Emergence of a New Dynastic Ideology in Near East After the Fall of the Ilkhanate: The Case of the Jalayirids
Ahmet KorkmazWith the death of Abū Sa‘īd Bahādur Khan in 1335 without an heir, powerful tribes under the centralised Ilkhanid state sought to assert control. Among them was the Mongolized Jalayir tribe, originally Turkic. During this period, the legitimacy of rulers was tied to descent from Chinggis Khan, making it essential for khans to belong to his lineage. Shaykh Hasan Jalayir, the amīr-i ulūs during Abū Sa‘īd's reign, attempted to preserve the Ilkhanid State by appointing puppet khans from the Chinggisid lineage. However, by 1340, he declared independence, though he could not claim the title of khan. From the reign of Shaykh Uways (1356–1374), Jalayirid rulers began using the khan title by emphasizing connections to Chinggis Khan through their wives. To establish their legitimacy, they employed propaganda through artists and historians, securing recognition as khans and maintaining dominance in the Near East for a century. This study examines the origins of the Jalayirid dynastic ideal, shaped by the propaganda of historical and literary authors, and its influence in subsequent periods. It also explores the recognition of Jalayirid rulers as legitimate khans. Given the scarcity of historical accounts from the post-Ilkhanid period, Timurid historiographical works that detail the Jalayirids were utilized. The focus is on the role of propaganda during the Jalayirid era and its outcomes.
İlhanlıların Yıkılışından Sonra Yakındoğu’da Yeni Hanedan Ülküsü: Celayırlılar Örneği
Ahmet KorkmazEbû Sa‘îd Bahadır Han’ın 1335 yılında erkek evlat bırakmadan vefatıyla birlikte, merkezî bir devlet bünyesi altında toplanan güçlü kabileler harekete geçtiler. Bu kabilelerden biri de aslen Türk olan Moğollaşmış Celayır kabilesiydi. Ancak bu dönemde Cengiz Han zamanında oluşan meşru hükümdar algısı hâlâ devam etmekteydi. Bundan dolayı han ünvanı kullanabilmek için Cengiz soylu olmak gerekmekteydi. Ebû Sa‘îd (h. 1317-1335) zamanında ulus emîri olarak görev yapan Celayırlı Şeyh Hasan, son İlhanlı hükümdarı Ebû Sa‘îd’in ölümünden 1340 yılına kadar İlhanlı Devleti’ni Cengiz soylu kukla hanlar vasıtasıyla ayakta tutmaya çalıştı. Ancak bunun devleti ayakta tutmaya yetmediğini anlayınca bağımsızlığını ilan etti. Buna rağmen han ünvanı kullanamadı. Celayırlı hükümdarları, Şeyh Üveys (h. 1356-1374) zamanından itibaren hatunlar vasıtasıyla Cengiz Han’a bağlanan soylarına dayanarak han ünvanı kullandılar. Meşru han olduklarını kabul ettirebilmek için de sanatkârlar ve tarihçiler aracılığıyla propaganda yürüttüler. Böylece bir asır boyunca Yakın Doğu’da hâkimiyet kurdular. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Celayırlı dönemi tarihî ve edebî metin yazarlarının propagandaları sayesinde oluşan yeni hanedan ülküsü ve sonraki süreçte bu propagandanın akisleri ile Celayırlı hükümdarlarının meşru han olarak telakki edilmelerinin kökenini ortaya koymaktır. Çalışmanın odak noktası, Celayırlı dönemine ait dört tarihî ve edebî metin yazarının propagandaları ile bunların sonuçlarıdır. Ayrıca İlhanlı sonrası süreçte tarih yazıcılığının bir süre sükûtu nedeniyle Celayırlılar hakkında bilgi veren Timurlu dönemi tarih yazıcılarının eserlerinden istifade edilmiştir.
The formation of the Mongol Empire in Central Asia brought many innovations. One of them was the source of the new dynastic ideology. After Chinggis laid the foundations of the Mongol Empire at the assembly in 1206, many scattered tribes in Central Asia rallied around Chinggis Khan. Thus, the tribal formations in Inner Asia melted into a centralised was to be a descendant of Chinggis. This was also the case for the Ilkhanate State. However, when the last Ilkhanate ruler Abū Sa‘īd Bahādur Khan died in 1335 without leaving a son, a khanate crisis emerged in the Near East. For about six years, the powerful tribes put their own ruler candidates on the throne. Later, Shaykh Hasan, a member of the Jalayirids, a Mongol tribe, saw that this situation did not prevent the chaos and dismissed the last ruler candidate Jahān Tīmūr and established his own state. However, to be recognised as a legitimate ruler, one had to be a descendant of Chinggis. Therefore, he used his descent from Chinggis Khan through his wives. In addition, he used a mixture of Chinggisid, Persian and Islamic symbolisms to justify his legitimacy. The Chinggis symbolism of Shaykh Hasan of Jalayir was that he was the amīr-i ulūs of the Ilkhanate, belonged to the Mongol tribe of Jalayir, and married the wife of the last Ilkhan Abū Sa‘īd. By marrying Dilshād Khātūn, Shaykh Hasan (r. 1340-1356), in a sense, confirmed his status as an Ilkhanate heir. However, despite all this, he could not use the title of khan until his death. His successor Shaykh Uways (r. 1356-1374) was called khan because he was the son of Dilshād Khātūn. In order to portray Shaykh Uvays as the legitimate khan, the patrons of the Jalayirid dynasty, who wrote historical and literary works during this period, stated in their works that this ruler's lineage goes back to Chinggis Khan. In addition, Shaykh Uways, like his father Shaykh Hasan, tried to use a mixture of Chinggis, Persian and Islamic symbolism. He was also successful in this. Writers and poets of the Shaykh Uways period propagandised the Jalayırid dynasty. In the Timurid period, it is seen from the accounts of Timurid historiographers that they were successful in this propaganda. The image of the Jalayirid dynasty had been state for a while. After Chinggis Khan, the prerequisite for using the title of “khan” in Central Asia and the Near East elaborated by the propagandists of the Shaykh Uvays period. By the XVth century, no one had any doubts about the legitimacy of the Jalayirids. As a matter of fact, the propaganda of the Jalayirid dynastic ideology was reflected in the works of Timurid historians. This is evidenced by the fact that Hāfiz-ı Abrū, who wrote his work in the first quarter of the XVth century, and later Timurid historians narrated the ascension of the Jalayırid ruler Shaykh Uways with a poem by Salmān Sāvajī. This record of Timurid historians shows that Shaykh Uways was recognised as the legitimate khan. After Shaykh Uways, his son Sultan Husayn (r. 1374-1382), who succeeded to the throne, also used the title of khan on the coins minted during his reign. During the reign of Sultan Ahmed (r. 1382-1411), who ruled after Sultan Husayn, the title of khan was also used on coins. In addition, the reign of Sultan Ahmed was a period when the image of the Jalayirid dynasty was fully established. Especially in the eyes of the Mamlūk Empire, Sultan Ahmed represented the Jalayırid dynastic charisma. In fact, the Jalayirid ruler who fled from Timur and took refuge in the Mamlūks was welcomed with respect by the Mamlūk Sultan Berkuk. During the reign of Sultan Ahmed, the image of the Jalayirid dynasty reached the highest level. So much so that in order to be considered a legitimate ruler in Azerbaijan, it was now necessary to be descended from the lineage of Shaykh Uways, more generally from the Jalayirid lineage. The Qarā-Quyūnlū, who became an influential power in the Near East in the XVth century, needed Sultan Ahmed’s charisma to use the title of khan, just as the Jalayirids needed the Ilkhanate origin. When Sultan Ahmed fled from Amir Timur and took refuge with the Mamlūks, Qarā Yūsuf, who had been imprisoned with him in Damascus, had a son, Pir Budaq, whom Sultan Ahmed adopted as his son. Based on this connection, Qarā Yūsuf declared Sultan Ahmed’s adopted son Pir Budaq Khan. Qarā Yūsuf could not use the title of khan even after the death of his son Pir Budaq Khan. He only used the title of Noyan on the coins. Likewise, the AqQoyunluids were able to use the title of khan based on their descent from Oghuz Khan since Uzun Hasan. Thus, by the time of the Aq-Qoyunluids, the Mongol super-identity was replaced by the Oghuz super-identity
