Economic Crisis and Inflation at Mamlūks according to al-Maqrīzī’s Ighathah and al-Asadī’s al-Taysīr
In this study, the crisis and inflation events in certain periods of the Mamlūks were examined considering the works of the two Mamlūk bureaucrats and authors of the 15th century, al-Maqrīzī and al-Asadī, focused on economic issues. In this context, al-Maqrīzī’s Ighathah al-Umma and al-Asadī’s al-Taysīr ve’l-I’tibār, are distinguished sources that examine the famine and consequently crises in Egypt and its environs from ancient times until the era of the Mamlūks. These works define the reasons for the crises and make some conclusive suggestions. To determine the inflation periods within the process, some numerical data obtained from the main sources were supported with graphics. Drought-based famine events, problems faced by the society during the economic crises, food prices in markets, inflation, circulating money and monetary reforms and recommendations for eliminating inflation are some of the topics covered in these two studies.
El-Makrîzî’nin İğâse ve El-Esedî’nin et-Teysîr’ine Göre Memlûklarda Ekonomik Kriz ve Enflasyon
Bu çalışmada 15. yüzyılın Memlûk bürokrat ve müelliflerinden; el-Makrîzî ve el-Esedî’nin ekonomik meselelere odaklı eserleri dikkate alınmak suretiyle Memlûkların bazı dönemlerinde süre gelen kriz ve enflasyon olayları incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda el-Makrîzî’nin İğâsetu’l-Umme adlı eseri ve el-Esedî’nin et-Teysîr ve’l-İ’tibâr’ı kadim dönemlerden Memlûklar devrine kadar Mısır ve havalisinde süre gelen kıtlık ve buna bağlı olarak gelişen ekonomik krizlerin irdelendiği ve bunun nedenlerinin temellendirilip bazı sonuç önerilerinin getirildiği bir kaynak olmasıyla temeyyüz eder. Kuraklığa dayalı olarak gelişen kıtlık olayları, iktisadi kriz dönemlerinde toplumun maruz kaldığı sıkıntılar, pazarlardaki gıda fiyatları, enflasyon, dolaşımda olan para ve parasal reform, krizlerin doğal ve fiziki nedenleri, üst yönetim mensuplarının sorumlulukları ve enflasyonu yok etmeye yönelik tavsiyeler bu iki çalışmada işlenen konulardan bazılarıdır. Süreç dâhilinde enflasyon dönemlerinin tespiti amacıyla ana kaynaklardan temin edilen bazı sayısal veriler grafik dökümleriyle desteklenmiştir. Her iki eser de devlet dâhilindeki iktisadi sorunların tespiti ve bunların önlenmesine yönelik analitik çıkarımlar sunması münasebetiyle siyasetname türünde kaleme alınmış mümtaz iki çalışmadır.
Besides the struggle with the Mongols and the Crusaders to defend the Islamic World in the Middle Ages, the Mamlūks, who ruled in Egypt and Syria from the second half of the thirteenth to the first quarter of the sixteenth century, also strived to save people natural disasters such as drought, famine, epidemics and inflationary problems arising from these conditions. The fundamental factor affecting inflation in the country was undoubtedly due to the unstable course of the Nile in some periods. If the level of the river, a gift for Egypt, was under the required level it should be, the agricultural lands could not be irrigated enough, which would be a harbinger of the drought. The famine considered an outcome of the drought was the most important factor for the increase in food prices in bazaars and markets. In this respect, the water level of the Nile measured using nilometres was carefully controlled during the Mamlūks period. The measurement data obtained during critical periods were announced to the public. When the Nile reached the ideal level, its rising waters were released to flood the fields by cutting the dike. Another factor that affected the prices of agricultural products and basic food prices was the plague epidemics. These epidemics frequently occurred during the Circassian Mamlūks (1382–1517). Thousands of people lost their lives during the epidemic periods. The falling production along with decrease in the agricultural population led to exorbitant increases in food prices, as well as the economic collapse acceleration during the Mamlūk period. Political turmoil and harmful activities of Bedouins, which were frequently seen within the state, also negatively affected the economic stability. During the fifteenth century, some of the important authors in the political and economic fields wrote out chronicles emphasizing the causes of economic instability in the state. These chronicles were aimed at attracting the attention of bureaucrats and senior management members. For example, al-Maqrīzī, in his work written in 1405 titled Igathat al-Umma, and al-Asadī’s al-Taysīr wa’l-İ’tibār explained the causes of economic problems and inflationary factors within the state with examples of past events and offered solutions to overcome these difficulties. This study focuses on the increases in food prices because of drought and famine and the causes of inflationary effects during the Mamlūk period in the light of these two sources of that time.
These two works differ from Mamlūk historiography in the Mamlūk period is the first of the issues to be mentioned here. It is interesting that the state did not take permanent measures to prevent the chronicled problems, except for giving temporary importance, even though the people were frequently exposed to epidemics, famines and socio-economic crises that had to be dealt with on a socioeconomic basis during their 267-year rule. In this respect, it was important that these two reformist historians determine the problems that arise within the state and deal with the implications for solutions. Note that both Maqrīzī and al-Asadī were bureaucrats in the administration of the state in terms of their knowledge of the subject. The fact that there is a time difference of half a century between the two works is remarkable in that these two works complement each other. Another important point that should be mentioned about the subject is that the historical method of Ibn Khaldun, who had a profound effect on the scientific lives of the Mamlūks, was continued by these two historians at a much higher level focusing on the problems of the Mamlūks. In this respect, the methodological approach of both authors to the problems is important for the comparison of these two works. The obvious point here is that although the determination of both authors has similar aspects in determining the social, political and economic problems experienced during the Mamlūks, they differed from each other in the inferences for solution proposals. We are of the opinion that period differences should not be ignored here. In this context, al-Maqrīzī attributed the physical causes of the inflationary effects that continued during the Mamlūk period to the monetary situation and its own implications whereas al-Asadī, who approached the subject much more analytically and pragmatically, showed a reformist approach to the problems in a much more comprehensive manner. It should not go unnoticed that al-Assadī was much more radical than his contemporaries in terms of solution proposals. The distinctive aspects of these two works, which were written in the style of a political treatise, are that a sample of events in the historical background are presented in the reporting of events, and examples of verses and hadiths are also provided to confirm the views put forward. To see that the drought, famine and economic problems in Egypt are not a first, al-Maqrīzī tried attracting the attention of the members of the top management by stating the crisis processes in the country from ancient Egyptian to the Circassian Mamlūks period, giving anecdotes about the measures taken by some of the administrators in this process against the problems. Using the same method in his work, al-Asadī presented examples from the history of the prophets, the history of ancient Egypt and Iran, and the period of the Bahri Mamlūks. The resulting drought and the food inflation followed, including the changing prices of basic consumption goods according to the periods are frequently discussed by al-Maqrīzī. Economic problems arising from natural causes are dealt with in more detail in the author’s work and food prices in critical periods are also covered in the relevant sections of the work. In contrast, al-Asadī, focused more on physical problems such as abuses, administrative weakness and the resulting social problems, international trade and neglected reforms. Even if similar issues were partially covered by al-Maqrīzī, the chapters devoted to the physical causes of the troubles by his contemporary are more detailed.
The only way to understand that whether these two outstanding studies focused on socioeconomic and administrative problems during the Mamlūks period left an impact on the members of the top management or not, is to question whether radical steps were taken to eliminate the identified problems or not. Although some sultans of the period took temporary measures in the times of crisis, the fact that such problems continued until the end of the Mamlūks, even if not completely ignored, cannot be said to have had much impact on the members of the senior management in terms of the execution of permanent reforms.
