seabed. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, 13(3), 301-306. google scholar
- UNEP & NOAA, (2012). The Honolulu Strategy - A Global Framework for Prevention and Management of Marine Debris. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/gpa/documents/publications-/honolulustrategy.pdf. google scholar
- UNEP MAP, (2016). Draft Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Guidance,19th Ordinary Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean and its Protocols Athens, Greece, 9-12 February 2016. google scholar
- Uzer, U., Yildiz, T., & Karakulak, F.S. (2020). Distribution and composition of marine litter on seafloor in the western Black Sea, Turkey. Aytan, Ü., Pogojeva, M., Simeonova, A. (Eds.,), Marine Litter in the Black Sea. Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV) Publication No: 56, pp. 111-135, ISBN: 978-975-882548-6, Istanbul, Turkey. google scholar
- Vardar S., Onay, T.T., Demirel, B., & Kideys, A.E. (2021). Evaluation of microplastics removal efficiency at a wastewater treatment plant discharging to the Sea of Marmara. Environmental Pollution 289, 117862: 1-9. google scholar
- Vlachogianni, T., Skocir, M., Constantin, P., Labbe, C., Orthodoxou, D., Pesmatzoglou, I., Scannella, D., Spika, M., Zissimopoulos, V., & Scoullos, M. (2019). Plastic pollution on the Mediterranean coastline: generating fit-for-purpose data to support decision making via a participatory-science initiative. Sci. Total Environ. 711, 135058. google scholar
- Yılmaz, A.B., Başusta, N., & İşmen. A. (2002). İskenderun Körfezi’nin Güney-Doğu Kıyılarında Plastik Materyal Birikimi Üzerine Bir Çalışma, E.U. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. google scholar
- Yüksek, A., & Polat Beken, Ç. (2013). The accumulation of marine litter on the seabed of the Sea of Marmara. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer Medit., 40. google scholar
- Zettler E.R, Mincer, T.J., & Amaral-Zettler, L.A. (2013). Environmental Science & Technology 2013 47 (13), 7137-7146. google scholar