Abdulsattar

Assist. Prof.

The Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir is one of the distinguished Arab figures in Arab-Islamic history. Abd ar-Rahman assumed power in 300 AH (October 912 A.D.) and ruled for more than fifty years. During his long reign, he made changes in the state administration system and carried out administrative and military reforms. ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir attracted the attention of writers and authors worldwide because of his unique and interesting qualities. They composed books, stories, novels, and plays in various languages such as Arabic, Turkish, and Spanish. In this article, we compare the character of ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir in the play Tezer or Malik Abd ar-Raḥmān III by ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid and in the novel ‘Abd ar-Rahmân al-Nasir by Georgy Zeidan because those two writers are the first to deal with this historical character in the Arab and Turkish literature in detail and because they differed in the embodiment of this character. This comparison aims to clarify the differences in the embodiment of this character between the two writers, who belong to different genres of literature and different religions, and to explain the reasons behind that.It is noticeable that the two writers, who belong to different genres of literature, have in common the fact that they dealt with a historical figure mentioned by historical sources, provided detailed information about him, and indicated his characteristics. However, both writers preferred to deal with this character through a fictional story that was not mentioned in the history books.It is noticeable that ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid did not focus on giving much historical information about the era of ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir. History was not the center of his attention, but the character of ‘Abd ar-Rahmân al-Nasir was, and there is no other historical figure in the play&nbsp;other than ‘Abd ar-Rahmân. As for Georgy Zeidan, he filled the novel with encyclopedic historical information, numbers, and measurements and described places and palaces in detail. He also embodied well-known historical figures in the era of ‘Abd ar-Rahmân al-Nasir and spoke about the ambassadors of the kings of Europe who visited Cordoba.It is noticeable that the character of ‘Abd ar-Rahmân al-Nasir in the play Tezer or Malik Abd ar-Raḥmān III seemed clearly defined because he is the hero of the play and influencer of the rest of the characters. This character was the focus of the writer’s attention and seemed generally positive in the play. As for ‘Abd ar-Rahmân al-Nasir by Georgy Zeidan, there were many strong and influential characters in the novel, and ‘Abd ar-Rahmân III al-Nasir’s character seemed faint, marginal, and weak compared with others. The fictional character of the spy Saeed was the main character in the novel.We find that the two writers differed in portraying ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s view of the people and his relationship with them. ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid illustrated the mutual respect between Abd al-Rahman and the people by showing that Abd ar-Rahman worked to serve his people throughout his caliphate and spent his time in the service of the people. He sacrificed his happiness for them. Zeidan portrayed ‘Abd ar-Rahman as a ruler isolated from the people in his palaces, a ruler who enjoys the wealth and money of the people, controls the people’s lives, and monopolizes the funds for himself.There is another matter related to the character of ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir in the two works under study, which is the presence of an imagined character close to the character of ‘Abd ar-Rahman, represented by Tezer in ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid’s play and by Saeed in Zeidan’s novel. It is noticeable that ‘Abd ar-Rahmân’s character was under the influence of those two characters, but Tezer’s influence remains limited compared to Saeed’s.The difference in the character of ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir in the two works under study results from the goal and purpose that the writers seek to achieve by using this historical character. The Turkish writer ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid wanted to present a model for the ideal ruler who puts the interests of the people ahead of his own and the people’s happiness over his own. Therefore, he presented ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir as an ideal ruler free of defects and possessing all the good qualities that a ruler should possess. Zeidan’s goal of using this character is to present it to the reader as he saw it with all its flaws, and perhaps he wanted to marginalize and belittle it, as some critics say. Zeidan created fictional characters who play heroic roles, overshadowing the historical characters, who appear weak and marginal. Zeidan is very sympathetic to the fictional characters he creates at the expense of historical figures whom he was not interested in and did not treat with fairness.The two writers differed in the embodiment of this character. Each of them used it according to his beliefs and ideas. ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid tends to idealism in his presentation, whereas Georgy Zeidan tends to negativity.Finally, it is difficult to say that Zeidan was influenced by ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid, but ʿAbdūlḥaqq Ḥāmid was the first to deal with and the most interested in this character, so he revealed its secrets and highlighted it clearly.&nbsp;

The Caliph Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir in Arabic and Turkish  Literature: A comparative study between ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid and  Georgy Zeidan

Ahmet

This paper considers what was said among scholars past and present about poetry concerning the issue of the creation of the Qur’an, which was the polestar of the Mu’tazila theological sect, first among the sects that embraced this theological concept. The concept achieved predominance among them when they became powerfully close to the ruling authorities. They convinced the three caliphs, Al-Ma’mun, Al-Muʽtasim, and al-Wathiq, to embrace it and defend it and to persecute those who refuse to embrace and defend it. Debates have been held, the aim of which is to respond to the second position, particularly to that thought as it developed under intimidation through torture and murder. The Muʽtazilite Ahmad bin Abi Duad played the primary role in this state-sponsored persecution, and it continued for fifteen years between 218-232 AH. The persecution finally ended when Al-Mutawakkil assumed the caliphate.If the books of the Muʽtazila scholars mentioned the names of poets because of what happened in their poetry, that is, when it indicated their embrace of Muʽtazila dogma, or because they praised the leaders of the Muʽtazilites, especially Ahmed bin Abi Duad, some of them nonetheless cannot be counted among them.For the Muʽtazilites required belief in all five principles, It is not permissible to to share only one or more principles with the Muʽtazilite. Therefore, one cannot say that Abu Tammam was one of the Muʽtazilites, even if he praised Ibn Abi Duad in thirteen places in his poetry. His praises were often an effort to receive a reward, and the judge Ahmad bin Abi Duad’s doctrine was only mentioned once.Likewise, Daʽbil’s poems do not indicate that he espoused Muʽtazila beliefs, while Ibn Al-Murtada mentioned some evidence to prove his praise of Ahl al-Bayt without saying he was a Muʽtazila or not. If the Shiite regions tended toward Muʽtazila generally, this does not mean that they were identical. Daʽbil satirized Ibn Abi Duad, as well as the three caliphs in charge of the ordeal, but his poems do not proceed from a contradiction of the thought of the Muʽtazila or endorse belief in the creation of the Qur’an,. Rather his poetry is interpreted through its Shiiteness or by its nature, concentrating on the original satire. Da’bil was not particularly sincere in his Shi’ism. In the same manner that he preferred money over the suit that Ali al-Rida gave him, he also opposed the Shiite poem by al-Kumayt in the Qahtanites of his people. Further, he also satirizeed Adnanis, the people of al-Kumayt.As for the most prominent Mu’tazila poets who mentioned the creation of the Qur’an, between Al-Saheb Ibn Abbad and the poet Al-Jamal, Saheb has the priority; He was not motivated by the thought of the Mu’tazilites and now did he claim that the Qur’an was created in praise of the Mu’tazilites to compete for their gifts. Rather, he was himself from the elite of society and a minister with authority. He had councils that included scholars and writers. Al-Saheb himself lavished gifts on the poets. Al-Saheb was a Shiite and Muʽtazilite at the same time. We find in his poetry many manifestations of both his Shiite and Muʽtazili beliefs. In the line of poetry that contradicts the belief in the creation of the Qur’an, Ali ibn al-Jahm and al-Buhturi were the most prominent poets during the time of adversity. Ali’s poetry is superior to the poetry of al-Buhturi. Ali’s poetry springs from his sincere belief in this issue, and he often dealt with supporting the Sunnah and eliminating adversity in his praises of Al-Mutawakkil. Even if he were not sincere in this poetry, he found other ways to praise the caliph sincerely. Ali also wrote poems praising al-Wathiq and al-Muʽtasim, but he did not discuss what they might have said about the creation of the Qur’an, and he did not praise them for that. As soon as Al-Mutawakkil assumed the caliphate, he saw hope for the religion’s victory.The research also declined to consider certain religious texts that organized the belief, and they are many. These texts do not adhere to the Rajaz meter, but we find many other seas; such as the long sea, the simple, the complete, the abundant, and others. We see this school of poetry as a single place for talking about the creation of the Qur’an. One of the most famous and longest was the poem “The Healing Sufficient” by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziah. This poem reached 5842 verses in the Kamil meter. The poet spoke in more than four hundred poetic verses about the issue of the creation of the Qurʼan among different sects, disproving the suspicions of its naysayers and defending the belief of the Sunnites. This poem deserves an independent consideration in its own research.At the conclusion of the research, we drew attention to the possibility of expanding the study of the poetry related to the issue of the creation of the Qur’an. The issue has been studied in both the past and present in intellectual and doctrinal prose studies, but it has not singled out – so far as we know - the poetry that surrounds it. The research can and should also be expanded to include the Ash’ari systems and others. There is no doubt also that there are many poems that recited in praise of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, one of the most prominent of those persecuted in the ordeal, denying the belief that the Qur’an was created. It is also possible to search and study these poems.&nbsp;

Poetry on the Issue of Creating the Holy Qur’an

Dalia

Lecturer

Some foundations and principles influence a foreign student’s communication, speaking, and listening in the language he is learning, and these foundations and principles are a challenge for the student to overcome in the learning process, as well as a challenge for the teacher to help the student become familiar with them and use appropriate methods to confront them. The point is to show some of these details about listening and what makes listening difficult. It is also to provide a practical understanding so that the teacher can recognize what students are going through when they learn Arabic as a foreign language, which in itself can be a frustrating emotionally, and mentally exhausting experience. Some speakers speak very quickly, some speak with very difficult accents, some use unfamiliar words, and some use unclear gestures.&nbsp;I. Problem statement A sense of the current research problem appeared through 1- The personal experience of the researcher, who started in the field of teaching Arabic to non-native speakers of Arabic in 2005. Throughout her educational career, the researcher observed that learners struggle with understanding listening while progressing in other language skills; this indicates the existence of a problem that warrants research and study. 2- Examining a set of studies and research that dealt with teaching Arabic to non-Arab students, many studies and research have confirmed the existence of a real problem for students in understanding listening. 3- Oral exams and interviews were conducted by the researcher with a large number of students of different nationalities and ages in the oral exams. 4- Personal interviews were conducted by the researcher with several teachers and experts in the field of teaching Arabic as a foreign language during various conferences and seminars.II. Identify the problem (Approach) The research problem is determined by the difficulties encountered by students and teachers in developing their listening skills in Arabic language classes for non-native speakers, as well as the lack of use of modern strategies in developing their listening skills, which necessitates modern solutions, means, and techniques; closer to reality and within everyone’s reach to develop the skill of listening and comprehension of listening. To address this problem, the research attempts to answer the following main question: What are the challenges faced by the teacher and the student in the classroom in understanding listening and developing this skill, and how to overcome it? The following questions are derived from this main question: 1. What challenges does the student face in understanding listening? 2. What challenges does the teacher face in teaching listening? 3. What makes listening easy for a student? 4. What makes teaching listening easy for a teacher? 5. What is the listening class like?III. Research aims The current research aims to: 1- Outlining the difficulties encountered by both the teacher and the student in developing the skill of listening and understanding listening in the context of teaching Arabic to non-native speakers in the classroom. 2- Ways to overcome these challenges for the teacher and the student in the non-native Arabic language teaching class.&nbsp;IV. Importance of research This study benefits the field of teaching Arabic to non-native speakers; it assists teachers in overcoming problems with teaching listening and provides strategies to help them improve their performance. Students benefit from the suggested strategies as well; it helps them develop self-confidence, comprehension, and listening skills, as well as guidance and counseling skills, good follow-up, and objectivity.V. Terms 1- Listening is “a process in which the listener perceives auditory stimuli produced by the speaker or a recorded audio track and attempts to interpret the meaning of the presented speech.”2- Listening comprehension is “the process of understanding discourse presented in first and second languages.”3- Strategy is “a specific method, tactic, or procedure that language users use to deal with potential problems.” Strategy is also often defined as a conscious, goal-driven attempt to facilitate a learning task.4- Listening strategies are “a conscious plan for dealing with incoming speech especially when the listener knows they must compensate for incomplete input or partial understanding.”

Challenges That Students Face in Developing and Overcoming  Listening Skill (In Teaching Arabic to Non-Native Speakers)

Emine

Res. Assist.

Dr. Najib al-Kîlânî was born on July 1, 1931, in Garbiyye, Egypt. He is the first child of a farmer. He has two brothers and two sisters. His family had a great influence on his personality development and placed a high value on his education. He obtained his religious education at the community school. He memorized several verses from the Qur’an and the hadith-i sharifs. Furthermore, he studied in a modern school and was a bright student who enjoyed reading and writing. He began studying literature at an early age, completed his high school education at Tanta in 1950. He enrolled in Cairo University Faculty of Medicine in 1951; however, he was imprisoned in 1954 for joining the society called al-Ihvânu’l-Muslimîn. After being released from prison in 1960, he completed his medical education. He is a religious person and this feature is reflected in his works. He died in March 1995. In his works, he emphasizes social events through realistic depictions. He drew inspiration from people around him to develop the characters in his works. Since he wrote his works for society, he was concerned about using a general language and style that people could understand. He wrote historical, political, psychological, social, and autobiographical novels. He also wrote short stories, poetry, theater, medical, biographical and autobiographical works. Dr. Najib al-Kîlâni is one of the pioneers of Islamic literature. He married Mrs. Kerime in 1960, and they gave birth to three sons and a daughter. He had a happy marriage and wrote two autobiographical works named Lemehat min Hayâtî and Muzekkirâtu’d-duktûr, where he talked about his life in detail.The story Yawm al-Ferah/The Day of Wedding is in Dr. Najib al-Kîlâni storybook “İnde’r-Rahîl.” In this story, the wedding day of a young man named Hassan is depicted. The economic situation of Hassan’s family was terrible. His father, Hindâwî, is a shoe shiner. Hindâwî’s desire is for his son to achieve success and live a good life. Hassan and his fiancée (from the Faculty of Literature) love each other and desired to get married. However, the girl’s father is concerned about her socio-economic status. Hence, Hassan wished his family was rich and noble. This situation started disturbing his sleep. He was tired of thinking, so he decided to lie to his fiancee’s family that his parents had died a long time ago. He told his mother about the plan, which did not please her, but she accepted and assured him that his father would not cause any trouble. As a result, Hassan breathed a sigh of relief. Although his parents were sad about the situation, they remained silent. However, on the wedding day, His father couldn’t help himself and wanted to see his son’s joyful day because he had been dreaming of his son’s wedding day since he was a child. He was hiding near the wedding house. As the bride and groom left the house, he could not stand it, so he walked toward them. The guests mistook him for a beggar. He ignored their gazes, all he saw and was concerned about was his son’s happiness. The plot of the story is briefed as follows.The story has numerous psychological descriptions, which are made simple by editing. However, the story is not simple, it conveys main points, such as socio-economic status does not make individuals superior to one another, parents’ sensitivity to their children, and people should not degrade one another. The third singular narrator is used in the story. The story is dominated by the divine and spectator’s point of view. There are three main characters in the story, namely, Hassan, Hindâwî, and Hassan’s mother. In the story, the event is started in the middle of the story and there is no definite time. The story is depicted indoors and outdoors. It continued on the street as an open space and at home as an indoor space. The language of the story is simple and understandable. The dominant style in the story is dramatic, metaphorical, and analytical. Various narrative techniques are used in the story. These are the narrationshowing, depiction, summarization, flashback, dialog, inner analysis, inner monolog, and stream of consciousness technique. These techniques are explained in detail in the article and are depicted where they are used in the story. In addition, despite the volume of stories, it also contains various literary arts. These arts are simile, tenâsub, tıbâk, allegory, metaphor, kasr, itnâb, and istifhâmü’t-tahkîr.&nbsp;

An Attempt to Analysis on Najib al-Kîlânî’s Story “Yawm alFerah/The Day of Wedding"

Hüseyin

Prof.

İhsan Adli Serter (1880–1956) is a relatively unknown poet, despite publishing several newspaper articles and a three-volume divan. Specifically, he was a former member of the Committee of Union and Progress who joined the Freedom and Accord Party, and was especially disturbed by the administrative staff of the committee. Serter has always distanced himself from the poem “Hân-i Yağma” (House of Plunder) by Tevfik Fikret (1867–1915), which harshly criticized the state, especially the malicious and unfair management of the Committee of Union and Progress. Despite living 45 years in Egypt, Serter still witnessed the practices of the committee during his time spent in Turkey and was uncomfortable with their policymaking. However, unlike Fikret, Serter was prosecuted by the committee from the beginning of his career. Despite engaging in politics, the committee did not acknowledge this right to him, and he was eventually subjected to punishment, harassment, and exile. Thus, based on his book Şiirlerim, this study examines the struggles of this clever, quick-witted, and scholarly individual, his connection with the Committee of Union and Progress, and how he distanced himself from the critical poem “Hân-i Yağma,” which expressed the following:Poor country gives whatever it has; its possessions, existence, life, hope, and dreams. All its comfort, all its honey of affection. Devour it all, disregard haram or halal.Serter, despite distancing himself from Fikret’s disparaging poem, being highly critical of the state, and being subject to harassment and ultimately exile, he still managed to find hope through his own poems. However, being under such intense pressure took a toll on his emotions and psyche. Eventually, Serter, who attached great importance to liberty and equality, wrote the following:“Liberty, equality, fraternity,” they said. Once upon a time, I believed in these words! They intoxicate the youth with dreams. Don’t fall for these nice words, you, the youth.Overall, this study examines the reflections of an important but relatively unknown political and literary figure who lived during the Union and Progress era in Turkey. The portrait drawn here reveals a man who did not deviate from his belief of what was right, despite the continued warnings from those around him, including his wife. It is hoped that a detailed study of his life and struggles will shed light on his important role in Turkish politics and society.&nbsp;

An Opponent of the Turkish State Who Distanced Himself from the  Critical Poem “Hân-ı Yağma”: An Examination of Ihsan Adli Serter

Kubilay

The Mongol Empire has an exceptional place in history as a nomadic empire in terms of not only interms of its territorial expansion but also the administrative, military, cultural, and commercial innovations it brought about. This exceptionality is further visible in the historical sources concerning the Mongol Empire. In addition to possessing the largest volume of primary sources related to their history among nomadic empires, the sources on the Mongol Empire and the Mongols are by far the most varied in terms of the languages that they were written in. Specifically, Islamic sources on the Mongols have been extensively studied and translated in Turkey. Further, Armenian sources have also been studied and translated, in addition to Latin sources studied and translated into Turkish via western languages. In contrast, the sources on Mongol history in East Asia―where the Mongol Empire was born and which also its administrative, economic, and political center―have been understudied and have not been translated, except for the Secret History. This is because the languages used in these sources are difficult to decode even for a native Chinese scholar. Compared to Chinese sources on the Turkic peoples—almost all of which were first translated to western languages and then via western languages (and at times the original) into Turkish—the sources related to the Mongols are different. In addition to the difficulty of understanding Mongol names and words&nbsp;transcribed via Chinese characters, it is also difficult to decipher unedited Chinese sentences that were recorded by scribes mot-a-mot without changing the syntax or being edited by a Mongol, Turkic, Tangut, Juchen, Khitan or a Persian speaker. Therefore, even Yuanshi, the main source on Mongol history in Chinese with 210 chapters, was translated only in Mongolia after gaining its independence. The translations into other languages have so far been only comprised of chapters. However, in Turkey, studies on the Mongol Empire have been based on western sources, and sources written during the peak of the empire have been omitted to a great extent. Therefore, it would be beneficial to briefly introduce these sources. The sources that are most relevant are the official histories of dynasties. Beginning from the Han dynasty onward, the proto-Mongolic, Mongolic, and para-Mongolic begin to appear. Because the objective of this article is not to determine who is Mongolic and who is not, only the groups that are generally accepted as Mongolic will be considered. Therefore, the Khitans and Kumoxi, who are considered para-Mongolic are also included, but the Xiongnu, whose origin is still contested, are not included as Mongolic. The main sources that are considered in this article are the relevant chapters of Beiqishu (北齊書), Zhoushu (周書), Beishi (北史), Suishu (隋書), Jiu Tangshu (舊唐書), Xin Tangshu (新唐書), Zizhi Tongjian (資治通鑒), and Tongdian (通典).While this study may not be necessary for those who are already acquainted with Chinese sources, this article will act as a guide to students who wish to take up Mongol history as a graduate endeavor and specialists in other areas such as Turkic history. Other than Mongol history, this article will also contribute to the development of Mongolistics as a distinct discipline from Turcology.&nbsp;

Chinese Sources on Early Mongol History

Mahmut

Poetry, which has yet to complete its evolution in the age of Jahiliyya, has become a tool that enables Arabic society to adhere to its values. Through poetry, Arabians’ have preserved their glory, saved the heads they obtained in the past from being lost, and preserved their various knowledge, customs, and traditions. Poetry is seen as a source of pride and has been encouraged by each period’s poetry administrators, literary assemblies, and various competitions to ensure that poetry remain in high regard in all periods. Poems have morphed into different types and shapes over time, as they have gathered raw material from society. Poetry has a great place and importance in Arabic literature. The poems, which provide various information about the period in which they were prosecuted, have been shaped according to the society from which they came.Arabic literature is generally discussed under five headings. The first is the Jahiliyya period which covers the period until the appearance of the Prophet (610). In this period, the first foundations of poetry, such as ramal, rajaz, and qasîd, were established, and Arabic literature’s unique odes, such as mu‘allakas, were written. Remels are poems that are beautiful in terms of meaning but are mismatched couplets in terms of meter. They are not a type of genre but are faulty poems. Rajazs are poems that the Arabic people of Jahiliyya sang while performing quotidian tasks in bazaars or to compel a camel to action and direct its movements. The first examples of rajazs were criticized and not considered high art. In the following periods, they gradually evolved and were written in a long form, like odes, and began to be known as urjûza. Qasîds are the product of labor verses or poems composed of two lines each, the last lines of which rhyme. An ode is defined as a type of poetry that contains more than fifteen couplets, which the poet revises and corrects after speaking aloud and with a certain emphasis.&nbsp;The second period is the Islamic period, which covers the time from 610 until the collapse of the Umayyad state in 750. The Islamic period is divided into two periods: the Sadru’l-Islam (610–661) and the Umayyad (661–750). There were no newly invented poetry genres during this period.The third period is the Abbasid period, which lasted from 750 to 1258. During this period, many political and social changes and developments occurred, and this is reflected in literary activities. Caliphs, state dignitaries, and literary assemblies encouraged poetry as a means of gain. Freedom of speech and thought enabled poetry to attain a different identity and experience its peak. Arabic peoples cohabitated with others of different nationalities more than they had ever before and marriages with non-Arabic peoples occurred. Coexistence between Arabs, Persians, Turks, Greeks, Negroes, and other minorities sometimes symbolized unity and sometimes brought differences. Although most of the non-Arabic nationals chose to become Islamized, they did not easily abandon their native cultures. These cultural differences also showed themselves acutely in the field of poetry. New verse types, such as al-Silsile, al-Dûbeyt, al-Kûmâ, al-Kâne and Kâne, and el-Mavâliyâ, were created. Al-Silsila is a rare type of poetry and was invented by the Baghdadians during the Abbasid period, but there is no information regarding when it was first pronounced. Sources show that poems versed in the al-Silsila style were written especially to express sad feelings. Al-Dûbeyt is a type of poetry consisting of two couplets or four lines. The first examples were created by Persians and this genre passed from Persian literature to Arabic literature. The feature that distinguishes this genre from other genres is not the subject, but the form which is based on a double rhyme scheme. Al-Kûmâ are poems were invented by Baghdadians and were written to raise the population to sahur during the month of Ramadan. In this genre, grammatical rules are not adhered to; it is mostly written in the local language and it is quite common. Al-Kâne and Kâne are also a new type of verse invented by the people of Baghdad. Although the exact date is unknown, it is rumored that in earlier periods, the words “al-Kâne and Kâne,” which mean “was and once upon a time,” were used in this genre, whose purpose was to tell stories and relay superstitions, hence the name.The fourth period is the ‘Asru’d-Duveli’l-Mutetabi‘a, called the Decline period (el-‘Asru’l-Inhitât), which according to some sources, spans the years of 1258–1798. Although no new of verse forms were introduced in the Inhitat period, it is one of the richest periods of poetry in terms of subject matter.The fifth period is the modern period, which began with Napoleon’s French campaign in Egypt (1798), and has been accepted as the beginning of modernization in the Arab world and includes the present day. Modern schools were established in Arabic countries, educators from European countries were introduced to the Arabic world, and scholarship students from Arabic countries were sent to study in Europe. This scholastic, exchange relationship between Eastern and Western nations led to the emergence of different types of poetry, such as al-Şi‘ru’l-Hurr and Qasîdetu’n-Nesr (prose poetry) in the modern era. Al-Şi‘ru’l-Hurr is a type of poetry in which single line lengths are not fixed, and the number of tef’île can change from line to&nbsp;line, depending on which arûd string is being versed. Kasîdetu’n-nesr is a verse style whose intention is poetic but is written in prose where meter is not required.When Arabic literature periods are examined, it is evident that Andalusia is not included in any period. However, Andalusia’s location, natural beauty, and service as a host to many nations, enabled the invention of new verse genres in Andalusian poetry, such as al-Muwashshah and az-Zajal. Muwashshah can be defined as, “... new special type of poetry in which the nature and social structure of Andalusia is led by the nature and social structure of Andalusia, some of them are versed according to arûd meters, while some of them do not comply with arûd meters.” Zajal is a type of poetry that was first versed in the local language in Andalusia, is reminiscent of Muwashshah in its rhyme and verse style, and borrows most of its words from local dialects and Barbarî language.Rajaz- and qasîd-type poems, which can be considered as two of several nuclei of Arabic poetry, developed in parallel with society and over time became known as urjûza and qasîde, respectively; they have preserved their validity from the first periods until today. These verse types, which were written with different meters, such as al-Silsile, ad-Dûbeyt, al-Kûmâ, al-Kâne and Kâne, which were invented during the Abbasid period, have remained as types of poetry specific to certain periods, even though they found representatives in the later periods. However, the al-Mavâliyâ genre, which was written with a basît meter, has managed to remain to this day as a song genre, even though it has undergone partial changes. This success may be due to the spring used in this type of poetry and the themes in which mostly stunned emotions are divulged. It can be said that al-Muwashshah- and az-Zajal-type poems ruled like the Muslims who remained in the Iberian peninsula during the Islamic rule (in other words, in Andalusia), and then became a source of inspiration for different nations and assimilated over time but remained, like a memory. Nothing about the permanence or continuity of the genres al-Şi‘ru’l-Hurr and Qasîdetu’n-Nesr, which are the products of the modern period, can be declared. However, it is a fact that should be established that both types of poetry experienced their peak before the 2000s. When we look at the different verse forms used in Arabic literature from the age of Jahiliyya to the modern period, it would not be wrong to say that urjûze and qasîde form the backbone of Arabic poetry, while other genres remain specific to a certain period or community. Although there are a few exceptions, there are many similarities in terms of theme and form across all genres. The best method to be employed when distinguishing these poetic types from each other is to regard the meter and rhyme form used in the poems.&nbsp;

Poem Types Used in Arabic Literature from the Beginning to the  Present

Nurullah

We first envision the objects we see in the world; next, we symbolize and describe them in such a way that each word relates to a specific object. Therefore, every word has been placed to depict an object that we see in nature in the first place. Thus, words have not come into existence haphazardly.However, words are used beyond their literal meaning at times. The term “trope” refers to the use of words outside of their meaning because of a relationship between them. It is possible to use words in their true sense, and their use with the necessary/connotative meaning associated with the true meaning is expressed as kinaya. Because the use of words beyond these three contexts does not imply any meaning, it is regarded as ghalat/meaningless.Rhetoric has an important place in all world languages. So, there is Rhetoric in all of languages of the world. Truth and metaphor are inseparable two parts of a sentence. The word use in the dictionary meaning is called truth.The only way to distinguish words as “truth” and “trope” is using the words in a sentence. In other words, a word that is not used in a sentence, usually evokes its real meaning. If the word has used by a speaker or author, it must mean that means the people can understand. the art of the saying that the public does not understand does not add beauty to the expression. Then the word chosen in the metaphor should be familiar to the audience to whom we are addressing.&nbsp;When we ask someone for something, if what we ask is easily understood and our request is granted, the word has been used in a literal sense. For example, when we say to our interlocutor, “الكرسي أعطني give the chair to me,” the word “chair” in this sentence refers to the chair itself.Therefore, because the word al-kursî الكرسي refers to the chair, al-kursi is called the indicator/ al-daall, the chair signifies the chair tool. It is termed as indicated/madlool, which means what is shown in this context is the truth.If linguists use the term “truth,” it is called “linguistic truth,” Sharia (Allah and the Prophet) puts the word as “shari’a truth,” and in the realm of art, it is called “conventional truth.” However, if the utterer of words is unknown, it is known only as truth. Accordingly, when we use the word “lion أسد “for the predator we know, it becomes linguistic truth. When we use the&nbsp;“Salat صالة “during prayer activities, it becomes shari’a truth. However, in the study of Arabic grammar, when the word “fi’l فعل “,which means verb, is used to express action and time, it becomes “special customary truth,” and when the word “dabba دابة “,which means moving, is used for all four-legged animals, it becomes “general customary truth.”Therefore, if the word is used in one of the above expression styles, it is called truth, if not, it is called metaphor. For example, the use of the word “lion” in language, referring to a predatory animal, is the truth. Salat/pray word in the religious language is the truth. The word “f’il,” meaning “verb” in Arabic grammar, denotes the truth. However, the use of the same words beyond these meanings is metaphorical.The speaker depends on a number of rules such as fluency and eloquence when choosing the words he will use. He should also know the relationship between “indicators”. If the speaker knows his “knowledge of rhetoric” he does not choose the wrong word. Therefore, he knows that using the word with the first meaning that comes to mind is truth, and using it out of context is a metaphor.Abdulkahir did not keep the metaphor issue limited to a definition but rather tried proving his claims in the field of practice. He has analyzed the relationship between the original and secondary meaning (the new meaning of the word after its metaphorical use) and has emphasized that the mandatory “relevance”/relationship between words and meanings should be looked into. He believes in linguistic truth because the realities depend on the states, appearances, temperament, and behavior of beings; that is, the word “hand” and the element that comes from the hand—that is, the blessing—will be achieved.Thus, the relationship between the “hand,” which is the organ, and the “blessing,” which comes from the hand, will arise spontaneously. Therefore, the first “hand” is “truth” in the sense of organ, according to its relevance. The second “hand”—that is, meaning blessing, is a metaphor. Thus, the above consideration should be considered in every metaphorical use.&nbsp;Accordingly, the connection/interest between the original and secondary meaning that it acquires should be consistent and logical and not random.However, to gain a better understanding, what is a metaphor? A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable, with a “qareena mani’a” indicating that the original meaning is not meant. If there is a similarity between two meanings, it causes the speakers and writers to use words other than the real meaning. Thus, we can state that it is the reason for using metaphors.Nevertheless, when a word goes beyond the limits of its meaning due to “physical proximity,” it is called “Metonymy.” If one word is used interchangeably with the assertion that the words used interchangeably are the same, this art that goes beyond similarity is called “istiara/ metaphor”.There are none of these in the term “trope.” The word used in its original meaning has a hidden meaning that it is used for in these sentences. However, the motivation that prompts&nbsp;the speaker to use the word in this composition is the secret meaning they hide behind the “truth meaning”—the sentence that was written for it to serve as a cover that conceals the secret purpose.Majaz is an Arabic metaphor, which is a type of speech that speakers and writers use frequently in daily conversation and writing that decorates their speech, and it affects the listeners.&nbsp;

Truth and Tralatition in Terms of the Relationship Between Word  and Meaning

Omar Adeeb

Since its invention, writing has gone through stages of development until it generally arrives at the common practice of assigning one symbol to one sound. The journey of writing began by simulating what is in nature based on drawing pictures of visible objects, “the image stage,” and this is the oldest kind of visual expression of audible speech. At a later stage, it developed into the so-called “symbolic image stage,” when humans used images of a tangible object to convey an abstract meaning, such as drawing a man carrying a weapon to denote an enemy. Then followed the “syllabic stage,” in which a symbol indicates a single syllable instead of a whole word, as in using the “enemy” image to indicate the “e” letter and the ship to indicate the “s”. Then came the “alphabetic stage,” which is considered the most developed stage. It was a long journey until humans were able to free themselves from written systems that require knowledge of hundreds of images as well as the words of the language, to now use a simpler system consisting of a limited number of symbols, each representing a specific phonemic unit.Written Arabic’s representation of phonetic symbols is mostly limited to consonants. Ancient Arabs used the «و «and the «ي «symbols to express the sounds of the long vowels in addition to their work as half vowels. The «ا «symbol was only for expressing a long vowel, and they used other symbols for the “hamza” sound, which are,”ئ«.“ؤ «and,”أ «At a later stage, Arab linguists would develop written representations for short vowel sounds, but they remained without steady representation for a long time except in limited, specific cases.Although some linguists have considered the absence of the vowels’ written representation to be a deficit, another group has justified this absence and noted that it is not limited to Arabic writing alone, but includes Semitic writing systems in general, as Semitic languages show a clear bias toward consonants and lean on them more than vowels. Therefore, Semites have usually contented themselves with just representing consonants. Others have even defended this non-representation and attributed it to the morphological and grammatical system features in Semitic languages. Still others attribute this absence to economical motives, as they see that the first author corresponded with the linguistic characteristics and reduced the effort expended.However, another group of modern Arab linguists considers the absence of the vowels’ written representation to be a weakness. They believe that ancient Arab linguists were influenced by the written form of the language, neglected the spoken one, and believed that language is contained in the written symbols of letters, words, and sentences. As a result of that belief, they relied on the written form as a basis for research in their linguistic studies which led to a lack of clarity in their linguistic rules and judgments. Current linguists believe this contradicts what has been confirmed by modern linguistic studies: the spoken language, not the written one, is the real material being analyzed in linguistic studies. They argue that the rules and provisions that are developed from the written language do not represent the linguistic reality. Therefore, they have called for adopting the spoken language alone as the basis for research and study so that the results are scientific and in harmony with the linguistic reality.This study aims to show the impact that the written language had on the views of ancient Arabic scholars and their oversights in their linguistic rules and judgments from a current point of view by analyzing examples of what the predecessors left us of linguistic sources and texts at different linguistic levels.&nbsp;

The Representation of Diacritics in the Arabic Writing System  and Ancient Arabic Scholars’ Determination of Linguistic Rules

Ömer

Assoc. Prof.

Maḥmūd Bayram al-Tūnīsī was born on March 23, 1893 in Alexandria, Egypt. His ancestor Bayram, who was of Turkic origin, served in the army commanded by Koca Sinān Pasha (981/1574) that captured the Khalḳ al-Wādī castle in the east of Tunis from its Spanish occupiers. This ancestor of Bayram would later settle in Tunisia. Muṣṭafā al-Tūnīsī, Maḥmūd Bayram’s grandfather, left Tunisia to perform his pilgrimage in the first half of the 19th century. When passing through Alexandria on his return, he chose to remain there on a permanent basis. After his primary education, Maḥmūd Bayram only undertook formal education irregularly because his father had passed away, leaving him to undertake certain responsibilities. Nonetheless, Bayram attended classes at local madrasas, during which time he received some unofficial religious education, negotiated various issues with the students there, and borrowed books from the madrasa libraries. He particularly loved to read poems of the zadjal type by folk writers such as ʻUthmān Djalāl, al-Ḳavsī, İmām al-ʻAbd, and ʻAbd Allah Nedīm. In addition to private reading, Maḥmūd Bayram had the opportunity to improve himself by participating in literary gatherings. Among these, the Democratic Discourse Society, founded in Alexandria, had an important place. Bayram also frequented a small coffee house, which became a frequent destination for writers and artists. Poets such as Aḥmed Zeki Abū Shādī (d. 1955) and composers such as Sayyed Darwīsh (d. 1923) often visited the coffee house, and Bayram would later be in close contact with these personalities and undertake joint works with them. Bayram thus embarked on a life that would attract the attention of many people in the future, seeking through his own efforts and exertions to compensate for his inability to receive a regular education.Alongside family troubles, Maḥmūd Bayram also suffered from the political crisis in Egypt. British colonial oppression, combined with the politics of the ruling royal family and the intrigues of collaborators, seriously affected the people. Bayram, who was deeply troubled by this situation, attended the meetings of the aforementioned Democratic Discourse Society and mirrored his own feelings and those of the population in the poems he read there. Bayram began to send some of his poems to the al-Ahāli newspaper, published by ʻAbd al-Ḳādīr Ḥamza in Alexandria. From 1916, people began to read poems in the pages of this newspaper, written in fluent language and articulating their own problems. Maḥmūd Bayram’s poems disturbed the colonial powers and the administrations under their control, and he was sentenced to exile. Bayram’s exile in France lasted 13 years, from 1919 to 1932. During this time he traveled to Tunisia once and stayed there for several weeks. He also escaped from France with a fake passport in 1922 and returned to Egypt, but could only hide for six months and was again exiled to France once he was noticed. Bayram found his years in exile difficult and had to&nbsp;work very hard. He then spent the years 1932–1937 in Tunisia. During this time, he joined with youth who struggled against the colonial order and sought to remedy the underdevelopment of their society. He published the newspaper Shabāb (Youth) for them and assumed the role of editor-in-chief at another newspaper. He was asked to raise public awareness by writing bravely in his articles in these publications. Nonetheless, he was compelled to leave the country in 1937 when he disturbed certain circles in Tunisia and the French colonial administration. He was sent to Beirut, then under French mandate, and from there to Damascus. Since it was known that Bayram would be uncomfortable in these places, he was placed on a ship bound for Senegal, then also a French colony. When the ship stopped at Port Said, Egypt, Bayram found a way to disembark and after hiding in the city for a time, went to Cairo. He sought amnesty for himself by using important personalities he knew in Cairo as intermediaries and by penning an ode to King Fārūḳ, then head of the royal family, asking forgiveness.After the revolution in Egypt on October 23, 1952, Maḥmūd Bayram, who wrote poems praising both the revolution and those who carried it out, was granted citizenship by Egyptian President Djamāl ʻAbd al-Nāṣir in 1954. In addition to his restored reputation, Bayram was deemed worthy of a first-degree science and art award. Bayram, who lived more comfortably from this date until his death in 1961, not only continued to write in newspapers and magazines but also enhanced his fame by writing lyrics for Egypt’s leading artists, especially Umm Khulthum.Maḥmūd Bayram, rather than coming to the fore with his political struggles, attempts to reform the society, and thinker, influenced the masses with his literary aspect and attracted the attention of those who researched him. Some factors were particularly effective in bringing attention to Bayram’s literature. Chief among these was the idea that art and literature are for the people. A writer who does not mix with the people, does not know their problems, and does not live like them, will not be favored by theme. Such a writer appeals to a certain audience, becomes a court poet, and sees literature as a means of making money through flattery. According to Bayram, literature cannot be learned at school and having a diploma is not the way to go. To become a man of letters, it is not enough to study the branches of learning related to literature. Again, according to Bayram, one must remove the barriers between literature and life. Literature cannot be abstracted from life or life from literature. Another factor that helped to promote Maḥmūd Bayram’s literary output was his sarcastic and humorous style. This style, seen in Arabic literary figures such as al-Djāhiẓ in the classical period and ʻAbd al-Allah Nedīm in the modern period, has features that do not bore the reader, but amuse him and touch his life while aiming to preach and advice by addressing various problems. Bayram reached large masses through his poems and stories, most of which were written in plain, simple, and understandable folk language. The loss of his parents at an early age, and the fact that he left his education halfway and started life early, meant that he was self-taught rather than a scholar, and gained the title of folk artist by mingling with the people. In addition to his numerous articles with political and social content published in newspapers and magazines, Maḥmūd Bayram stands out for his short stories, maqāmes, and poems and zadjals written in colloquial language.&nbsp;

The Exiled Poet Maḥmūd Bayram Al-Tūnīsī

Pınar

While in the service for Atabak Nuṣratu’d-Dīn Aḥmad, Atabakan of Luristan, Hindū-shāh as-Sahibî al-Kirānī an-Nakhčiwānī wrote Tajaribu’s-Salaf der Tawarikhi’l-Khulafa wa’l-Wuzara (Histories of Khalīfas and Wazirs). The book, dedicated to his atabak, provides a detailed account about Khulafa al-Rasyidin, Emevids, ʿAbbāsīds, Buwayhids, and Seljuk history and wazirs.&nbsp;The book was written in al-Muharram 724 (January 1324). Hindū-shāh as-Sahibî based his book in Persian on Ibn al-Tiktakā (d. 709/1309) al-Fakhrī (Münyetü’l-fuzala’ fī tawarikhi’l-khulafa). Moreover, he benefited from the works of Anūshirwān b. Khālid-i Kāsānī, Ibn al-Athīr, Müberred, and Awfi. He wrote in plain language rather than the flamboyant style practiced by many of his contemporaries. Tajaribu’s-Salaf was published by Abbas İkbâl-i Âştiyanî.The weakened ʿAbbāsīd Government gradually lost its lands to other states. One of the biggest benefactors of Khalīfate territory was the Great Seljuk State. Khalīfa al-Kā’im Bi Amr Allāh, did not have any power. He abdicated his rule to Ṭughril Beg who became a dominating authority in the east to Baghdād. Ṭughril Beg seized the political authority of the Khalīfa. The Khalīfa remained the commanding religious leader. Rulers and roles continued in the following Seljuk Sulṭan’s period. Later, sparked by the attacks of the maliks for the throne in the period of Irāḳ Seljuks, the khalīfas started to stage their independence from the Seljuks. While the Seljuk Sulṭans embraced turning their enemies into their relatives by marrying the daughters of khalīfas or gifting them their own daughters, the khalīfas stayed committed to regaining political dominance. Hindū-shāh as-Sahibî included these issues in the book.The events mentioned most extensively in the book occurred during the reign of two ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfas. al-Mustarshid Bi’llāh was the first ʿAbbāsīd Khalīf attempting to restore the ʿAbbāsīds political domination. Sulṭan Sandjar (r. 511–552/1118–1157) on the western side of Great Seljuk State established the new Irāḳ Seljuk State by placing his nephew, Maḥmūd b. Muḥammad Tapar on the throne. The Khalīf al-Mustarshid took advantage of the new political posture that resulted from the formation of the Irāḳ Seljuk State. He conspired to rescue his people from the political domination of the Seljukids. He provoked an endless campaign against the Irāḳ Seljukid maliks for the throne. Despite the intervention of Sulṭan Sandjar, upheaval continued in the west. There is detailed information about these issues in Tajaribu’s-Salaf. The second ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfa was al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (d. 622/1225). al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh initiated political, social, administrative, and intellectual studies to re-establish the dominance of the ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfate, which had long been lost to centuries-long domination of the Buwayhids and then the Seljuks. He joined forces with Khwārazm-shāh Tekish (r. 568–596/1172–1200) against the Seljuks. He played an effective role in the destruction of the Irāḳ Seljuks. Along with these striking events, the book includes details about developments between the ʿAbbāsīd khalīf and Irāḳ Seljuk Sulṭan.Finally, political and social relations developed through the work between the Irāḳ Seljuk State Sulṭān and ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfas are the subject of this study. Consideration regarding relations with the ʿAbbāsīds in the early periods of the Irāḳ Seljuks, relationships with the ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfate in the era of Irāḳ Seljuk Sulṭān Masʻud, in Tajaribu’s Salaf, relations with the ʿAbbāsīds in the Sulṭān Muḥammad ibn Maḥmūd era, and developments in the last periods of the Irāḳ Seljuks with the ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfate are a part of this study.&nbsp;

Relations Between Irāḳ Seljuk State and ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfate  According to Tajaribu’s-Salaf

Rümeysa

The social change that occurred at the end of the 19th century and the cultural contact between the Arab civilization and the West led to the formation of modern literary movements. The Diwan School, in particular, offers an innovative perspective of next-generation poets by considering the aspects of previous periods. As the strongest representative of this school, the example of Abbas al-Akkad (1889–1964) and the theme of “hopelessness” is critical. In order to better understand the concept of poetry, the historical, literary, and political conditions surrounding this poet are also mentioned.In general, there is significant literature in the Arab world on Abbas al-Akkad (who produced many works in different genres) and his influence on modern literature. However, this study on Akkad is limited to the theme of “hopelessness,” which came to the forefront in the poems of the Diwan School. This school, represented by Abbas al-Akkad, Ibrahim Abdel Rahman Shokry (1886–1958), and Abdel-Qadir al-Mazny (1890–1949), made a series of innovations in both poetry and criticism, and pioneered the Apollo and Mahjar Schools that followed. Moreover, these three poets brought a different perspective to Arabic poetry as a whole. However, the group disbanded soon after its establishment (due to the plagiarism debate and mutual criticism between Shokry and Mazny), leaving Akkad to singlehandedly act as the “flag bearer” of this school. Thus, the present study examines the background of the Diwan School, its main features, and Akkad’s poetry in light of the aforementioned theme.After Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769–1849) took over as the de facto leader of Egypt, education in foreign languages emerged, while the literary and intellectual heritage of the West was transferred into the Arabic literature. Meanwhile, the efforts of libertarian intellectual poets and writers, who aimed to find their own identity, led to the formation of many literary schools. For example, the Neoclassical School, led by Baroudi (1839–1904) and considered as the beginning of modern poetry, aimed to return the poetry of the Arab heritage to its superior age. While Baroudi and his students Ahmed Shawqy (1868–1932), Hafez Ibrahim (1871–1932), and Khalil Motran (1869–1949) mainly adhered to classical Arabic poetry, they frequently included national feelings, due to the conjuncture brought about by the period. In this regard, by expressing the feelings, sorrows, and hopes of the people, they brought innovations in the subjects of their poems.When examining the main features of the Diwan School, we can see that they are simple in their expressions, they regard meaning as superior to words and siga (poetic flow), and they focus on the human spirit down to the smallest detail. Unlike the previous Neoclassical School, they did not write praise poems to kings, viziers, or rulers. Instead, they focused on the themes of pessimism and despair in the world. While the disappointments experienced as a result of the French Revolution’s failure to provide the expected libertarian, democratic, and prosperous life, the same crisis was met with the political uncertainties and future concerns created by the colonial environment in Arab countries.As for this school, sincere expression of emotions in poetry was its most important guide. For this reason, Akkad rejected his poems to be a defense of any ideology, and criticized the previous schools for such views. According to Akkad, poetry should be used as a tool in the expression of “hopelessness,” especially in a society that has been successively colonized by Western countries. On the other hand, it should also be used to energize a society to overcome such emotions. In the present study, there are examples in which melancholy, hopelessness, and sadness prevail in all Diwan School poets. In particular, in Akkad’s poetry, we see that he does not stagnate in “hopelessness” in order to achieve his societal goal. On the contrary, he instills hope by talking about his belief about the “good days to come.” For example, after the “hopelessness” in his couplets bayits, in which he expressed the problems of the suffering and oppressed masses, he aimed to transform them with his poetry and give them hope. It should be noted that this school did not disappear under the influence of Western Romanticism, and the literature, infused with Islamic philosophy, guided future generations of writers.&nbsp;

The Theme of “Hopelessness” Among the Diwan School Poets:  The Example of Abbas al-Akkad

Yahya

In Ottoman history, it is accepted that there was a period of crisis and adaptation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which transformed the state and society in terms of political, social, and economic aspects. As a result of this process, local elites that functioned as local intermediaries between the central government, its governors, and people became more effective in shaping local power. Thus, some local leaders who had notable pre-Ottoman family roots, urban ashraf families, ulama families, tax-farmers who controlled local production and trade, local janissaries, and households of mamluks could become direct or indirect representatives of the government in Bilad al-Sham and other provinces.The change in the management style of muqataas as lifetime tax farms (malikane), which is a well-known implementation of the crisis and change period, enabled the local powers to achieve fortune and power. Since the end of the seventeenth century, the malikane system was implemented in the muqataas in Aleppo and Damascus as leading examples. The ‘Azm family benefited from the spread of this fiscal practice in their region. In particular, they gained the tax-farming privileges of the muqataas in the north of Damascus, such as Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man, Hama, Homs, and Palmyra (Tedmür). Thus, they held significant economic power. Ismaʻil al-‘Azm used this opportunity to contribute to the rise of his family by getting the tax-farming of the aforementioned muqataas as malikane.Ismaʻil, first, in 1712, became the tax farmer of Maʻarra of Aleppo province, which was a malikane of the former grand vizier Mehmed Pasha. Names of ‘Azm-oğlu Ismaʻil and others from his family first appeared in archive documents as fiscal records about Maʻarra as evidence of the family’s origins in Bilad al-Sham. Ismaʻil, in this period, probably managed the family’s administrative and fiscal initiatives with his brothers. Ismaʻil and his family had&nbsp;to deal with the problems of nomads when they got the tax-farming privileges of Maʻarra and a few years later, Hama, Homs, and Palmyra. Collecting tax incomes from these muqataas that were rich because of the agricultural production and trade, was important for the government. However, there were conditions in the tax-farming contracts of muqataas that required the return of people who had left their land because of damages caused by Mawāli Bedouins, back to their original locations.After he became the zabit (protector) of the muqataas of Hama, Humus, and Palmyra in July 1719, Ismaʻil became responsible for the administration of these places as well as tax-farming these muqataas whose annual income reached over 91.000 piastres. All these muqataas probably provided Ismaʻil with a much larger sum than the total tax revenues. Ismaʻil tried investing these incomes to strengthen his local power. His grain aid to the locals of Damascus in periods of famine can be explained by his financial power after he became a lifetime tax farmer (malikâneci) of Hama and other muqataas. Further, his ability to arm a military force to support the governors of Aleppo, Tripoli, and Raqqa in controlling Turcoman and Bedouin nomads also showed his financial potential.When İsmail became zabit of Hama, he settled there. In Hama, he formed alliances with local notables via marriages. He married his brother Sulayman to an al-Kaylâni woman from an ashraf family. Ismaʻil probably saw Hama as an administrative center from where he could control nearby muqataas. Marriage alliances made it easy for the ʻAzm family to put down roots in this center. Ismaʻil sent his district governors (mutasallims) to the muqataas of Homs and Maʻarra, which were also under his control. In Maʻarra Musa (Bey) acted as mutasallim for his brother Ismaʻil. His mutasallim in Homs was Muhammed Agha. Ismaʻil’s mutasallims were responsible for the general security and tax-farming of these sanjaks or villages.After Ismaʻil became zabit of Hama, he struggled with the governors of Tripoli to take control of Homs and its muqataas that were at their disposal to consolidate his local power. Mawāli Bedouin leaders, who were once in a relatively coherent relationship with the Ottomans for the protection of trade routes, were unable to provide security for the hajj route to the south and roads between Aleppo, Damascus and Baghdad in the eighteenth century. Mawāli tribes, which were unable to compete with the nomads since the second half of the seventeenth century, were forced to move toward the west and eventually threatened a wider region, which includes the rural area of Aleppo, Hama, Humus, and rural settlements of Damascus. During this period, the leader of the Mawāli tribes was the ʻAbbas family.Not only did the local settled population but also Turcoman tribes that were scattered in the region suffered from the attacks of Mawāli Bedouins in Hama and Homs. Many of the Turcomans were part of tribes that had settled in Hama and Homs as a part of the sedentarization process that started in Raqqa in the 1690s. Raqqa was an important sedentarization center in this operation as were Hama and Homs. This demographic barrier, which was built with Turcoman and Kurdish tribes, was created to stop or control the migration movements of&nbsp;Shammar and ʻAnaza that could disturb Anatolian settlements in the north. Turcoman tribes were disturbed by Mawāli tribes, which were also affected by the same migration movements. Ismaʻil, like other regional officials, was ordered to return Turcoman tribes to their settlement lands in Hama and Homs and to deal with Mawālis. His efforts to successfully carry out this order were effective in Ismail's ascension to the rank of beğlerğilik. This made it easier for him to be appointed provincial governor. In light of this information, it is possible to say that the struggle against the nomads in the north of Bilad al-Sham is one of the "Ottoman contexts" that paved the groundwork for the rise of the ʻAzm-zâde family.Ismaʻil became Hama’s governer İsmail Pasha when he was appointed governor of Tripoli because of his post of beğlerbeğilik in Hama. He was appointed governor with the condition of commanding cerde troops, which would protect hajj caravans moving from Damascus. His brother Sulayman took over from Ismaʻil. Ismaʻil’s governorship lasted a year and three months between January 20, 1724, and May 14, 1725.An increase in local income because of the increase in international trade and agricultural production increased the importance of tax-farming of rural and urban muqataas in the province of Tripoli. During the short period of the governorship of Tripoli of Ismaʻil Pasha, he was primarily expected to arm and command cerde troops, which would provide security to hajj organization in 1724–1725. Ismaʻil now used his experience of controlling nomads in the north to protect hajj caravans against Damascus Bedouins (Şam Urbânı) successfully. During his governorship of Tripoli, in addition to managing routine administrative-fiscal works and showing results in the critical issues for the government, he successfully commanded the cerde troops. His success opened the way for his governorship of Damascus as well as being the head of the hajj (hac emirliği).&nbsp;

The Way to the Governorship of Damascus: Ismaʻil al-ʻAzm’s  Career Before His Governorship

Zafer

Trade in the Shadow of the Holy War: Medieval East  Mediterranean Trades

Leyla

Assist. Prof. Dr.

al-ʿAllama Sayyid Mehmed Efendi, known as Shaykhī, was born in Istanbul and belonged to a Sufi family that had migrated from Iran to the Ottoman Hamid Sanjak. He taught in various schools and later assumed the position of judge in different regions of the Ottoman Empire, eventually becoming the head of the Nakib al-Ashraf. The famous scholar al-Naqīb was one of the scholars of the Ottoman Empire who wrote in various fields including literature and language. He was renowned for his profound mastery of the Arabic language and literature. Regarding his life, it appears that al-ʿAllama al-Naqīb had a close connection with the Arab lands and their scholars. The first poem in his collection is dedicated to expressing his emotions during his pilgrimage to Mecca, and in his Turkish collection, he frequently mentions the city of Jerusalem, where he served as a judge. In his letters, he also recounts his gatherings with the Arabs and mentions verses he composed about his writings. Additionally, it is clear that al-Naqīb possessed knowledge of medicine, as he referred to his illness, consultations with doctors, and the lack of improvement in his health despite strictly following their advice. This led him to read medical books and conduct experiments to find a cure for his illness. Notably, references to food and drink occupy a considerable space in his poetry.His contributions, particularly in Arabic poetry and his numerous treatises, confirm his scholarly depth and eloquence. Among his significant works is the treatise Selb al-Taghlīb ‘an Bayt al-Mutanabbī bi-Taqrīb Gharīb (The Removal of Taghlīb from al-Mutanabbī’s Verse through an Unusual Approach). This treatise examines the rhetorical and grammatical concept of taghlīb (preference or predominance of one element over another in paired terms) within a verse by the celebrated Arab poet al-Mutanabbī a subject extensively analyzed by prominent scholars such as Ibn Jinnī, al-Jurjānī, al-Tibrīzī, and Ibn Hishām.This research seeks to provide a scholarly edition of al-Naqīb’s treatise, complete with critical annotations and footnotes, which aim to enrich the reader’s understanding of this complex topic. Additionally, the life and works of al-Naqīb are thoroughly contextualized, drawing on Arabic and Turkish sources. Here, it should be noted that most of these treatises remain in manuscript form; therefore, little is known about them. Researchers who have addressed this scholar in their works have not referenced the existence of most of these contributions.This study explores the style, content, and argumentation of his treatise while documenting the manuscript sources consulted, including two principal copies: 1. Murad Molla Library (Catalog No. 010-1833): This manuscript contains multiple works by Shaykh Muhammad al-Naqīb, written in Arabic. On the first page, a dedication indicates it was an endowment of Damatzade Muhammad Murad, situating the treatise between pages 116 a and 123a. Additionally, a note at the beginning indicates that it belongs to the library of Sultan Murad IV. 2. Damat İbrahim Pasha Library (Catalog No. 005-0273): This manuscript was an endowment of Grand Vizier İbrahim Pasha, advisor to Sultan Ahmed. The treatise under discussion is located between pages 158b and 164a. For this study, the Murad Molla manuscript was the primary source, while the Damat İbrahim Pasha manuscript provided comparative references, with differences highlighted in the footnotes. The manuscript from the Murad Molla Library was used as the basis for the critical edition, and the differences between it and the manuscript from the Damat İbrahim Pasha Library, referred to as (D), are highlighted. The symbol (-) was used to indicate omissions, and (+) was used to indicate additions. Additionally, we benefited from the work of Muhammad Ibn Mahfuz al-Sanhūrī al-Misri, who lived in the 11th century AH and included portions of the mentioned text in his book titled Kitāb Muḍḥik Dhawī al-Dhawq wa-l-Niẓām fī Ḥall Shaẓrah min Kalām Ahl al-Rīf al-ʿAwām. In his analysis, al-Naqīb argues that there is no evidence of taghlīb in the verse of al Mutanabbī in question. He asserts that Arabs traditionally liken women to the moon rather than the sun; the comparison of women to the sun, he contends, only became prevalent in Arabic poetry after the advent of Islam. Al-Mutanabb posits that al-Mutanabbī, an adherent to the style of classical poets, rarely mimicked the newer conventions that he viewed as stylistic deviations from the original Arabic tradition. According to al-Naqīb, al-Mutanabbī’s preference for rare and unconventional expressions supports his argument; he notes that the poet would have found it more striking to portray two moons together, rather than a sun and a moon a comparison that, in his view, aligns more closely with the poet’s tendency toward novelty.&nbsp;The evidence cited by al-Naqīb to support his viewpoint indicates his deep understanding of Arabic literature and its traditions. Al-Naqīb’s position is in contrast to the views of several esteemed scholars, including Ibn Jinnī, al-Jurjānī, and Ibn Hishām. His analysis extends to the interpretation of al-Fanārī’s opinions, attributing his ideas to Ibn Hishām and al-Damāmīnī, rather than being the original thought of al-Fanārī. Here, al-Naqīb emphasizes that his aim is not to discredit his scholarly predecessors but to shed light on what he considers to be the truth regarding taghlīb in al Mutanabbī’s poetry. The language of al-Naqīb’s treatise reflects an ornate style, with both lexical and rhetorical embellishments, demonstrating his deep engagement with classical Arabic. His writing is replete with verbal and semantic devices, frequent intertextual references to Quranic verses, proverbs, and poetic excerpts, all of which exhibit his rich cultural literacy and command over Arabic rhetorical techniques. However, one critique of his style is his overreliance on these stylistic flourishes, which sometimes obscure the clarity of his argument. It seems plausible that this stylistic density was intentional, serving as a display of his linguistic prowess and literary acumen. By engaging in a rigorous textual analysis, this research not only offers an academically sound edition of al-Naqīb’s treatise but also enhances the scholarly discourse on taghlīb and its application in classical Arabic poetry. Through a careful examination of the primary sources, including Arabic manuscripts and Ottoman historical records, this study situates al-Naqīb’s work within a broader intellectual context, illustrating his influence and standing within the Ottoman and Arabic scholarly traditions.

Allamah Al-Naqib’s Thesis Selb al-Taghlīb ‘an Bayt al-Mutanabbī  bi-Taqrīb Gharīb: A Study and Critical Edition

Ahmed

&nbsp;Lexical studies form the foundation for a deep understanding of and critical analysis of poetic texts. They initially aid in identifying the meanings of words, phrases, and expressions within poetic texts, thereby enhancing a correct understanding of its content. The contextual analysis reveals how words and expressions are used within the poetic context and the effects the poet achieves. These studies also contribute to categorizing poetic texts according to their linguistic, thematic, and formal styles, facilitating the study and comparison of different texts. In this paper, we studied and analyzed the lexical composition in the poem “The Poet in the Valley of the- Dead” by Sayed Qutb, aiming to uncover his literary prowess and explore the diversity of his styles and areas of influence. Qutb is a significant reference for many writers and scholars in the contemporary Islamic world; his literary works inspire new writers and contribute to shaping new literary styles. The lexical analysis of a poem is a valuable tool that reveals the beauty of poetic language and the subtleties of meaning. Through this process, we can explore the richness of vocabulary and the poet’s careful choice of words, understand the multiple lexical meanings of words, and perceive the musical rhythm through the repetition of sounds and rhymes. This analysis also helps us understand the semantic structure of a poem and how ideas and meanings are interconnected within it, and even to explore aspects of poets’ personalities and their world. Lexical analysis is undoubtedly a fundamental tool for a deeper understanding of poetry and appreciation of poets’ creativity. Our study included: A brief introduction about the author and his poems, highlighting that despite Sayed Qutb’s&nbsp;relationships. Lexical analysis is a practical application of this theory, where the vocabulary used in a text is analyzed to reveal the semantic relationships between words. It encompassed four semantic fields: the field of death, with its key vocabulary including “death, dead, valley of death, graves, events”; secondly, the field of life, with its key vocabulary including “life, alive, living, soul, sleep, heart”; thirdly, the field of place, with its key vocabulary including “world, universe, life, crossings, excavations, destinies”; fourthly, the field of time, with its key vocabulary including “nights, heavens, darkness”. This research addressed the meanings of these lexical and contextual vocabularies and their semantic relationships, as well as the poet’s deployment of them within the text. Finally, the research concludes with a set of findings, notably that the poetic lexicon in the poem “The Poet in the Valley of the Dead” by Sayed Qutb demonstrates an intertwining of vocabulary related to death and life, place, and time. By analyzing these vocabularies and their relationships, we can achieve a deeper understanding of the existential themes addressed by the poem, appreciating the poetic structure and profound meanings expressed by the poet &nbsp;relationships. Lexical analysis is a practical application of this theory, where the vocabulary used in a text is analyzed to reveal the semantic relationships between words. It encompassed four semantic fields: the field of death, with its key vocabulary including “death, dead, valley of death, graves, events”; secondly, the field of life, with its key vocabulary including “life, alive, living, soul, sleep, heart”; thirdly, the field of place, with its key vocabulary including “world, universe, life, crossings, excavations, destinies”; fourthly, the field of time, with its key vocabulary including “nights, heavens, darkness”. This research addressed the meanings of these lexical and contextual vocabularies and their semantic relationships, as well as the poet’s deployment of them within the text. Finally, the research concludes with a set of findings, notably that the poetic lexicon in the poem “The Poet in the Valley of the Dead” by Sayed Qutb demonstrates an intertwining of vocabulary related to death and life, place, and time. By analyzing these vocabularies and their relationships, we can achieve a deeper understanding of the existential themes addressed by the poem, appreciating the poetic structure and profound meanings expressed by the poet.

Semantic Study of the Poetic Lexicon in Seyyid Qutb’s Poem “The  Poet in the Valley of the Dead”

Asiye

&nbsp;Since its early examples, the art of the novel has been an effective way to form the social structure of the country. The westernization of Egypt began with Napoleon’s invasion in 1798. Since then, student groups have visited Western countries, and the question of “how to Westernize” has occurred when they wanted to create a similar cultural environment and modern instruments that they witnessed in the countries they visited. Therefore, the problematics of early Egyptian novels are polygamy, choosing a partner, superstitions, stratification and the disturbance caused by imported laws. The partial freedom gained against Britain in 1919 created a space to discuss these issues. The 1936 revolution, which occurred with the participation of a large part of the population as a result of the abrogation of the constitution proclaimed in 1923 and the oppression of the farmers, especially in the countryside, by the Ismail Sıdkî Pasha government, which ruled the country with an iron fist between 1932-33, was among the problematics of the second period novelists and their works, which were encouraging the society to demand their rights and freedoms. In 1952, Abd al-Nasser, the symbol of the Free Officers Revolution, was determined not to share his power with anyone else. To make society forget the defeat in the Egypt-Israel war (1948), he made an unsuccessful incursion into the Israeli territories, and he suppressed opposition. After Egypt had local rulers for the first time, the government, which had initially gained the support of all segments of the public with social justice-based reforms, evolved into an authoritarian regime, and intellectuals, who had remained silent for a while, were arrested when they criticized the government in the essays they wrote. Until the Free Officers Revolution, when Egypt regained its native rulers, the two prominent names in political criticism were Abd al-Rahman Sharqawi (1920-1987) and Naguib Mahfouz (1911-2006). The 1952 revolution was welcomed with great enthusiasm in all segments of society, but after a while, it evolved into a totalitarian structure and was again criticized by &nbsp;the two authors. While Sharqawi examined the positive and negative sides of the revolution in his novel “Fellah” (Farmer, 1967), Mahfuz criticized the period of time in his novels “Sersere fevka’n-Nîl” (Chat on Nile, 1966) and “el-Kernek” (Karnak Cafe, 1974). Aswany, who problematized the social and political life of Egypt in the twenty-first century, criticized the authoritarian attitude of Abd al-Nasser, who came to power with the 1952 revolution, in his novel al-Ashjaru Temshi fi al-Alexandria (The Trees are Walking in Alexandria, 2024)Fellâh (Farmer ,1967) When the revolution of 1952 took place, Sharqawi, who strived for Egypt’s independence through his realistic novels and played an important role in structuring society, welcomed the revolution with great joy, but he did not hesitate to criticize its negative aspects. In his last novel, Fellâh, the author, who was arrested several times for his writings, noted positive changes after the revolution, such as the sharing of agricultural lands, the spread of education in the countryside, and the access of farmers to machinery through agricultural cooperatives. However, he also did not refrain from criticizing those who abused their positions in the socialist structure. Sersera fevka’n- Nîl (Chat on Nile, 1966) After the 1952 revolution, Naguib Mahfouz remained silent for a while and then continued to criticize the government through his symbolic novels. In this novel, which is one of Mahfouz’s symbolic works, Mahfouz depicts the conversations of a group of middle-class individuals (officers, lawyers, journalists, producers, writers) who call themselves ‘the nation’ and come together in a floating house on the Nile. Drugs, which were an integral part of these conversations, distanced them both from the daily agenda and from themselves, and they preferred to stay outside the world that does not make any sense for them. The illegitimate behavior of this group of intellectuals reflects their disappointment with the Egyptian agenda and their struggle against the meaningless. “They talked about values that gave meaning to life.” They accepted that these values had disappeared and would never return. So now, what are we going to build a life on?”Al- Karnak (Karnak Cafe; 1974)Mahfouz’s novel al-Kernek is an open criticism of the Nasser era, which was known for its abuse of power and violence to intimidate the opposition. In this novel, he tells the story of three students, Isma’il al-Sheikh, Hilmi Hamadeh and Zainab Deeyyap, who were arrested and released several times in a cafe run by a former singer and a meeting place for various segments of the public. Each time they were arrested, they became somewhat detached from life. In the novel, the youngsters who tried to keep their faith in the revolution eventually lost their hope, and these experiences became the beginning of authoritarian regimes in Egypt. &nbsp;al-Ashjaru Temshi fi al-Alexandria (The Trees are Walking in Alexandria, 2024) As an important figure in 21st-century Egyptian literature, Ala al-Aswany has assumed an important responsibility in both criticizing and shaping the Egyptian social structure through his realistic novels. In his novel al-Ashjaru Temshi fi al-Alexandria (The Trees are Walking in Alexandria, 2024), written in 2024, the author, who aimed at political criticism in his works, problematized the oppression, espionage, and arrests experienced by former foreigners who later made Egypt their home after the revolution and dealt with the confiscation of their properties during the process of nationalization. On the one hand, people who have not lost faith in the revolution and find fault in individuals but not in the regime, and on the other hand, victims of the regime who became desperate over time. The art of the novel, which is a good source of data for sociology, has been a good opportunity to interpret the ongoing problem in the Middle East from the specific to the general with this phenomenon it problematize.

Free Officers’ Revolution and the Criticism of the Totalitarian  Regime in the Egyptian Novel Under the Light of the Works of  Naguip Mahfouz, Abd al-Rahman Sharqawi, and Alaa Al Aswany

Ayşegül

İbrahim

The aim of this study is to comparatively examine the play Krapp’s Last Tape by Samuel Beckett, one of the first names that come to mind when it comes to absurd theater, and the play Rihletu’s-Sayd by Tawfiq al-Hakim, one of the leading names of the theater in Arabic literature, in terms of element of time and theme of search for self. For this aim, answers were sought to the questions of whether there are similarities and differences between these two plays, written in very different geographies and under different conditions, and if so, what are the similarities and differences between them. Additionally, the effect of the absurd theater that emerged in the West on Arabic literature and its reflections in Tawfiq al-Hakim’s play were investigated.This study is important because it examines the plays Krapp’s Last Tape and Rihletu’s-Sayd, about which there is not much information, in a comparative manner for the first time, and thus will contribute to the studies of comparative literature by making it possible to look at the two works from a broad perspective. In this study, two plays depicting what the characters, who always live by thinking about the future and therefore cannot enjoy the present, experience when faced with the reality of death are discussed using a qualitative, inductive, and comparative method. Because it is based on what Albert Camus, a representative of existentialism, talked about time and the absurd, a philosophical review was also conducted.When we look at the two plays that are the subject of our study in terms of time, it is seen that there is uncertainty about time, which is one of the characteristics of absurd theater. Time, which is described vaguely in the sections where past events are narrated, appears as a concept that cannot be perceived by the characters in the sections where the present moment is shown. Although some events are shown to the audience and a certain amount of time passes from the beginning to the end of the plays, it is as if time has stopped for the characters on the stage.In addition, time affects characters’ personalities. Both characters experience a change over time, and although the same person is mentioned, they appear as different characters. Even though he is the one speaking in every recording he listens to, Krapp, who belittles his previous self and makes fun of that version of himself, cannot believe that he is the person in the past. As for the doctor in the play Rihletu’s-Sayd, he is sometimes described as a cruel person and sometimes as a helpful doctor, during his reckoning with the faces he sees in the&nbsp;&nbsp;sky that belong to his past. It is not clear which one truly reflects the doctor or whether this change is for the better or for the worse because, like the tapes listened to in Krapp’s Last Tape, the faces the doctor remembers do not appear in a chronological order.&nbsp;The search for the self is also a common theme in both plays. Both characters in these plays come face to face with death, and in this situation, they feel the need to confront their past in order to reach their selves. In the play Rihletu’s-Sayd, a doctor who is caught by a lion during a hunting trip and who comes to terms with his past is mentioned, while in the play Krapp’s Last Tape, it is seen that the character named Krapp, who feels that he is very close to death even though there is no real threat, tries to reach his own self by reviving his memories. Although the form of impending death is different, the plays are similar in that the characters sense the need to create an identity for themselves by reviving their memories.The people in their lives and the beliefs they hold impact a person’s self-formation. In both plays, which are the subjects of this study, two women who influence the characters are mentioned. While the character named Krapp abandons both of these women, who have an important place in his memories, and is condemned to a lonely life, the doctor marries the girl he loves and has children, but the effect of love diminishes over time and he begins to occupy with the chores of daily life. Both Krapp and the doctor always think about the future and forget to enjoy the present. From here, it is understood that the subject of living for the future, which Camus uses when explaining the word absurd, is valid for both characters. It can be seen that religious beliefs do not provide the unity that the characters desire. Neither for Krapp, who goes to church and falls asleep, nor the doctor, who claims to be a believer and tries to defeat the death, religion does not appear as a helpful element in the characters’ search for self.The plays are similar in that there is no specific plot, which is one of the basic features of absurd theater and from the beginning of the plays to the end there is no change in the situation of both Krapp, who sits at his desk and listens to the tapes he recorded, and the doctor, who is in the lion’s mouth, in the places where they are stuck. Another similar aspect of the plays is that in both plays, which are about the search for self, there is no answer to the question of “Who am I?”These two plays, which tell about characters who come to terms with their past on the verge of death, differ in terms of the characters’ reactions to the reality of death. While death is a salvation for Krapp, who has lost all his expectations from life, the doctor strives to escape even when he is in the lion’s mouth. In addition, the way in which the characters revive their memories, trying to reach the essence of their own selves by remembering their past experiences, is also different from each other. While the doctor’s past is told through imaginary faces appearing in the sky, Krapp’s past is based on a concrete document: voice recordings.Considering these examinations, it has been seen that there are many similarities but also differences between the plays. From all this, it can be concluded that Tawfiq al-Hakim may&nbsp;&nbsp;have been influenced by the absurd theater writers he met when he stayed in France for a while, especially Samuel Beckett, but he created an original work by adding his own interpretation to the plays he wrote.

The Time and the Search for Self in Samuel Beckett’s Play Called  Krapp’s Last Tape and Tawfiq al-Hakim’s Play Named Rihletu’s-Sayd

Büşra

The first examples of Symbolic Stories in the East are based on Turkish Islamic culture. Turkish Islamic culture is a rich value system that is mixed with many sciences such as literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Each of the published works represents this culture in the best possible way. These first exemplary texts, which deal particularly with the esoteric aspects of religion and the degree of perfection of reason, were written a language that ordinary people could not understand. The aim is to guide those who want to go beyond the limits of religion and philosophy. From this perspective, these texts offer a common method for those who seek truths, both philosophically and from a mystical perspective. This method includes a number of practices to prevent things that cause a person to be blind to their mind and deaf to themselves. These practices are both physical and spiritual, such as abandoning carnal desires, asceticism, deep contemplation, and mystical journeys. Only at the end of such an education can a person attain both mental and spiritual perfection and ascend to the levels of perfection.The relationship between man and truth has been established in different ways throughout human history. This study examines how Eastern Islamic culture, which evaluates truth from a metaphysical perspective and sees it as the only reality, understands and narrates this truth. What makes this study special is that it examines works that combine literary, philosophical, and religious features within these truth narratives and tries to explain the purposes for which they were written. This study aims to determine concepts and metaphors based on philosophy and mysticism in symbolically written stories in Oriental literature and to seek common ground between the two different paths by both disciplines in searching for truth. Thus, this study the possibility of reaching the truth through a single path.This study examines three of the most famous examples of symbolic writing in Oriental literature: Molla Jami’s Salaman and Absal, Avicenna’s Hayy bin Yaqzan, and Shahabaddin Suhrawardi’s allegorical tales called Gabriel’s Wing Voice. The authors of these examples were not actually men of letters but philosophers. These philosophers, who are affiliated with &nbsp;the Peripatetic tradition, describe two different methods of intellectual effort and Sufi journey in finding the truth due to their inclination toward Sufism. However, for them, these two paths are two paths that are close enough to each other to help each other and to grasp the single truth. According to them, a person can perfect their mind by obeying the self-control of Sufism, and through this perfection, they can establish a connection with the Active Intellect, which is the intermediary between the world of minds. Through this connection, he can reach the level where he can be inspired by the truth itself. The greatest help in reaching this result was the emanation theory of Peripatetic philosophy and the ser u süluk theory, which symbolizes the soul stages of Sufism. Peripatetic philosophers took the theory of emanation from Plotinus, the pioneer of the Neo-Platonic doctrine, but they ranked the mind differently from her. In all three texts, turning away from the world and establishing a connection with the Active Intellect is explained as the highest goal of man in this world and that only through this connection can he move toward the truth he wants to reach. From this perspective, of course, every person’s goal be directed to the same goal, but the main issue here is that a person is considered an ideal person/human being.The texts in question provide information on how and why people should establish a connection with active intelligence, which acts as an intermediary between truth and self. This information is advice that includes moral and religious rules in particular. However, these texts have written this information in a language that the public cannot understand, with hidden symbols and symbols. Their aim is to prevent this difficult journey to the truth from being misunderstood by the public. Thus, they allegorically narrated the secrets of this journey so that only experts can understand them. In this respect, these texts are not only a philosophical or religious guide to finding the truth but, also have a quality that will greatly develop people’s mental worlds and enrich their imagination. On the other hand, these texts written in symbols provide each person with an intellectual experience to reach their own truth and take on the role of a guide to reach the truth.Therefore, this study has shown that religion and philosophy can meet on the same ground when given the opportunity and that they can express the single and universal truth to those who listen in, a different language but essentially the same way. The literary form, which is the most beautiful form of this expression, is also a praiseworthy quality, especially because its expression is chosen symbolically in terms of its attention-grabbing and curiosity-arousing nature. This means that when philosophy, religion, or Sufism come together and tell things that cannot be told by themselves, with the help of literature, it creates a completely different effect on the human mind.	The conclusion reached by this study actually includes an effort of Peripatetic philosophers to reconcile philosophy and religion. Ultimately, they reconcile religion with philosophy and to show that reason is not contrary to religion. In this way, man will be able to reach his creator, whom he knows as the truth, both through reason and faith. On the other hand, the thinkers whose works are examined have put forward the theory of the evolution of the mind in order to base the way of getting inspiration or information from the truth outside of belief. The evolution of the mind is only possible as a result of being freed from the bonds of the soul. The stories discussed express this in the most beautiful way.

The Philosophical Dimension of the Truth Narrative in the First  Examples of Symbolic Oriental Stories

Havva

Socialist Realism, as reflected in Urdu literature, occurred long after literary realist traditions had influenced the world. It enabled members of the Aligarh Movement to import Western literary modernism to the subcontinent through translations. New insights were revealed to the writers, who had them peruse works from the translated products of the West thereafter. How much more socialists shaped the face of realism in Urdu literature and the resultant effect on writers and critics is what this study is all about. This study attempts to trace the effects of the Realism Movement on Urdu literature as a discipline inspired by socialist ideology. This study specifically examines how the values and principles of socialist thought freedom, equality, and fraternity worked to metamorphose literary discourses and bring about a realistic reflection of social issues in Urdu writing. This paper also weighs the impact of the Aligarh Movement and the interplay between Western and Urdu literary traditions in adopting such a realistic outlook. In doing so, it seeks to uncover the ways in which Urdu literature not only absorbed but also localized these universal ideals, shaping them to reflect the unique socio-political realities of the subcontinent. This research is based on a historical-analytical approach to literary works and historical documents related to the Aligarh Movement and the Progressive Writers Movement. The book covers literary texts in Urdu that are the products of socialist realism, along with critiques and discussions by contemporary writers and critics. The primary sources examined in this study include literary works as well as manifestos and writings by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and the founders of the Progressive Writers Movement. The secondary sources help obtain a more detailed and complete picture due to scholarly analysis and historical accounts. It was revealed that the Realism movement, which was impelled by socialist ideology, had left its deep impact on Urdu literature. The Realism movement in Urdu literature was directed into proper channels by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan through the Aligarh Movement. The basic tenets of Khan’s attack upon the ills of Muslim Indian society became a propagative basis for&nbsp;&nbsp;later literary developments. Exposure to Western works, realism through the translations of those works was being made. Exposure through translation to Western works of modernist and realist thought turned writers against romanticism in its traditional aspects and toward a focus on social realities. He clustered his poems under the head ‘Progressive’; it denoted a writer allied with the socialist ideology of freedom, equality, and fraternity. This movement left indelible imprints on the minds of Urdu writers by further encouraging them to adopt a more realistic narrative that depicted the turmoil as well as the injustices of pain that struck people belonging to different classes. The writers connected with this movement as well as their critics pleaded for literature that speaks against social imbalances, political tyranny, and the miserable condition of poor sections of society. The influence of socialist ideology on Urdu literature manifested through the themes and styles of literary works from this period. Writers ventured to reflect social themes of social justice, class struggle, and political critique, which indicated the wider socio-political situation of their times. The realist techniques started giving the works as much subtlety and criticism about society that one could contrast from the romantic and idealized portrayals that had gone dominant until then. This is, therefore, a shift in Urdu literature in which the ills of socialist realism are merged. The Aligarh Movement and the influence of the Progressive Writers Movement shifted Urdu literature’s focus from romance and personal problems to social commitment and realism. At a larger level, such transitions manifest the forces of socialist ideology on literary movements worldwide, demonstrating that political and ideological forces can create forms of literary expression. The findings indicate that realism in Urdu literature addressed immediate social issues while also contributing to discourse on broader societal justice and political reformation. Representation of marginalized voices and the social concerns advocated by writers were thus part of socialist ideals seeking to bring about change through their works. In conclusion, the reflection of socialist ideology in Urdu literary realism represents a milestone in the development of Urdu literature. The study underlines that socialist thought has been seriously transforming literary practices, forcibly and convincingly indicating to what extent Urdu writers have accommodated and assimilated them into their works. The legacy is felt in contemporary Urdu literature; it makes socialism quite an appropriate system of ideals to tell stories and solve social problems.Functionalized, it can serve as a surrogate for the findings and conclusion, clearly outlining the immense influence of socialist ideology on literary realism in Urdu literature. In other words, this study exemplifies how major political and ideological forces can shape literary tradition, thus providing a general reflection on the relationship between ideology and literary expression. In addition to maintaining its cultural identity, it highlights how literature may&nbsp;&nbsp;include various ideological ideas. This flexibility guarantees that literature will always be an essential forum for discussion, opposition, and change. As a result, studying Socialist Realism in Urdu literature encourages more research into how modern literary practices still engage with and address the complexity of contemporary reality. Moreover, the legacy of Socialist Realism in Urdu literature can be modified to incorporate various ideological influences while maintaining its cultural identity. This flexibility guarantees that literature will always be an essential forum for discussion, opposition, and change. Therefore, the investigation of Socialist Realism in Urdu literature invites additional inquiry into how contemporary literary forms continue to connect with and adapt to the complexities of the modern world. This study concludes that Socialist Realism in Urdu literature affirms the timeless ability of written words to reflect, analyze, and transform the reality around us, rather than only a historical phenomenon. This policy ensures that the spirit of realism and social concern endures by inviting modern authors and academics to return to and expand upon these literary traditions.

The Reflection of Socialist Ideology on Literary Realism in Urdu  Literature

Prof. Dr.

Muhammad Jibril, who was born in 1938, is an important writer who represents the socio political life of Egypt through his works. As he wrote many novels and stories, he was also a journalist. Having a high expression aptitude, Taha Hussein, Naguib Mahfouz, and Youssef Idris influenced him. He was also influenced by Westers such as Dostoyevsky, Balzac, Hemingway, and Gabriel Garca Marquez. Alexandria’s city plays also played a significant role in shaping his way of thinking. His father’s rich library also made significant contributions to the development of the author’s intellectual world from childhood. Some of Muhammad Jibril’s works have been translated into English, French, German, and Malay, and his works have been studied in the universities of France, Lebanon, and Algeria. He was also nominated for the Nobel Prize by Egyptian intellectuals. It can be easily said that he was one of the best-known intellectuals of Egypt in contemporary history. His professional life has also influenced his approach to social events, and he has touched on social issues very often in his works. His story namely “Jewish Neighborhood” is also one of his works that covers social issues. This story is included in the collection that was published with the same article. The story is built on the privileges granted to minorities, particularly Jews, and the social deteriorations that arose from these privileges. The Jews referred to in the Jibril’s story have been living in Egypt for a long time. According to the Old Testament, many Jews immigrated to Egypt after the fall of the Kingdom of Judah, and this Jewish migration continued for a long time. The population of Jews who have been in the region for thousands of years varies. According to the 1898 population information, there were 25.200 Jews living in Egypt, with a total population of 10 million. At the time of the 1920s, when Jibril’s story takes place, there were totally 75-80 thousand Jews in Egypt. The Jews in Cairo lived in adjacent neighborhoods known as “Harat al-Yahood al-Qarain” and “Harat al-Yahood”. The story of Muhammad Jibril occurs in “Harat al-Yahood” (which means Jewish Neighborhood).&nbsp;Jibril’s story occurs during the years of the British occupation and reflects the spirit of the time. Egypt, which was under British occupation during the 1920s, when the story took place, did not gain its full independence until 1952. During the occupation, British rulers exiled Egyptian patriots to Malta and dragged Egyptians into hunger and poverty through false economic policies. Under the British colonists, the Arabic language was repressed and English became the new language. During these years, Jews gained a powerful position, particularly in the commercial area. The Jewish families who benefit from the privileges arising from British colonialism had the opportunity to gain a crucial position in the Egyptian economy compared to their population. In these years, the Jews who benefit from western colonialism gain an important status in Egyptian society, where they lived as a group of minorities. The main character in Muhammad Jibril’s Jewish Neighborhood story, Muhammad Jalas, was deliberately bankrupted by the Jews through various conspiracies while he was running a jewelry store in the 1920s in Egypt. Furthermore, a group of Jewish youngster beat up his son Ali with sticks. After being bankrupted and having his son beaten up, Muhammad Jalas, as a former bully, goes to the Jewish Neighborhood to teach the Jews a lesson so that they would not repeat the same things again. Jalas, the main character of the story, desires that the Jews attack him just like they did with his son. To give them a lesson that they deserve. The residents of the Jewish Neighborhood have realized the intentions of Jalas and have understood how serious the situation is, so they close up their shops and houses to defend themselves against him. On the other hand, Jalas calls out to his men “Our intention is just to build an order, not to kill”. After the two sides take precautions, a clash breaks out between Muhammad Jalas and the residents of the neighborhood. During the clash, none of the stores were harmed, nor were any goods stolen, and none of the fallen were harmed. Muhammad Jalas tries to teach Jewish youngsters a lesson by beating them up with the men he brought from his district. Muhammad Jalas orders not to kill while attempting to establish an order in the Jewish Neighborhood. At this point, through the character of Jalas created by Jibril, it is seen that the act of killing is one of the greatest sins in Islam and Judaism. As a commandment, “You shall not murder” from 10 commandments in Judaism is adopted as a principle of the main character of the story while he is struggling against Jews. In the story Jalas used the terms of Judaism while he was fighting against the Jews. With this story, Muhammad Jibril tried to express the emotions of Egyptian society through the Jalas character he created. An intense reaction can be seen from his tendency toward the neighborhood and his monolog as Muhammad Jalas enters Jewish neighborhoods. The author expresses the disappointment and anger of being treated unfairly in his own land through Jalas’ feelings. As a matter of fact, he answered positive when he is asked; “Can you be seen in your works”. We can clearly see the author’s approach to social cases through the way he created his characters in his stories.Another point that has attracted attention is the desperate and miserable situation of Jamaliyah Police Station, which was the security unit of the Jewish Neighborhood. The police station responsible for the neighborhood’s order is not able to fulfill his mission and almost looks for the help of Muhammad Jalas. Not only children but also grownups do not feel safe in the neighborhood. In this part of the story, it is obvious that Jamaliyah Police Station represents the Egyptian Government, which is under British occupation. As a matter of fact, the homeland, which is a source of safety for the nations, cannot provide any safety for either Muhammad Jalas or the police officers working at the Jamaliyah Police Station. In conclusion, Muhammad Jibril’s Jewish Neighborhood story, inspired by the Egypt of the 1920s, has made its place in Egyptian literature as a significant work that reflects the spirit of the time. The psychological state of the Egyptians and, moreover, Arabs against Jewish society created Jalas’s experiences as the main character of the story. Wide sociological cases are handled with the character’s emotions and monologs and the narrative is built up on these wide social cases in the story of Muhammad Jibril. Therefore, “Jewish Neighborhood” is opening a wide window through the Egypt of 1920s. In this study, Jibril’s story of the Jewish Neighborhood is examined by considering the socio-political structure of the period.

A Scream in Occupied Cairo: Muhammad Jibril’s Muhammad Jalas

Jiayi

Turkish Studies in China: Language, Academia and  Multidisciplinary Perspectives

&nbsp;A new era began in the geography of the Middle East, particularly during Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798. Following Napoleon’s takeover of Egypt, the key to retaining these territories was to also possess Syria. Although Napoleon organized a campaign to achieve this goal in Syria, he was first halted at Acre and then forced to return to Cairo on June 2, 1799, after the failure of his last effort. Syria, which had been under the sovereignty of the Ottoman State from the 16th century until the first quarter of the 20th century, was separated from the Ottomans in 1918 as a result of the Treaty of Sèvres and became an independent state. With the decision taken at the San Remo Conference, its administration was transferred to France. In 1946, Syria declared independence. These political developments paved the way for the nahda movement, an early manifestation of the modernization process in the Arab world during the 19th century. This renewal and development movement was initiated by European-educated segments of Egypt and Syria on one hand and by intellectuals of the time who completed their traditional education in Egypt and other Arab territories on the other. Beginning in the second quarter of the 1800s and continuing through World War I, the nahda movement, also known as the Arab Renaissance, found a strong foothold, particularly in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, and was regarded by some as a movement to revive the pre-Islamic period Arab culture, while for others it was a cultural movement that reshaped Arab society’s consciousness through translations of modern European literature. In summary, the nahda movement, which shaped itself as an important social and cultural movement as part of the efforts toward enlightenment and modernization in the Arab world, had Syria as one of its important centers, and Syrian female writers played a critical role within the framework of this renewal effort. Women writers not only generated ideas on issues such as social transformation and education but also managed to reach wider audiences with their courageous works, drawing attention from all segments of social life to the necessity of&nbsp;&nbsp;women taking a more active role. Mary Ajamī, the main subject of this study, along with many other female authors to be mentioned below, played a significant role in the development of the Arab world by voicing their concerns regarding issues like women’s rights, education, and social equality, challenging traditional norms of the time. These authors emphasized that the spread of Western education and culture in the Arab world was necessary to achieve better living standards while also highlighting that this should be done without losing their culture and identity. This also implied that women needed to receive education according to modern Western methods and to become acquainted with modern science and philosophy. Additionally, female writers of this period were among the figures who laid the foundations of feminism in the Arab world. The names that contributed to the emergence of the feminist movement articulated the need for women to play a more active role in political and cultural spheres by addressing gender inequality. Pioneering female writers advocating for the right to have a say in every aspect of social life thoroughly explored Arabic literature and culture and participated in the intellectual debates of the period. In particular, their equal capabilities in poetry writing with those of their male counterparts made them significant figures in literary circles. Egyptian Aisha Taimuriyya (d. 1902), Malak Hifni Nasif (d. 1918), Huda al-Sharawī (d. 1947), Syrian Mariyana Marrash (d. 1919), Mary Ajamī (d. 1965), and Lebanese Labiba Hashim (d. 1947) and Zaynab Fawwaz (d. 1902) are among the notable female writers who should be mentioned. Mary Ajamī, one of the female pioneers of the nahda movement in Syria and the owner of Syria’s first women’s magazine al-’Arûs, was an important figure who, although criticized by some circles in her time, did not deviate from her right path and managed to inscribe her name in the history of literature and culture as one of the reformist female characters of Syria. A courageous and brilliant woman writer, Mary Ajamī was devoted to social reform. In addition to being a prolific literary figure, she was also a poet and journalist who captivated the Arab homeland and ummah with her talent. The realist style she used when writing about her political and ideological views was replaced by a romantic style when describing her fondness for nature, which she saw as a refuge for herself, and her descriptions of nature. Both daring and rebellious at the same time, Mary Acemī used a gentle, sensitive, kind, and tender pen. In the period she lived in, she tirelessly tried to contribute to the improvement of the situation of the society in every aspect; she made great efforts to realize her goal with the associations she established, the cultural activities she pioneered, and the effective speeches she made in the conferences she attended. The author, who took steps to encourage the generations after her death, is especially noteworthy for fulfilling her responsibility and mission to improve the status of women in society. In this study, Mary Ajamī, who attracted attention with her contributions to literary and cultural life, voiced the problems of women in her country with a loud voice, and announced the&nbsp;&nbsp;power of her pen to the world, especially with the magazine al-’Arûs, which has an important place in Syria’s publishing life, is introduced as a neglected poet and writer in our literature. Although it is possible that the reason for this neglect is that Ajamī had opposing views on the administration and rulers of the Ottoman Empire, it is obvious that knowing this name and her works, which are important for her period, will contribute to the relevant field in our country. It is also thought that it would be useful to evaluate the author’s political views from an objective point of view and to address them as the subject of another study.

Mary Ajami and Syria’s First Women’s Magazine al-‘Arūs

M. Rami

&nbsp;It is not strange that a researcher in our current era would tend to study the poetry collection of a poet whose name became prominent and famous in the Abbasid era; it is the golden age that was rightly considered the era of prosperity and progress on various levels, whether scientific, intellectual, literary, or other areas of life, state, and society. It is the era that witnessed a true revolution in the processes of composition, documentation, translation, transfer, and Arabization; many of its scholars and writers were characterized by diversity in culture, depth of thought, and the ability to create, innovate, and renew, in addition to the diversity in the purposes, topics, or forms they addressed. It is also not unusual for a researcher today to seek to shed light on an important aspect of the intellectual, human, and philosophical aspects that were prevalent at that time: the aspect of old age and death or gray hair and death. On the one hand, it is a very sensitive topic that cannot be absent from the mind of a rational, thoughtful, and insightful person for a short time. Rather, it is the most pressing concern for every person who has advanced in age and has become aware of the dangers of death and the nearness of the end. On the other hand, it is a stimulus for creativity, a summary of thought and experience, and a mirror that reflects the prevailing philosophy of that era. The poet Mahmoud Al-Warraq was one of those few Abbasid poets who excelled in addressing this topic and left clear fingerprints in its field that are remembered by the history of literature, its critics, and researchers in it to this day. This is what led this study to address it and no other. The Abbasid poet Mahmoud Al-Warraq is known for his wisdom, preaching, and asceticism. In fact, anyone who reads his poetry can easily ascertain this because of the dominance of this&nbsp;intellectual system in most of the pages of his collection. Within this system, the idea of death emerges in him and becomes one of the most important topics of his poetry, and it is remarkably compatible with the idea of old age and what is related to it. Together, they form an important duality that reveals his philosophy in life and his relationship with God, religion, and society. They also reflect, in one way or another, an important intellectual and religious revolution that occurred in his life. On the other hand, although the intellectual aspects mentioned draw attention to the abundance of the presentation, the beauty of thought, and the importance of the subject, or otherwise, what is striking is the artistic style with which Al-Warraq treated his ideas, and he expressed a clear ability to use the various elements of artistic depiction in a way that serves his ideas and is consistent with the importance of the aforementioned subject. Although this study is not the first in the field of literary or critical studies that aim to address the aspect of asceticism, preaching, and wisdom in Mahmoud Al-Warraq’s poetry, it is the first, in view of what has been presented, that specifically addresses the part of old age and death in his poetry, considering its two sides as an integrated objective duality. Based on what has been mentioned above, this article will seek in the following few pages to address the topic of old age and death in the poetry of the Abbasid poet Mahmoud Al-Warraq with the aim of identifying its most important points and encompassing its most prominent features and characteristics, as it will try to shed light on the esthetics of thought and rhetorical imagery that have emerged in it. If we want to talk about the details of the study, it is possible to say that it was organized according to the mechanisms of the descriptive approach, as it began with the first section, which is a theoretical introduction that briefly introduces the poet Mahmoud Al-Warraq. It became clear through research in literature and heritage books that there is little information that addresses his personality and the stages of his life, in contrast to the presence of a lot of information about his poetry and thought. The introduction also addressed the duality of old age and death in Arabic literature very briefly for representation, not detail, so it presented some of its famous evidence from Arab poetry. The study moved to its second section to address the specificity of thinking and its esthetics in the poetry of old age and death. This was presented according to three main axes: The first axis showed the details of Mahmoud Al Warraq’s transition from a reality of rejecting, denying, and condemning old age to a reality of accepting and submitting to it. This transition can be explained by the change in Al-Warraq’s relationship with religion and God from one stage to another in his life. As for the second axis, it presented the connection between the topic of old age and death and the topic of asceticism in his poetry, and he detailed this through five main points: the first is preaching, guidance and wisdom; the second is alerting the heedless to the nearness and inevitability of death; the third is belief in God’s decree and destiny; the fourth is appreciating good deeds; and the fifth is condemning the world and inclination toward it. The strength and depth of the connection between asceticism and the topic of death became clear, while The third axis is Al-Waraq’s negative view of hair dye, and he considered resorting to it in many of his poems as weakness and worthless futility. Subsequently, the study moved to the third section, which sought to highlight the esthetics of artistic poetic imagery in Al-Waraq’s poetry, which was addressed from the rhetorical aspects. He addressed examples of poetry about old age and death, which included different rhetorical types of simile, metaphor, and metonymy. It became clear that Al-Waraq sought simplicity, clarity, and accuracy in his imagery, in line with the approach of preaching and guidance that he followed. Finally, the study concluded with a conclusion that presented the most important results that were obtained.

The Aesthetics of Thinking and Depiction in the Poetry of Old Age  and Death by Mahmoud Al-Warraq

Mutassem

Reading constitutes a fundamental ability for mastering any language. Students learning Arabic at Turkish faculties of Islamic sciences during their preparatory year must develop reading skills since they serve as their gateway to religious teachings and academic progression toward Islamic studies. Instructional programs of these faculties assign utmost importance to proficient reading skills in Arabic. Despite its essential role in student learning, many students experience obstacles when developing their Arabic reading abilities. The text comprehension level displays the most severe difficulties among students. Multiple research findings and the researcher’s practical experience in Turkish universities determined various sources for the ongoing reading deficiencies in Arabic texts. Three core factors and a fourth set of external components impact the difficulty of reading Arabic: first, its complicated nature as a Semitic language; second, the multiple dimensions of reading skills; and third, the educational practices of instructors with varying qualifications and teaching approaches. Reading abilities do not&nbsp;&nbsp;exist independently within language acquisition because they limit student interaction with academic manuscripts and religious texts. Pedagogical intervention needs to take place right away in this particular situation. Effective learning strategies and practical awareness should be applied to help students develop independence as proficient readers. The most effective strategy for reading success involves the purposeful deployment of learning methods designed for reading. Learners use learning strategies as mental tools combined with techniques to improve their understanding, retention, and problem-solving during the learning process. A crucial advantage of using reading strategies is that students actively participate in texts while reading before, during, and after reading to process complicated information better. The field of modern foreign language education research confirms that students must receive instruction in this type of strategic skill. The development of communication skills and learner independence strongly depends on these strategies. Proper application and internalization of reading strategies will enhance student reading proficiency, leading to higher self-regulation and confidence in learners. The achievement of this outcome depends on teachers developing a complete understanding of both strategies and how they apply to educational settings. The current study investigates the use of reading-specific learning strategies by students enrolled in their preparatory year at Islamic sciences faculties throughout Turkey. This research investigates the impact of gender and the university choices students make on their variation of learning strategies. Several investigations have confirmed that learner strategies react to factors like age alongside gender and learning stage, personal traits, learning style, motivation level, and learning goals, among others. The research group included 120 students randomly picked from preparatory year students during the academic year 2023–2024 before graduation. Most participants identified as female at 77.5%, while the remaining 22.5% identified as male. The research participants included students who studied at Marmara University with a proportion of 37.5% and groups of 25.8% and 24.2% from Kocaeli University and Sultan Mehmet Fatih Waqf University while Sabahattin Zaim University had 12.5% of the participants. For gathering and processing data, the researcher applied descriptive-analytical methodology that helps find patterns and relationships within educational environments. The primary data collection tool used was a questionnaire, which researchers developed and validated with great care. The questionnaire received its foundational design from two primary sources: the language learning strategy taxonomy by Oxford (1996) and al-Mhnny’s (2014) framework, which structured the instrument’s organization plan. The adapted questionnaire included 26 individual strategies grouped within three reading stages, encompassing pre-reading mental activities that prepare students for reading tasks, such as activating existing knowledge together with goal-setting and content prediction activities. When reading, students apply three specific techniques: questioning, summarizing, and contextual guessing. The reading session ends with post-reading strategies, including reflective activities and evaluations, which consist of summarization, conclusion development, and content discussion. The study produced significant findings that became evident. Students highly utilized pre-reading strategies on a 5-point scale, and their&nbsp;&nbsp;average rating reached 3.99, indicating an 80% approval level. The study results demonstrate that students demonstrate sufficient skills for both mental and emotional preparation before starting to read a text. Students used during-reading techniques at high levels based on their 3.77 out of 5 ratings, which matched the agreement rate of 75%. The research findings demonstrated that a few of the methods used at this stage were moderately effective, but most strategies were underutilized. The different response rates reveal that students may have varying knowledge or inconsistent practice of beneficial reading approaches. According to survey results, users applied post-reading strategies to only a modest degree, which yielded 2.92 out of 5 and achieved 58% agreement. Teaching methods aimed at reviewing and integrating learned content are a possible cause of the lower performance in these activities. Teachers’ instructional focus on comprehension may lead them to miss the essential final steps of reading instruction involving reinforcement and integration. Statistical data showed that gender differences were not found when students employed reading strategies before and after reading. According to statistical analysis, the reading process showed that females adopted more strategies at a higher level than males. Research evidence supports that female students show deeper involvement and stronger self-awareness when performing reading assignments. Pre reading and post-reading strategic use between students from different universities remained statistically equal throughout the study. The students from Sabahattin Zaim University outperformed Kocaeli University students in terms of strategy utilization during reading. The research implies that both teaching techniques and faculty development methods in individual institutions control the effectiveness of reading strategy employment among students. The differences between institutions require unified teacher education standards and standardized curricula. Educators need expertise in reading strategy instruction to be effective teachers of reading strategies and the capability to determine suitable times for introduction and observation of real-time student implementation. Implementing organized and evidence-based methods tells students how to handle reading obstacles they experience in Arabic as an external language. The study generates recommendations that show the path toward additional advancement. Additional language skills beyond reading combined with investigation into fundamental variables such as motivation, learning style, task difficulty, and learning goals would improve future research on reading comprehension in L2 learning. Institutions should provide professional development workshops to Arabic language educators to teach them specialized learning approaches while showing them how to assist pupils who experience learning obstacles. The educational curriculum must integrate systematic reading methods training into its training system so that pre-reading, during-reading, and post-reading stages receive equal consideration. Through this study, researchers have uncovered vital information about strategy practices for reading in Arabic language education among students in Turkish Islamic colleges. This study creates foundational knowledge to develop better Arabic language teaching methods using strategic, evidence-based strategies.

Strategies for Understanding Reading Used by Arabic Language  Learners at the End of the Preparatory Year

Nebahat

&nbsp;This study provides a comprehensive examination of the protest themes in Muhammad Iqbal’s poetry and how these themes are reflected in his literary works. This text discusses Iqbal’s influence on Muslim and Eastern societies in particular, while also portraying his place and significance in protest literature. Muhammad Iqbal is considered not only a famous philosopher and poet, but also a prominent Muslim reformist. Therefore, throughout his works, it can be seen that he often addressed Muslim societies.Iqbal was a close witness to the destruction caused by British imperialism on the Indian subcontinent. This destruction was not limited to the exploitation of the country’s natural resources and labor but also led to social and cultural collapse. In particular, after the struggle for independence in 1857, increasing repression and persecution intimidated and discouraged the people. The oppressive behavior of local rulers and beys who collaborated with the British administration deepened people’s despair. In addition, the superstitious discourses of religious authorities and their approach, which led the people into ignorance, caused the despair in society to become insurmountable. On the other hand, economic problems such as hunger, poverty, and unemployment accelerate social degeneration. In an atmosphere in which society was affected by these multiple crises, Iqbal called upon people to strive to change the existing order. His works, while critical of the imperialist powers of the time, contain strong messages concerning the need for Muslim societies to become aware, resist, and defend their own identities. In this context, Iqbal emphasized not only the quest for social and political freedom but also the importance of spiritual and cultural awakening. According to Iqbal, one of the basic conditions for liberation from physical bondage is the end of mental and cultural bondage. This approach was also evident in his philosophical reflections on the relationship between individuals and society. Iqbal used rich metaphors in his poetry to indoctrinate a sense of responsibility to his readers. These metaphors contain strong calls for individual action and social consciousness. His poems criticize phenomena such as imperialism, colonialism, injustice, and ignorance &nbsp;for their destructive effects on humanity. In the context of the social and cultural destruction caused by British imperialism in India, his themes of freedom and awakening became more significant. In this respect, Iqbal’s works functioned as a powerful literary tool that encouraged both individuals and societies to mobilize. Iqbal wrote most of his works in Persian. This preference can be seen as an attempt to ensure that his messages would resonate across a wider geographic area. In this context, an analysis of Iqbal’s works written not only in Urdu but also in Persian in terms of protest literature will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of his literary and intellectual legacy. Accordingly, the article analyzes Iqbal’s Persian works Asraar-e Khudi (یدوخ ِ رِارسا), Rumooz-e Bekhudi (یدوخ ےب ِ زِومرِ), Payaam-e Mashriq (قرشم مِایپ), Zaboor-e ‘Ajam (مجع رِوبزِ), Javed Naama (ہمان دیواج), Musafir (رفاسم), Pas Cha Bayad Kard (درک دیاب ہچ سپ); Urdu works Baang-e Daraa (ارِد ِگِناب), Baal-e Jibreel, (لیربج لِاب), Zarb-e Kaleem (میلک بِرض) and Armaghaan-e Hijaz (زِاجح نِاغمرِا) in both Urdu and Persian. The protest-themed poems in these works are analyzed thematically to understand Iqbal’s critical approach to social, political, and cultural issues and the messages he presented in this context. Among the most prominent protest themes in Iqbal’s works are imperialism, colonialism, injustice, oppression, persecution, ignorance, religious fanaticism, and labor exploitation. While Iqbal strongly advocates resistance to these negative elements and the quest for liberty, he also calls for a social awakening against ignorance. Concerning the main findings of this study, three general conclusions can be drawn.First, Iqbal’s poems, both in Persian and Urdu, emphasize the development of individual self-awareness. This shows that individual awareness is seen as the beginning of a transformation process that triggers social awareness. Iqbal prioritized the philosophy of the ‘selfness’ and considered the inner development of the individual as the cornerstone of freedom. According to him, the development of the individual ‘selfness’ will make it possible not only to seek personal freedom but also to take an active role in the construction of the social structure. This understanding encompasses a process that begins with the spiritual and intellectual transformation of the individual and extends to the reconstruction of society. In his poetry, Iqbal deals with this transformation process at both the individual and the social level while creating strong links between these two levels. Second, Iqbal’s poems emphasize that Muslim societies should not simply adopt a passive attitude in the face of imperialist powers. Instead, he stressed that they should resist external pressures by protecting their cultural and spiritual values. According to Iqbal, Muslim societies have been in a deep state of oblivion for a long time, and this oblivion has led them backwards both socially and culturally. This revolutionary stance in the poet’s works led him to be seen as a guide who went beyond being just a man of letters. In this context, Iqbal’s poems are not only of literary value but also ideological manifestos that guide society and strengthen the belief in liberty and justice. Iqbal used his literature as a wake-up call to Eastern societies and the Muslim world while contributing to raising social consciousness through his poetry.&nbsp;Third, in Iqbal’s works, there could be found clear calls for Muslims social resistance both toward foreign colonial forces and opportunist inner religious authorities. In that sense, his works were not limited to individual or social criticism, but were also aimed at developing the Muslim peoples’ power of resistance and strengthening their will to resist oppressive authorities. Iqbal argues that the way out of this situation is for societies to rebuild their identities by returning to their core values and deep-rooted beliefs. According to him, this process should begin with individual and social awareness and turn into an outward awakening through active action.In conclusion, it is clear that Iqbal’s poetry is not only limited to individual development but also contains strong messages about the need for society to become conscious and fight against the imperialist powers. His literary works should be considered a cornerstones of protest literature and an important reference point not only for Muslim communities in Pakistan and India but also for all Eastern societies.

Resistance and Protest Discourse in Muhammad Iqbal’s Poetry

Necmi

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

One of the pioneering figures of Moroccan literature, the short story writer, novelist, poet, and translator Mohammed Zafzaf, was born in 1945 in Souk El Arbaa El Gharb, near the city of Ouazzane. Toward the end of the 1940s, following the passing of his father, his mother migrated to Kenitra with her children. According to Zafzaf’s own account, he enrolled in a school established by colonial authorities but was unable to continue his education there. He later transferred to a private school founded by nationalists; however, he also encountered difficulties with the children of prominent families. Living in a small house with his mother and siblings, Zafzaf struggled to integrate with his wealthier peers. In response to these challenges, he dedicated himself to his studies, ultimately excelling as the most diligent student in his class across all subjects. Zafzaf completed his primary, secondary, and high school education in Kenitra, where he grew up, and obtained his high school diploma in 1965. He enrolled in the Philosophy Department of the Faculty of Arts in Rabat where he pursued part of his higher education. However, in 1968, he left the faculty and began working as a middle school teacher in Kenitra. During this period, he developed a strong interest in literature, finding the school library more compelling than teaching itself. Consequently, he left his teaching position to become a library secretary. After completing his tenure in Kenitra, he moved to Casablanca, where he resumed teaching at a high school. Nevertheless, none of these professional engagements provided him with a true sense of fulfillment. The Tunisian philosopher Fathi al-Maskinî (b. 1961) reflects on the nature of poetry in his work ‘Migrating to Humanity’, stating: “Poetry is not a profession; it is an impossible potential that lies in the fate of each of us. However, some of us have managed to awaken an interest in it.” For Zafzaf, this literary potential remained alive throughout his life. By the early 1960s, he had already begun to cultivate his passion for writing, and shortly after, he abandoned teaching and dedicate himself fully to writing. Mohammed Zafzaf, deeply conscious of the social realities surrounding him, chose to focus on short story writing, believing that the struggles, poverty, suffering, and countless tragedies of the oppressed and impoverished required a more expansive narrative form than poetry. It is also important to note that Zafzaf began his literary career as a poet. His first poems were published in Moroccan newspapers and magazines starting in 1963. Regarding&nbsp;his poetic talent, the Moroccan writer Moustapha al-Shalikh remarked, “Had he not focused his talent on short story writing in the mid-1960s, he could have become an important poet.” Mohammed Zafzaf wrote about where he lived. In Casablanca, he experienced both chaotic and structured periods of a bohemian lifestyle. Having emerged the narrow alleys of poverty, he never found much pleasure in the bustle of the city, despite its vast horizons. He preferred solitude, but no one left this great writer alone. His home in the Maârif neighborhood became a frequent destination for students, writers, and journalists from both Morocco and abroad. He sometimes expressed discomfort with these visits, saying: “This place doesn’t really feel like my home, and this exhaurts me. If the doorbell is not ringing, then the phone will start. If I were rich, I would buy a house outside Casablanca and rest there.” Although the King of Morocco personally funded Zafzaf’s long-term medical treatment in Paris, he neither aligned himself with power nor actively opposed or rebelled against it. Furthermore, he did not affiliate with any political party or movemen, instead lived with his unique “leftist” idealism and a humanistic vision, dreaming of a future where justice and freedom prevailed. While he valued opening up to the world, engaging in dialogue with others—both within the Arab world or Western Europe—he consistently emphasized his deep connection to Morocco and his roots to its soil. Mohammed Zafzâf never wrote his own biography. Despite the fact that all his works were published by publishers outside Morocco, he unfortunately never received an award in his home country. This oversight was eventually compensated through the establishment of an award in his name, presented every three years at the Asilah Cultural Festival. Zafzaf, after a prolonged battle with cancer, passed away on July 13, 2001, at the age of 56. The poet, short story and novel writer, and translator Mohammed Zafzaf, who holds an important place in both Arab and Moroccan literature, referred to as the “Poet of the Moroccan Novel” and was also recognized by his fellow authors as a “great writer”. Having stepped into the literary world in the early 1960s through poetry, Zafzaf later turned his focus to prose and produced numerous successful works in the genres of novels and short stories. His writings filled a significant gap in the fields of novels and short stories in both the Arab world and Morocco.In the mid-1960s, during a time when pressures on the leftist and socialist opposition in the country increased, and their leaders were arrested, many cowardly poets and writers fell silent, and some newspapers and writers hesitated to take a stance. However, Zafzaf moved away writing poetry centered on love and individual emotions, genres he considered simple and poor attempts, turning instead poetry infused with a revolutionary spirit. During this period, he stated the influence of by Tunisian poet Abu’l-Qâsım al-Shâbbi, as well as Khalîl Gibrân, Mikhail Noayma, and Mahmoud Taha in his poetry. He dreamed of becoming a poet who wrote in both Arabic and French, but after he began publishing in Arabic, he declared his hatred for French, considering it the language of the colonizers. Zafzaf became widely recognized in literary circles and among a broader readership through his nearly weekly published reflections on journalism and literature under the title “Diaries on the Road” in al-Alam newspaper from1964 to 1969. Beginning his short story writing career early, Zafzaf published his stories in prestigious magazines such as al-Majalla, owned by Yahya Haqqi in Egypt, al-Adab in Beirut, and al-Ma’arifa in Syria. His stories attracted the attention of Arab critics and literary figures, were widely appreciated throughout the Arab world. In 1968, he became a member of the Union of Moroccan Writers, which further fueled his determination to write. Two years later, he published his first short story collection, “Hiwarun Fi Laylin Muta’akhkhir” (Dialogue in the Late Hours of the Night), the first fruit of his dream. However, his true breakthrough came in 1972 with the publication of his first novel, “al-Mar’atu wa’l-Wardah” (The Woman and the Rose), which was later recognized as one of the top 100 novels in Arab literature. In this work, Zafzâf broke taboos, crossed red lines, and exercised freedom of expression with remarkable flexibility. When asked if he had a specific writing ritual, he responded: “I am not a professional writer, so I do not have a ritual for reading and writing. I read whenever I feel like it and spend much of my time reading. I write according to my mood. It’s true that some people say I am a very productive writer and I forgive them. As I told you, I do not concern myself with the world. However, I also respect those who are busy raising their children, building apartments or villas, or running after farming and gardening. I have never thought about such things. I chose to read and write without selling myself to any platform or commercializing what I write. I write as I please, and this brings me peace. I will die with a clear conscience.” Zafzâf never regarded writing as a privilege, nor did he seek to gain wealth or fame through it. He described fame as deceptive, comparing those who chase it to someone trying to hold water in their hands. In response to a related question, he stated:”Of course, every young person dreams of becoming famous or wealthy when they start writing. But for me, writing is a matter of existence. If I don’t write, I feel as though I no longer want to live. When I say ‘if I don’t write,’ I also mean ‘if I don’t read every day,’ because I feel as though I cannot live without reading.” He believed that he was not meant to have children, accumulate wealth, or attain worldly positions. In his works, Zafzaf often focused on the theme of death. Although some critics saw this as a flaw, he considered his focus on death as a way of clinging to life and the values of goodness in this fleeting world. He was not an author of velvet dreams or emotional novels with happy endings. Instead, he was a writer who drew inspiration from the harshness of his own life, his class consciousness, his humanity, his foresight, and his determination to break taboos and prohibitions. He rebelled against social inequalities, bourgeois exploitation, and the political silence that bordered on complicity. At the same time, he exposed the restrictions imposed on society under the guise of morality or religious prohibitions, laying bare their secrets.

An Author on The Edge of Life: Mohammed Zafzâf

Ozan

Rahimi is a poet of classical Turkish literature who lived in Bursa in the sixteenth century. Historical sources providing information about his biography include Aşık Çelebi’s Meşa‘irü’ş Şu‘ara, Ahdi’s Gülşen-i Şu‘ara, Kınalızade Hasan Çelebi’s and Beyani’s Tezkiretü‘ş-Şu‘ara and Kafzade Faizi’s Zübdetü’l-Eş‘ar. Other sources that compile the information obtained from these works are Tayyarzade Ahmed Ata’s Tarih-i Ata, Şemseddin Sami’s Kamusu’l-A‘lam, Mehmed Süreyya’s Sicill-i Osmani, Abdizade Hüseyin Hüsameddin Yasar’s Amasya Tarihi, Mehmed Nail Tuman’s Tuhfe-i Naili and Osman Fevzi Olcay’s Amasya Meşahiri.Rahimi’s real name was Abdurrahim, thus he chose the pseudonym Rahimi. His father was an Amasya named Mehemmed Çelebi, who was engaged in science, and he came to Bursa and settled there. While in Bursa, Rahimi met a person named Sheikh Abdülmümin. According to historical sources, this person was a disciple of Ali b. Meymun al-Maghribi, one of the most important figures of the Shazeliya sect. It is known that Rahimi was a good calligrapher and earned his living through calligraphy. Historical sources state that he died around 970 (1562-1563). His only known work today is his mathnawi named Seb‘a-Seyyare. The only identified manuscript copy of this work is registered in Manisa Manuscript Library, Manisa Akhisar Zeynelzade Collection, number 213/2. It is written in the the aruz meter mould fe‘ilatün mefa‘ilün fe‘ilün. Although the poet states that his work consists of 1000 couplets, a total of 990 couplets are recorded in the manuscript copy we have. The work was completed in 945 (1538-1539). Aşık Çelebi, in his work Meşa‘irü’ş-Şu‘ara, provides information about the subject of this mathnawi: Rahimi falls in love with a man named Keyvanzade Mustafa around 940 (1533-1534). This person was famous for his beauty in Bursa. Rahimi suffered many troubles because of his love. He narrated this story in his work Seb‘a-Seyyare. The work begins with sections of tawhit, munajat and naat. In these sections, the poet praises the greatness of God and the glory of the Prophet Muhammed. Then he explains the reason for writing his work: He intended to explain what love is like. In the meantime, he read some books such as Husrev ü Şirin, Leyliyy ü Mecnun and Vamık u Azra. However, these books are inadequate because they do not deal with the love of God but human love. For this reason, he wanted to tell his own experiences. Rahimi says that his work is in the genre of “hasbihal/ sergüzeşt” because he narrates the events that happened to him in his work.The setting of the story is Bursa. The poet mentions various natural beauties and architectural works here. He says that he spends his days alone; therefore, he wants to fall in love. He starts wandering in the gardens to find a lover for himself. However, he cannot find the lover he is looking for. In the evening, he returns home and falls asleep. He sees an old person in his dream. This person says that there are seven handsome men in the heaven of beauty. He says that if he wants to see them, they can go around the neighbourhoods that resemble the floors of the sky. Together they start to visit these places. They visit the neighbourhoods that resemble the celestial floors named Kamer (Moon), Utarid (Mercury), Zühre (Venus), Mirrih (Merih), Müşteri (Jupiter) and Zuhal (Saturn) respectively. In each place they meet a handsome man. The names of these men are Attarzade, Şeyhoğlu Ahmed, Pür-melek, Sunullah, Kasım Beg, Büryancızade Ahmed and Keyvanzade Mustafa. When Rahimi sees Keyvanzade Mustafa, he falls in love with him. He wakes up from sleep with excitement. In the morning, he wanders around the gardens of Bursa in search of this person, but he cannot find him. Time passes. On a holiday morning, he sees Keyvanzade Mustafa in a place called Pınarbaşı; but he cannot meet him. This situation raises Rahimi’s consciousness. He complains to fate for not being able to fulfil his wishes. He realizes that human love is not important, what really matters is the love of God. Seb‘a-Seyyare ends with a prayer to God. The poet wants his work to be read by everyone. Since Seb‘a-Seyyare was written in connection with the sky, the work includes ancient astronomical knowledge and folk beliefs based on this knowledge. While Rahimi uses various figures of speech and phrases based on the description of nature, he sometimes includes some expressions on the basis of the convergence of the various celestial bodies. Some examples of these can be given as follows: Dér gören vardı burc-ı ʿAķreb’e Māh (Those who see it say that the Moon is approaching Scorpio), Ķıldı burc-ı Esed’de Mihr ķarār (The Sun, entered Leo), Ŝan ʿUšārid’dür étdi Delv’e ģulūl ([The vision of that beauty] is like the planet Mercury entering Aquarius), Gūyiyā necm-i Tìr ü burc-ı Kemān ([Me and him], we are like Mercury and Sagittarius). It is possible to understand the meaning of such discourses by knowing the reflections of astronomical events in the sky in folk beliefs. In some cases, the expressions that have found a place in classical Persian and Turkish poetry and that express meaning within the framework of allegory are included. Some examples of these can be given as follows: gül-i zerd, necm-i hüdā, zer zevraķ, raĥş-ı sipihr, raĥş-ı gerdūn, şāh-ı sipihr, çār-gūşe, heşt behişt, ŝovuķ āh, cām-ı zerrìn, zerrìn-kedū, Pervìn, dendān, ĥurūs-ı ʿarş and so on. In addition, some games related to social life, names of clothing, architectural details, various idioms and proverbs are also noteworthy (el el üstinde oyna-, şeb-küleh, altun üs[kü]f, şemsì dülbend, sūsenì ĥilʿat, arslan aġzı, yénür ŝan-, germ ét-, arpaca, alçaġlıġ eyle-, kevkeb alışdur-, ķanda iki, saķaline gül-, géñ yaķadan, géce ġarìbüñdür, el arķasını yére ķo-, kes düş- and so on). All these can be considered as elements that increase the literary, descriptive and representational value of the text.﻿Seb‘a-Seyyare draws attention with its vivid descriptions of nature. Night, day, earth, sky, stars, planets, trees, leaves, fruits and all kinds of flowers are successfully personified by endowing them with human or unique characteristics. The poet has added a literary value to his work with figures of speech such as teşbih, istiare, tenasüp, teşhis, mübalağa and hüsn-i talil, and has successfully reflected human psychology to the reader.

Seb‘a-Seyyare: Rahimi’s Hasbihal About Love

Ramazan

Palestinian literature is a part of Arab literature, a literature that belongs to the Arab nation, expresses its culture, speaks its own language, and has been circulating in the circles of its writers since the time the Arabs became a nation. I cannot find a specific name for this literature since the occupation of Palestine, or a little before that, since British colonialism. Palestinian literature before the British Mandate was an inseparable part of Arab literature and its different environment. Therefore, this study cannot identify independent characteristics of this historical period. More precisely, it cannot be studied outside the general Palestinian literature. The subjects of Arab literature at that time were as follows: The subjects of every Arab writer were the same, that is, the traditional subjects of praise, satire, flirtation, and elegance continued until active intellectual and political movements emerged. It completely separated itself from the Arab literature that began to address the Palestinian issue in its intellectual, political, and historical dimensions, which from the beginning allowed the formation of a Palestinian literature that was different from other Arab literatures, although this literature did not exist in literary circles, especially in terms of art or in subjects that concerned the entire Arab nation. At the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, Zionist ambitions to occupy Palestine began to appear on the horizon, and Western colonialism began to infiltrate&nbsp;&nbsp;Palestine. This colonization was implemented after the Balfour Declaration of 1917. After colonialism was established in Palestine, Palestinian revolutions and donations began, martyrs began to fall against the colonial presence, the names of heroes began to shine, and the Palestinian cause was painted. The dawn of the birth of resistance poets began here with the color of blood and the melody of resistance, and new literature began to take shape on the battlefield. It deals with the Palestinian issue, narrates one of its events chronologically, and deals with political, intellectual, and even historical issues related to the other side and Abdul Rahim Mahmoud. Karmi and Ibrahim Touqan, who were the foremost figures in the field of poetry during that period. In the field of prose, Nashashibi and Sakakini focused on the fields of criticism, literature, and culture, while in the novels, some national writers attempted to present provocative educational novels after the Balfour Declaration. The face of the British Mandate and the Zionist project. For this reason, in 1908, Naguib Nassar (1873-1948), the founder of the newspaper “Al-Karmel”, wrote two educational novels, “The Protection of the Arabs” and “The Loyalty of the Arabs”, which extolled virtuous values, and we tried to use them in a national resistance project. Similarly, the historian Muhammad Azza Darwaza (1887-1984), who believed in a glorious Arab past, wrote a school novel, “The Delegations of Al-Nu’man to Khosrow Anu Shirwan”, which he published in Beirut in 1911. Two years later, he completed it with the novel “The Broker and the Land Seller”, whose title refers to its message. With these early pioneers, we began to see on the horizon the characteristics of independent Palestinian literature with its own characteristics, shaped by the contributions of these writers, whether in the field of stories, novels, or plays. The most important feature of this literary phase in terms of content was that most of the literature in it concerned literature of struggle, revolutionary literature, and literature in search of freedom. Literature that stood up against injustice and oppression, in particular, dealt with Palestine and its threats. Literature that called for the Palestinian cause to be embraced and not to neglect its land, and that carried the seeds of fear that Western Europe was planning to settle Zionists in Palestine. The truth is that these literary issues were not limited to Palestinians. Rather, many Arab writers warned against British plans to settle Jews and spoke of the heroism of the Palestinians and the crimes of the British, since the rest of the Arab world was also going through the same colonial phase. Modern Palestinian literature has been closely linked to the Palestin ian cause at the beginning of the last century. It has reflected the political circumstances and radical changes that have made it a distinct literature characterized by revolutionary, political, and resistance themes. However, terms such as “Return Literature,” “Diaspora,” “Exile,” and “Nakba” sometimes overlap and at other time diverge. This study fundamentally attempts to disentangle the intertwined terms between the concept of “Return Literature” and other competing terms. It also seeks to define the semantic values associated with the term, trace its movement in terms of its reformative aspect, and reveal the essence of this concept, its semantic implications, and the history of its development. Research Problem: The researcher is quick to point out that during the past century, there has been no issue more important to Arabs in the field of public politics than the Palestinian cause. Therefore, all Arab poetry tended to fall under the category&nbsp;&nbsp;of resistance poetry. However, Return Literature gradually began to take shape as a phenomenon with unique characteristics that made it a distinct literary genre. This literature began to emerge in the early 1950s when Palestinians found themselves outside their homeland, in the diaspora, in refugee camps, and in exile. Nostalgia for the past, longing for return, and the portrayal of its imagined features marked their literary work during this period. The abundance of literary production in both poetry and prose during this period had a clear impact on inspiring critical efforts to search for a distinctive term to label this production. Research Objective: This study aims to disentangle the overlapping terms within Palestinian resistance literature, such as “Diaspora Literature,” “Exile Literature,” and “Nakba Literature,” to make “Return Literature” an independent term with its own definitions and criteria that do not allow for chaoti c overlap and terminological confusion. Research Scope: This study covers Palestinian literature produced during the periods of the British Mandate and Israeli occupation, specifically focusing on Return Literature that expresses Palestinian desire, belief, and conviction in the necessity of return. It also addresses aspects of disentangling the term from other competing concepts. Research Findings: The study concludes with significant findings, highlighting the fact that the term “Return Literature” is an independent concept, limited to literature that advocates for the return to Palestine, whether it originates from diaspora writers outside Palestine or from writers within Palestinian territories. If return literature or resistance literature represents a common point in all languages and nations, it can be considered special for Palestinian literature. Resistance has colored Palestinian literature since the Jewish occupation of Palestine in 1948. Most of the literature we can see from that time to the present belongs to resistance literature. Regarding the details of this subject, some Palestinian writers have left Palestine. They resided in Europe or other Arab countries. They began to produce works related to the Palestinian issue in the places they lived. In these works, themes such as longing for the homeland, longing, and desire to return to the homeland can be observed. According to literary criticism, we can call these works “edebü’l-avde” (return literature). If we want to introduce return literature, we can say the following: literature that cries out for return to the homeland, even if it is in Palestine or other countries. For this reason, the works written by the authors mentioned outside the return literature are not included in this subject. In fact, we do not consider works related to the Palestinian homeland as return literature. This literature belongs to another field. For example, it could be literature on struggle, power, or exile. However, it is never a return literature. The return literature has its own characteristics. If we were to make a list, the first would be literature that talks about the right to return, and the second would carry some themes such as longing and longing for the homeland. However, it is an art that deals with reunification with the homeland. Mentioning different issues in the written works does not make the work a return literature.

Return Literature: A Reading on The Meanings and Connotations  of The Title

Rumeysa

&nbsp;In literary creation, every writer possesses a unique style and aesthetic inclination. Although their so-called “literary realism” and the “real” they pursue vary from person to person, they all more or less strive for their works to achieve a certain degree of “authenticity”. The pursuit of “authenticity” in the May Fourth literary scene was not uncommon, and the authenticity of literary works became a primary standard for evaluating their merit. However, Yu Dafu’s understanding of “real” evidently differed from that of other intellectuals of the May Fourth period. To many writers of that era, the authenticity of a work often depended on its portrayal and critique of social issues. They believed that revealing the genuine aspects of society was a mission and that exposing social darkness would awaken people’s desire for revolution and progress. Although Yu Dafu did not ignore the authentic portrayal of social realities, he focused more on the inner world of the individual. He believed that the greatest expression of literary realism lies in the genuine expression of emotions and loyalty to one’s inner world. His emphasis on fidelity to facts actually referred to the fidelity to the expression of one’s own emotions and desires.Yu Dafu, who often pointed out that “literary works are all autobiographies of the authors”, believed that the authenticity of a literary work is closely related to the author’s level of self-insertion in the writing process. The greater the author’s self-insertion in the creative process, the more the work approaches authenticity, and the more it can convince readers of the authenticity presented in the text. This literary perspective led him to consistently &nbsp;incorporate depictions of “sexual desire” and a style of writing characterized by self-disclosure. However, while the author’s self-insertion of personal emotions and experiences into writing can enhance the authenticity of their work, but in which aspects should this insertion occur? Does the authentic expression of emotions necessarily have to include depictions of sexual desire or the “exposure of privacy”? This study analyzes, through the works of Yu Dafu and his style of novel writing, an inquiry into these questions, while also examining the reasons for the frequent depiction of sexual desires in his novels.Through the depiction of sexual desire and self-disclosure, Yu Dafu primarily exposed the constraints of traditional culture and the feudal moral system on modern individuals, while also calling forth the most genuine aspects of human nature. In his view, concealing one’s emotions or suppressing desires is a “hypocritical” act. He did not believe that an artist could completely detach from their emotional experiences during the creative process. Confronting the traditional literati’s concealment of their emotions and suppression of human “nature”, he expressed criticism and dissatisfaction. He advocated for candidly facing one’s most genuine emotions and desires, rather than hiding or disguising oneself. He found hypocrisy towards oneself more unbearable than any other criticism.In Yu Dafu’s novels, we never encounter any flawless characters. On the contrary, he intentionally shapes flesh-and-blood protagonists, emphasizing their flaws and weaknesses. Through a direct and candid narrative tone, he courageously confronts his own pain, confusion, and inner struggles, presenting all his personal emotions without reservation to the reader. His unparalleled insight into characters’ inner worlds and his sincere portrayal are undeniably remarkable. His narrative requires no ornate embellishment yet resonates deeply with readers. He often presents his own vulnerability and imperfections through characters’ inner monologues. In an era characterized by stringent privacy norms, Yu Dafu courageously divulged the most intimate thoughts. The struggle and deep depression of these characters are portrayed with such authenticity that they resonate profoundly with countless readers.&nbsp;From a narrative perspective, Yu Dafu considers the self-exposure in literary creation as an artistic technique to reveal the inner self and authentically portray human nature. By depicting characters’ “shortcomings” and “deep desires”, he not only aims to confront the “self” candidly and expose its most genuine aspects but also enhances the authenticity of his works and characters. These so-called “shortcomings” and “desires” contribute to the lifelike qualities of the characters, making them more compelling and genuine.&nbsp;As a result of this study, it is evident that Yu Dafu narrates his novels within the framework of art that aims for a “self-defined” realism. Through a writing style that exposes his deepest “self” and sexual desires, he challenges the hypocritical attitudes of traditional literature and writers, and at times, he does so to be honest with himself. Although an author’s self-insertion in writing can enhance a work’s authenticity, the authentic expression of emotions has never strictly required the “self-disclosure”. Yu Dafu’s persistence in this particular creative style stemmed from a deeper reason. From the very beginning of existence, humankind has grappled with the inevitability of death while carrying within a profound desire to leave a lasting mark on this world. This desire becomes even more pronounced for artists and writers. Written works serve as one of the most powerful means of transcending time, allowing an individual’s thoughts, emotions, and perspectives to reach beyond their era. Writers aim not only to speak to their contemporaries but also to connect with future generations through their works. Great writers achieve this by delving into the universal aspects of human nature, ensuring their works are read and interpreted for centuries. Yu Dafu’s longing to become a great and enduring writer not only drove him to address the issues of his time but also compelled him to explore the deeper, timeless dimensions of human existence. This pursuit led him to repeatedly weave these profound reflections into his works, solidifying his place in literary history. As an avid reader of biographies, he observed that many of the great writers and poets who left their mark on history shared similar vulnerabilities and hardships with him. Furthermore, these frailties and uncontrollable desires are fundamental aspects of human nature, uniting people through a shared sense of experience. According to Yu Dafu, the main reason why works that have had a significant impact on society continue to be read and admired across different cultures and eras, even after many years, lies in their unflinching portrayal of human frailty, desires, and suppressed aspects of the self. Having read countless Chinese and Western novels, he realized early on that what grants infinity and permanence to writers and their works is the exploration of humanity’s shared values and universal struggles. Recognizing sexual desires as one of humanity’s most fundamental and universal urges, Yu Dafu intimately understands that they are a shared concern of all humanity. By expressing these desires, he aims to represent not only those who hesitate to articulate them in society, particularly the youth, but also to achieve lasting presence in literature.

Searching for the Path of “The Real”:The “Self-Disclosure” In Yu  Dafu’s Novels

Şerafettin

Modern Egyptian literature represents a significant transformation initiated by Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt at the end of the 18th century. This event marked the beginning of the Western influence on Arabic literature, breaking its classical molds and initiating a transition to modern genres. Over time, printing presses, journalism, and translation activities played pivotal roles in this transformation. Key figures like Rifa‘a Rafi‘ al-Tahtawi introduced French literary works to Arabic audiences, triggering the emergence of modern Egyptian novels and short stories. By the 19th century, a growing interaction with Western literature inspired the creation of new genres. These genres combined traditional Arabic forms with Western narrative techniques, ultimately laying the foundation for modern Arabic literature. The document explores these developments through four key phases: the early phase, romanticism, social realism, and the post-1952 Revolution era.The initial wave of modern Egyptian novels served an educational purpose. Writers such as Rifa‘a Rafi‘ al-Tahtawi and his student Ali Mubarak were pioneers in this field. Tahtawi’s work, “Takhlees al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz” (1834), documented his observations from Paris, combining travelogue with narrative innovation. His translation of Fénelon’s “Les Aventures de Télémaque” introduced the novel format to Arabic literature, emphasizing moral and social lessons. Ali Mubarak, a student of Tahtawi, expanded this tradition with his work, “Alam al Din,” which adopted a simpler style, bringing the narrative closer to a modern novel format. Meanwhile, the dissemination of literary translations further popularized the novel as a medium for discussing societal and cultural issues. Another milestone in this phase was the emergence of serialized storytelling. Publications like “al-Jinan” journal published early short stories by writers such as Abdullah Nadim. His works often criticized social vices, government corruption, and cultural decline, setting a precedent for using literature as a vehicle for reform.The romantic phase of modern Egyptian literature began at the end of the 19th century and developed in the early 20th century. Inspired by European romanticism, this movement emphasized individual emotions, idealized love, and the beauty of nature. Writers such as Gibran Khalil Gibran and Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti became leading figures during this&nbsp;period, blending European influences with traditional Arabic sensibilities. al-Manfaluti’s adaptations of French works into Arabic introduced themes of introspection and moral conflict. Similarly, Gibran’s works like “Spirits Rebellious” resonated deeply with Arabic audiences, combining lyrical prose with existential questions. Muhammad Haykal’s “Zaynab” (1914), regarded as the first non-historical Arabic novel, marked a pivotal moment in this phase. The novel explored the themes of rural life, arranged marriages, and superstition, offering a social critique wrapped in romantic ideals. This era of romanticism set the stage for modern storytelling, making literature accessible and emotionally engaging for a growing readership.The 1930s saw the rise of social realism, reflecting a shift from personal to societal concerns. Economic hardships, political instability, and rising nationalism drove writers to focus on social injustices and the struggles of marginalized communities. Inspired by Marxist thought and Soviet literature, this movement used fiction to critique societal structures and advocate for change. Prominent figures like Naguib Mahfouz and Yusuf Idris emerged as leading voices in this genre. Mahfouz’s early novels captured the struggles of Cairo’s urban poor, while Idris’s short stories highlighted the lives of peasants and laborers. These works combined realism with a deep empathy for their subjects, turning the literature into a platform for voicing collective grievances. The 1952 Egyptian Revolution initially bolstered the movement. Writers viewed the revolution as a realization of their ideals, but as the new regime became increasingly repressive, social realism lost momentum. The authors began experimenting with alternative styles like symbolism, reflecting a growing disillusionment with political realities.The post-revolution era marked a period of ideological and artistic shifts. While the revolution promised equality and justice, its aftermath revealed new forms of authoritarianism. Writers who had once celebrated the revolution now faced censorship, imprisonment, or exile. Yusuf Idris became a central figure during this time, using his stories to critique both the old and new regimes. His works blended literary innovation with biting social commentary, capturing the frustrations of a population yearning for freedom. Similarly, Mahfouz transitioned into more allegorical narratives, using symbolism to navigate political constraints. This era also witnessed the emergence of a “new realism,” combining elements of romanticism and social critique. Writers like Taha Hussein explored the psychological and moral dimensions of societal challenges, offering nuanced perspectives on Egypt’s evolving identity.Modern Egyptian literature affirms the dynamic interplay between tradition and modernity. Born from the cross-cultural exchanges of the 19th century, it evolved into a powerful medium for exploring identity, justice, and humanity. From the moralistic tales of Rifa‘a Rafi‘ al-Tahtawi to the revolutionary narratives of Yusuf Idris, Egyptian writers have left an indelible mark on both Arabic and world literature. This literary journey not only mirrors Egypt’s historical transformations but also underscores the enduring power of storytelling in shaping national and cultural identities. As it continues to evolve, modern Egyptian literature remains vital for understanding contemporary society. In this study, these key findings are reached: Modern Egyptian literature represents a blend of traditional Arabic esthetics with Western narrative forms. Translation played a crucial role in introducing new genres and themes and bridging cultural divides.Literature has become a tool for social critique, addressing issues such as inequality, corruption, and cultural stagnation. From Abdullah Nadim’s satirical stories to Yusuf Idris’s poignant depictions of rural life, Egyptian writers used fiction as a means of protest. The progression from romanticism to social realism reflects broader socio-political changes. Romanticism’s focus on individual emotions gave way to the collective struggles emphasized by social realism. Despite political repression and societal upheaval, Egyptian literature continued to adapt, using symbolism and allegory to navigate restrictions.In conclusion, it is evident that modern Egyptian literature is the product of a process that was shaped under Western influence, yet it is rooted in the traditional structure of the Arab world. This process has resulted in a wide range of works, ranging from social criticism to the glorification of individual emotions. Modern Egyptian literature has left a rich legacy that both emphasizes national identity and sheds light on universal human problems.

A General Evaluation of Modern Egyptian Novels and Short Stories

Uğur

Ekrem

This study presents an annotated translation of the Lubb-i Fazilet, authored by Ahmed Remzi Akyurek, a prominent late Ottoman poet, mystic, and scholar. This translation focuses on the forty-couplet qasida contained within the divan of Molla Jami, a distinguished figure in classical Persian poetry, and includes transcription letters for clarity. To contextualize the published text, it is essential to explore the life, works, and contributions of Ahmed Remzi Akyurek, reflecting his scholarly diligence and significant contributions to the Mawlawi tradition. The biographical account primarily draws from the works of Huseyin Vassaf, Sadeddin Nuzhet Ergun, and Ibnulemin Mahmud Kemal Inal. Additionally, the study highlights various scholarly investigations on Akyurek’s oeuvre. Beyond the mystical themes in Molla Jami’s qasida, the research discusses the linguistic and artistic nuances exhibited in each couplet. This study analyzes both the meaning and structural framework of these artistic constructs, highlighting their architectural finesse. Molla Jami is a prominent figure whose influence extends far beyond his contributions to classical Persian literature. His established position within the Persian scientific and literary heritage is noteworthy, and his impact on Ottoman scholars is significant. Beyond his works in Islamic sciences, Molla Jami’s poetry and independent marhews, featured in his three-volume Persian Divan, have captivated Ottoman writers across various periods. The interest in his works has notably grown over time, particularly through the translations and commentaries that have emerged. A pertinent example of this engagement is found in Akyurek’s concise treatise, Lubb-i Fazilet. This work reflects the ongoing interest in Molla Jami’s poetry the Turkish Islamic literary tradition. Akyurek undertook the translation and exposition of a forty couplet poem from Molla Jami’s first divan meticulously, analyzing the rhetoric and figures of speech present in the text. His efforts not only elucidate the literary and mystical foundations of the poem but also highlight the intricate relationship between rhetoric, figures of speech, and meaning, drawing the attention of literary researchers to its significance. &nbsp;Lubb-i Fazilet, authored by Ahmed Remzi Akyurek, serves as the focal point of this article. This work features a forty-couplet qasida by Molla Jami, accompanied by semantic and grammatical analyses of individual words within the couplets. It also presents translations of each couplet articulated in various expressions, as well as detailed explanations of the figures of speech employed throughout. Akyurek considered the title Lubb-i Fazilet, which translates to “the essence of virtue/matureness,” particularly fitting for this endeavor. Notably, the sum of the letter values of this title corresponds to the date of its writing. This is the Hijri year equivalent to 1933-1934 in the Gregorian calendar. Studies referencing the works of Ahmed Remzi Akyurek indicate that Lubb-i Fazilet is cataloged under inventory numbers 1475 and 1476 within the “Yazma Bağışlar” collection at the Suleymaniye Manuscripts Library. It is important to clarify that the work starts the beginning of book number 1475 and concludes on page 32b. The subsequent material beginning from page 33a and extending to the end of that volume, along with the content in book number 1476, comprises a distinct work that includes annotations of quotations from Ibn Arabi’s Fusus al-Hikam. Furthermore, there exists an additional copy of the work, not previously mentioned, is housed in the collection of the Marmara University Faculty of Theology Library under inventory number 63. Evidence confirms that this specific work was authored by Ahmed Remzi Akyurek, and further details are elaborated in the associated article. The term “fazilet,” which serves as the title of this work, is typically translated as “virtue” in Turkish. However, in this particular context, as in al-Madinah al-Fadilah, it is more accurately interpreted as referring to perfection or maturity, which emanates from a foundation of values and worth. The qasida’s religious, philosophical, and mystical characteristics, coupled with its occasionally didactic style, strongly indicate that this profound interpretation is intended. In this document, the term “müfredât” is positioned directly below each couplet in the referenced qasida. This choice reflects the focus on individual meanings and grammatical features of the words contained within each couplet, thereby justifying the use of “müfredât” as a fitting title for this section. The analysis includes explanations of word meanings that alternate between lexical, definitions and contextual interpretations within the couplet. In addition, words and phrases are often broken down structurally to examine them as smaller semantic units. Commonly used terms in Turkish, deemed familiar to the audience, are indicated as “malûm” without providing their equivalents. Grammatical analysis of the words was conducted using Persian grammar rules. Although there may not be a strict ordering of the words based on their meanings and grammatical features, they are systematically presented in the order in which they appear within the couplet. The individual meanings of the words within the couplet, as well as their functions, are meticulously examined. Following this analysis, the overall interpretations of the couplet are presented in the section titled “meâl.” The choice to use the term “meâl” reflects a desire to uncover the intended message rather than focusing solely on literal words. As a result, in certain&nbsp;&nbsp;instances, after outlining the intended meaning of the couplet, the term “yanî” is employed to introduce similar or supplementary sentences for further clarification. In each couplet of the qasida, various figures of speech are identified, along with an explanation of the artistic performances associated with them, as outlined in the “sanat” section. Akyurek’s commentary highlights that certain couplets contain different types of figures of speech, including sophisticated letter games that may be challenging to recognize. By introducing the topic of “sanat” for each couplet and conducting a thorough analysis of the figures of speech, Akyurek illustrates that one of the primary reasons for his finding the qasida worthy of commentary is its extensive use of figures of speech, which merits detailed examination. Through a careful examination of the text found in the manuscript copies of this work, we seek to enrich the body of literature surrounding the writings of Ahmed Remzi Akyurek, as well as the Molla Jami collection in Turkey. This effort also enhances the field of Turkish-text commentary literature.

Lubb-i Fazilet: Translation and Commentary on a Qasida of Molla  Jami by Ahmed Remzi Akyurek

Zarghona

Hakan

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

&nbsp;Urdu literature is characterized by a deep-rooted historical tradition and encompasses various literary genres and movements. The significance of literary journals in the development of literature cannot be underestimated; these journals function not merely as platforms for the production and consumption of literature, but also as crucial spaces where critical thinking is shaped and different aspects of literature are debated. Since the second half of the 20th century, significant transformations have occurred in Urdu literature, with writers and critics seeking to define the role of literature within a rapidly changing socio-political context. The influence of Western literary theories on Urdu literary criticism has increased, with structuralism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism becoming particularly prominent in academic circles. Consequently, journals and newspapers have played a noteworthy role in fostering literary criticism, with major critical discussions emerging through these publications. Among the most significant literary journals, Shab Khoon by Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, Awrāq by Wazir Agha, Funoon by Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi, and Irtiqa by Muhammad Ali Siddiqui are particularly noteworthy. In this context, Savera (اریوس) by Muhammad Saleem-ur-Rahman also merits particular attention. This journal featured Urdu poetry, short stories, essays, and literary criticism, addressing literary debates, linguistic constructions, and major schools of criticism, including progressive, impressionistic, esthetic, and psychological, using a scholarly approach. Savera made significant contributions to the science of criticism, deepening literary critique at both methodological and theoretical levels. The present study aims to identify critical essays published in Savera between 1947 and 1974 in the context of the Progressive Writers’ Movement (Taraqqi Pasand Musannifin Tehrik) and the Circle of Esthetes (Halqa-e Arbab-e Zauq). Due to the illegibility of page numbers in some issues of the journal, only the titles and the number of articles have been mentioned.It is important to note that a group within the Progressive Writers’ Association (Taraqqi Pasand Musannifin Tehrik) was dissatisfied with the organization’s adoption of an overtly political identity and opposed the politicization of progressive literature within the domain of&nbsp;literature itself. The manifesto published at the conclusion of a conference organized by the Progressive Writers’ Association in Lahore in November 1939 was so politically charged and radical that it was difficult to distinguish it from the Communist Party’s manifesto. Writers such as Saadat Hasan Manto, Muhammad Din Taseer, Akhtar Hussain Raipuri, Aziz Ahmad, and Mumtaz Shirin categorically rejected the manifesto, arguing that the utilization of literature as a mere instrument of propaganda would compromise literary freedom. Consequently, they were expelled from the association. Despite the official withdrawal of the manifesto during the Progressive Writers’ Conference in Karachi in 1952, the damage to the association and the movement had already been significant by that time. The continuation of this literary trend, however, was eventually brought to an end by government oppression and violence, which led to the dissolution of the Progressive Writers’ Association. Following this concise overview of the Progressive Writers’ Association, the focus now shifts to the establishment of Savera in Lahore in 1946—a city that functioned as the epicenter of anti-colonial mobilization—and its inaugural publication in January 1947. During this period, Urdu literature, inclusive of its critical tradition, underwent a profound influence from the legacy of the Progressive Writers’ Movement. Concurrently, the Halqa-e Arbab-e Zauq movement emphasized the concept of “pure literature,” rooted in esthetic authority. During the political and literary turbulence of the post-Partition years, Savera sought to explore these dynamic forces. From its inaugural issue, the journal emphasized carrying forward the torch of progressive literature, adopting the role of a “revolutionary” or “activist” literary journal rather than producing literature purely for the sake of art. The first phase of Savera (1947–1953), known as the Progressive Development Period, consisted of issues 1 through 14–15. The first issue was published with the Index of Modern Artists’ Thoughts on its cover. However, with the third issue, this motto was changed to “The Interpreter of Progressive Artists’ Thoughts.During this period, Savera prominently featured the literary critiques of leading figures in critical realism, including Ehtisham Hussain, Akhtar Hussain Raipuri, Zahir Kashmiri, Majnun Gorakhpuri, Ibadat Barelvi, Sajjad Zaheer, Aziz Ahmad, Mumtaz Shirin, Bari Alig, Sardar Jafari, Saadat Hasan Manto, Mirza Muhammad Hussain, Muzaffar Ali Syed, Arif Abdul Mateen, Khalid Ghaznavi, Abid Hasan Manto, Riyaz Javid, and others. These progressive critics, influenced by Marxism, emphasized the psychological, class-based and ideological dimensions of literature and writers, alongside their social relationships. In literary criticism, understanding the psychological and intellectual dispositions of writers, as well as their external and societal influences, was considered essential. Progressive critics acknowledged the necessity of reflecting external and social realities in literature while also embracing transcendence and the imaginative world within literary expression. A general analysis of the writings published in Savera reveals that this journal played a prominent role in the development of the Urdu critical tradition. This work contributed&nbsp; &nbsp;significantly to critical realism, which emerged as a dominant literary movement in post Partition Urdu literature. Notably, issues published in the aftermath of Partition displayed a distinct leftward shift. Between issues 3 and 11, the editorial policy adopted a radical stance; however, in later issues, this radicalism softened, and the journal maintained its identity as a liberal publication dedicated to progressive literary and social objectives. In the early issues, writers from the Progressive Writers’ Movement were regular contributors, while in later issues, authors affiliated with the Halqa-e Arbab-e Zauq, known as the second modern literary movement, engaged in literary criticism. These later contributors approached literature primarily from an artistic perspective, prioritizing esthetic concerns over social and political dimensions. Despite the ideological differences between these two literary groups within the Pakistani literary movement, Savera functioned as an impartial platform, publishing works from both factions. The journal examined classical and modern examples of Urdu literature and analyzed writers and works from different periods. Additionally, cultural criticism, literary movements, poetry and literary theory, and social issues were the central themes of the study. During the editorial tenures of figures such as A. Nadeem Qasmi, Ahmad Mushtaq, and Salahuddin Mahmood, Savera, published writings representing diverse critical perspectives, including Marxist criticism, reformist criticism, objective criticism, esthetic criticism, psychological criticism, impressionist criticism, and critiques emerging from Islamic and Pakistan-specific neo-schools. The critical trends in Pakistani literary history can be clearly observed in the critical essays published in Savera.

Criticisms in Urdu Literature in the Context of “Savera ” Magazine

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Ayman

THE IMAGE OF CAIRO AND ISTANBUL IN "A JOURNEY TO ISLAMIC COUNTRIES

Asuman

Mahmûd the sultan of the kingdom of Ghazna who is the son of Sebüktigin received a religious and political education traditionally from a young age and raised as a good statesman. Mahmûd of Ghazni, who was one of the exceptional statesmen of the Turkish-Islamic world with his administrative talent, politics and great victories, spent most of his life on the battlefields. He tried to throw all the great figures together in his palace and paid court to the poets and scholars. He also invited poets from neighboring countries to their countries. Although the fact that there were 400 poets in his palace in which official language is Persian is accepted exaggeration, it is significant to see that he highlights the importance of poetry and literature. Ebü’l-Hasen Alî b. Cûlûg Ferruhî-yi Sîstânî who is one of the first eulogists in Iranian literature in Islamic period was one of the poet laureates of Mahmûd of Ghazni after Mahmûd came to the throne and he lived in the period of Sultan Mahmûd and his two sons Muhammed and Mesud. The poet wrote ode to the king in the meeting heldy by Mahmûd Ghazni in religious days. Additionally, he joined Mahmûd of Ghazni’s all Indian expeditions and gave information about them in his odes. He wrote an ode with sixty-nine couplets in the form of an elegy and he wrote both his love for Sultan Mahmûd and his sorrow over his death by praising to him in this poem. The poet expresses his pain after the death of Sultan with his sincere feelings through his poetry. Although love, drunkenness, joy, and happiness are general themes in his poems, he also mentions his pains and sorrows in this poem. In fact, this ode is a story of both the concern for future after the death of Mahmûd Ghazni and all palace and city people who are in shock and lament. He mentions a grieving city with a clear, simple and fluent poetic language in a realistic way.&nbsp;

AN ELEGY TO SULTAN MAHMÛD’S FINAL JOURNEY

Abdelkader

Writing, also called lettering, calligraphy or script, is the symbolization of speech by signs and forms. In other words, it is the lettering of words alphabetically. Calligraphy or script generally belongs to the language it represents, and holds its name. Hence, there is for example, Arabic, Ottoman, or Latin writing. Human beings in general, particularly Arabs and Muslims, have created types of writing or calligraphy in different fields throughout ages; such as various kinds of scripts produced by nations, the Ottoman writing used by Muslims for the writing of Quranic verses, and others. The Orthographic writing is more common and widely used, nearly in all that is written in the Arabic language, whereas the Ottoman writing is narrowly used and limited only to the writing of Quran and the science of Tajweed. It can be said that the activity of adjustment, also called form, is the use of some symbols that accompany the letters to determine their sounds. It is both a system for the formation of consonants to perform the intended meaning, and the “basis for correct reading”. In some cases, the lack of adjustment may change the meaning. The term ‘adjustment’ in the Ottoman writing and in Tajweed corresponds similarly to ‘form’ in Orthographic writing. However, adjustment is more signifying than form, because it contains other marks.There are numerous writings in the world, differing up to the fields and situations. Writings can be classified into six (6) types as follows: Ottoman writing, orthographic spelling, poetic writing, phonetic writing, Braille writing and Morse writing. All these kinds of writing have been used and still exist nowadays as means of human interaction and communication in different life fields. The Ottoman writing is the way used during the reign of the third Caliph Othman Bin Affan, may Allah be pleased with him, to write Quran. It is also called Ottoman calligraphy or script. This writing is concerned as a method which should be followed and approved, but not disregarded or violated. The word “Ottoman” here is used in reference to the Caliph Othman Bin Affan, specifically used in Arabic, and only in the&nbsp;writing of verses of the Holy Quran. It is meant by Quranic Mushafs the holy book Quran in various narrations, specifically Hafs reading from Assem and Warsh reading from Nafie. These two recitations are more published and spread in the world. Each of the two forms, orthographic spelling and Ottoman writing, are common in many situations, but different in some others, like adjustment. There are ten symbols in orthographic writing: the short vowels (fatha, damma, kasra), Tanwin (fathatan, dammatan, kesratan), Sukun, Shadda, alif of Medd and the small hamza that are placed above alif, waw, ya and also under the alif with Kasra. However, the adjustment in the Ottoman writing is so worthy that it contains thirty-two symbols. In addition to the ten symbols which exist in the orthographic writing, adjustment in the Ottoman writing contains twenty-two other signs. In our view, these thirtytwo marks of the Ottoman adjustment can be classified into the following eleven (11) categories: short vowels, long vowels, Tanwin, two Sukuns, small Hamza, junction adjustment, literal adjustment, word adjustment, point adjustment, lozenge adjustment, adjustment in form of zero, adjustment using color. In the three Arabic writings, orthographic, poetic or phonetic, only the first five categories (short vowels, Tanwin, two Sukuns, small Hamza, and Alif of Medd) are used. However, all the categories are used in the Ottoman writing, which is even characterized by using the last seven categories: junction adjustment, literal adjustment, word adjustment, point adjustment, lozenge adjustment, adjustment in form of zero, adjustment using color. This is done for an accurate reading and a perfect recitation of the Holy Quran, without mistakes.&nbsp;

THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE OTTOMAN WRITING OF QURANIC MUS’HAFS

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Fadila

The objective of this article is to highlight the phenomenon of school violence in Algerian society, through the results and statistics obtained by various research and academic field studies, and statistics of the Ministry of Education and National Gendarmerie, and then try to propose some mechanisms to reduce or even reduce Of the phenomenon of school violence, highlighting the role of the family and school as the most important institutions of socialization in building the character of the individual (student) beginning, then the good citizen later. School violence poses several problems related to how to create and even mitigate mitigation mechanisms and strategies. The seriousness of school violence in all its forms and manifestations is reflected in our educational institutions through the astonishing rise of the statistics reached by the Algerian Ministry of National Education in2016, which was estimated at 1661 cases across the nation's states, including 1427 cases of violence among students and 156 cases of assaults against students and teachers 87 cases of assaults of students towards the teachers (for: Dalumi, 2016).To learn about the reality of the violence practiced in our educational institution, the scientific literature and field studies carried out in the various states of the country and at different educational levels show the dangers of violent behavior practiced in our schools and clearly reflect an important aspect of the violence in our educational institutions. Studies: Study of Khaled Abdel Salam (2002-2003) this study was conducted in the state of Setif, and was based on the method of content analysis of the records of the disciplinary boards. (70.43%) compared to 43 cases (29.65%) in the remaining semi-urban and rural areas. The results also confirmed that violence is practiced by males (126.9%) compared to 19 students (13.11%) and violence (92.5%). The researcher concluded that the violence was directed against faculty and administrative staff, but that the biggest victim of the phenomenon of school violence Are teachers and teachers in general and professors in particular, and The main reason behind the problem of school violence in its various forms lies in the lack of discipline within the department (Abdul Salam, 2014, S331-332).Violation of violence in the school environment prevents the school from achieving its educational and educational goals, which negatively affects the personality of the student in all its aspects (psychological, social, relational, cognitive) in particular, and leads to delinquency and deviation to the anomaly, and also affects the structure of the school and Their educational power on the educational system and the social system in general.Violence in schools is a mirror of societal violence, so we must clarify - in short - the concept of violence in general and then scrutinize the understanding of the meaning and causes of school violence and the philosophy of mitigation.1- The family is the first social unit in which a child is born. The emotional deprivation that he or she may suffer through poor parenting (verbal or physical abuse or destruction of the furniture of the house), poor economic conditions and physical and moral disintegration of the family all inevitably affect his or her personality The future, beginning with violence in the house, and then on the street, and then in school, both with peers or with the teacher and even with the self 2- The school is the second institution of social upbringing after the family, and the first link between the individual and society; it is responsible for transferring the culture, traditions and customs of the society to the student, and is obliged to provide knowledge and education to him in the best conditions.On the basis of this, we can make the school an educational institution in which pupils and teachers coexist away from extreme and violent behaviors. If both the family and the school as institutions of socialization can re-examine their real role and function towards the individual and the society, A social environment of security and tranquility. We conclude from the above that the family, school and society must be made aware of the seriousness of the phenomenon of school violence and the need to address it and alleviate it or reduce it by all available educational, psychological and educational means. It is also necessary to emphasize that the institutions of social upbringing - especially the family and the school - And the adoption of the rising generation, but if it abandons its function will destroy and destroy and develop all forms of extremism and violence in the individual and society.

School Violence and Mechanisms For Reducing It in The Algerian Society

Serpil

In this study, a poem work named Tarikh-e Al-e Osmani, of which only one copy exists, by the poet Saeli-ye Shirazi, who was one of the poets of XVI century, is analyzed. This work, along with being an epic poem about Osman Ghazi-era wars and heroism, is also important in philosophical, moral and educational aspects that stand out in some parts of the work.This work of Saeli is similar to Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh in terms of verse form and meter and the material used in the two works is almost the same. Legendary heroes, mythological elements, and some of the compositions that make up the framework of Shahnameh are also seen in Saeili’s work with similar narratives. However, these two works are different from each other; one is a national epic that tells the history of Iran from prehistoric times to the Arabian invasion, and the other is a verse history of the life of only one ruler and the wars he has made. When we compare Saeli’s Tarikh-e Al-e Osmani with other works of this kind, we can easily say that the work is an important masnavi in terms of both the language and the content, not shadowed by another work but has its own style.Saeli is a poet who came to Anatolia during the reign of Bayezid II and observed the periods of Selim the Resolute and Suleiman the Magnificent upon his death. There is not much information about his life before coming to Anatolia, except for his detailed statements in the preamble of his Diwan (collected poems) and in the Tarikh-e Al-e Osmani. The limited number of works that give information about his life are also written in Anatolia. Only Logat-name, Ferhang-i Sokhanvaran and Az-Zaree’a mentioned Saeli’ among the tezkires (collection of biographies) written in Iran in and after the XVIth century. This leads us to think that the poet was not very famous when he was in Iran. With this study, we hope that we will contribute a little bit to what is known about Ottoman history and genealogy of Ottoman period and will shed light to the field studies.

SAELI-YE SHIRAZI WHO WAS ONE OF THE IRANIAN POETS OF XVI CENTURY AND HIS WORK NAMED TARIKH-E AL-E OSMANI

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Journal of Oriental Studies – Şarkiyat Mecmuası, which is the official publication of Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, the Oriental Research Center is an open access, peer-reviewed, multilingual, scholarly and international journal published two times a year (April and October) . It was founded in 1956. As of 2024, the print version has been stopped. The journal has become an online-only publication.

Journal of Oriental Studies aims to contribute to the scientific knowledge in the field of Eastern languages and literatures by publishing original articles, reviews, scientific criticism, book review and translation articles.

The journal considers manuscripts on all aspects of Eastern languages and literatures. Subject areas of interest include language and literature, history, history of literature, art and culture concerning Eastern languages and literatures. The target audience of the journal is academics, researchers, professionals, students and related professional, academic institutions and organizations. The publication languages of the journal are Turkish, English, German, French, Chinese, Hindi, Persian, Arabic, Korean and Urdu.

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Journal of Oriental Studies aims to contribute to the scientific knowledge in the field of Eastern languages and literatures by publishing original research articles, reviews, scientific criticism, book review and translation articles.The journal considers manuscripts on all aspects of Eastern languages and literatures. Subject areas of interest include language and literature, history, history of literature, language education-training and teaching, art and culture concerning Eastern languages and literatures. The target audience of the journal is academics, researchers, professionals, students and related professional, academic institutions and organizations. The publication languages of the journal are Turkish, English, Chinese, Hindi, Persian, Arabic, Korean and Urdu.

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All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a> ) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a> and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.RetractionJournal follows <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/retraction-guidelines-cope.pdf" target="_blank">COPE’s Retraction Guidelines</a> in case of retraction. The editor has the right to retract an article if: <ul><li>There is clear evidence that the findings are unreliable; either as a result of a major error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error), or as a result of fabrication (e.g. of data) or falsification (e.g. image manipulation).</li><li>It contains plagiarised content. </li><li>It has been published elsewhere without proper attribution. </li><li>It contains material or data without authorisation for use.</li><li>There is copyright infringement or there is some other serious legal issue.</li><li>It reports unethical research. </li><li>There is evidence that the peer-review process is compromised or manipulated.</li><li>The author(s) failed to disclose a significant competing interest (also known as a conflict of interest) that, in the opinion of the editor, would have unduly influenced the interpretation of the work or the recommendations of the editors and peer reviewers.</li></ul>In case of retraction the following steps are followed:<ul><li>Retraction notice including article title is published in a subsequent issue of the journal. The retraction notice is paginated and listed in the table of contents. </li><li>A link is provided between the retraction notice and the original article in the electronic version. </li><li>The online article is preceded by a page containing the retraction notice; the reader can then proceed to the article itself.</li><li>The original article remains unchanged, except for a watermark on the .pdf on each page stating that it has been &#34;retracted”.</li></ul>Article Removal for Legal ReasonsIn the following circumstances, except the metadata (title and authors), the text of the article is removed and a page informing that the article has been removed for legal reasons replaces the article. <ul><li>The article is found to be defamatory or to infringe the legal rights of others, and retraction is not deemed to be an adequate solution.</li><li>The article has been, or is reasonably likely to be the subject of a court order.</li><li>There is a significant risk to public health. </li></ul>

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

The Artificial Intelligence Policy, prepared in light of developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and practices in scholarly publishing, sets out the editorial and ethical principles that authors, reviewers, and editors should follow when using such technologies. The following sources have been considered in the preparation of the AI policy:Committee on Publication Ethics <a href="https://publicationethics.org/guidance/cope-position/authorship-and-ai-tools" target="_blank">(COPE) - Authorship and AI tools</a>; International Committee of Medical Journal Editors <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#four" target="_blank">(ICMJE) - Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Assisted Technology; World Association of Medical Editors  (WAME) Chatbots, Generative AI, and Scholarly Manuscripts</a><a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#four"></a>AI-assisted technologies (such as large language models [LLMs], chatbots, or image generators) can develop and produce a wide variety of content, including text, images, audio, and synthetic data. When used ethically and safely, these capabilities can increase productivity and foster innovation, but when used without human guidance, they pose risks such as inaccurate and biased results, omissions and errors in citations, deficiencies in protecting privacy and intellectual property rights, and potential violations of authors' and publishers' rights. IUPress adopts the following core principles to avoid these risks in the use of AI:  <ul><li>Details of any AI used in the production of content (including but not limited to text, figures, images, and code) must be declared and clearly explained in the appropriate section of the paper (as an acknowledgement and/or in the methods section). </li><li>No AI tool may be listed as an author in any scientific paper. </li><li>Authors are responsible for the accuracy, completeness, and originality of their work, even if AI is used in any way; they are responsible for the proper referencing and attribution of others' ideas, data, words, or other materials. </li><li>Reviewers and editors must not upload submitted work, in whole or in part, to any generative AI application.</li></ul>In the editorial processes of IUPress publications, tools are available to assist editors in identifying AI-generated content. On the other hand, it is common to use AI tools that provide suggestions for improving and enhancing readability, language, and grammar, and such AI tools can be used in IUPress publications under the supervision of editors and authors.

Artificial Intelligence Policy

<ul><li>Authors are required to declare if they have used AI-assisted technologies (such as large language models [LLMs], chatbots, or image generators) in the creation of their submitted work. </li><li>Authors should explain, both in the cover letter and in the appropriate section of the submitted paper (as a footnote and/or in the methods section), which AI tool and which version of it they have used and for what purpose. </li><li>Authors should also indicate how they used the AI tool and how they assessed the validity of the results obtained using this technology, and what aspects of the paper, manuscript content, data or supporting files were influenced by the use of the AI tool or were generated by AI.</li><li>It is the authors' responsibility to ensure the accuracy, validity and appropriateness of content and citations generated by AI-assisted technologies and to eliminate potential errors, inconsistencies and biased results. </li><li>Authors should always check the original sources to eliminate possible plagiarism, recognising that there is a potential for plagiarism in texts produced with AI-assisted technologies. They should confirm that they have checked and that the sources are original.  </li><li>AI-assisted tools (such as ChatGPT) cannot be listed as authors because they cannot be responsible for the accuracy, integrity, and originality of the work, and these responsibilities are essential to authorship. Therefore, authors are responsible for all material involving the use of AI-assisted technologies. Authors should ensure that all statements in the article that state the hypotheses, interpretations, conclusions, limitations, and implications of the study represent their own opinions.  </li><li>Studies created by authors using AI tools in the following ways, which substitute for the basic researcher's and author's responsibilities, violate the principles of scientific publishing and publication ethics, and such studies are not eligible for inclusion in publications: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Generation of text or code without rigorous review, </li><li>Generation of synthetic data to replace missing data without a robust methodology, </li><li>Creation of any inaccurate, synthetic content, including abstracts or supplementary materials, </li><li>Creation and manipulation of images and figures (pictures, graphs, data tables, medical images, image snippets, computer codes and formulae) or original research data (enhancing, hiding, moving, removing or adding a particular feature within an image or figure) using AI.</li></ul></ul>

It is essential to maintain confidentiality in the peer review process and not to share or use the reviewed work in this process. <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/ethical-guidelines-peer-reviewers-cope.pdf" target="_blank">(COPE – Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers</a>)<ul><li>Reviewers should not upload a manuscript or part of a manuscript submitted to them for review to generative AI tools or large language models to assist in the review, evaluation or decision-making process, as uploading content to such AI tools by reviewers violates the authors' privacy and property rights.  </li><li>Reviewing a scientific paper is a responsibility that can only be undertaken by human beings. The critical thinking and original evaluation required for peer review is beyond the scope of this technology, and there is a risk that the technology will produce inaccurate, incomplete or biased conclusions about the paper. The peer review report and decision letters should reflect the personal assessment of the reviewers and editors of the submitted content. The reviewer is responsible and accountable for the content of his/her report. </li><li>AI tools may be used in a limited way to improve the quality of the language of the peer review report (for translation or language editing) in the context of peer review. If such use is made, the reviewer must declare the use when submitting the report. </li><li>Reviewers who suspect inappropriate or undisclosed use of generative AI in a submission should report their concerns to the editor.</li></ul>

Editors are obliged to ensure that the confidentiality of the manuscripts submitted to the journal is maintained during the evaluation process, and it is essential that the peer-reviewed work is not shared or used outside the parties involved in that process. (COPE - Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors) <a href="https://publicationethics.org/files/Code_of_conduct_for_journal_editors_Mar11.pdf" target="_blank">(COPE – Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors)</a>.<ul><li>Editors should not upload a submitted article, or any part of it, to generative Artificial Intelligence tools or Big Language Models to assist in the review, evaluation or decision-making process, as this may violate authors' privacy and property rights. </li><li>Managing the editorial review of a scientific article implies responsibilities that can only be attributed to humans. Generative AI or AI-assisted technologies should not be used by editors to assist in the evaluation or decision-making process of an article, as the critical thinking and original evaluation required for this task is beyond the scope of this technology and there is a risk that the technology will produce inaccurate, incomplete or biased conclusions about the article. The editor is responsible and accountable for the editorial process, the final decision and its communication to the authors.</li><li>Editors should not use generative AI tools to compose decision letters or abstracts of unpublished research. </li><li>Editors may use generative AI tools to help find appropriate reviewers.</li><li>If editors suspect the use of generative AI in a submitted manuscript or a submitted referee report, they should conduct an editorial review of the matter and consider the policy.</li></ul>

Journal of Oriental Studies is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the &#65279;<a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>&#65279;, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, to access the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparencyand-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparencyand-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publisher) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

Journal of Oriental Studies adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules. <ul><li>Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.</li><li>The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.</li><li>The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.</li><li>Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.</li><li>Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.</li><li>The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest must be disclosed.</li><li>In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.</li><li>If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.</li><li>In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.</li></ul>

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/ conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a codecision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/D538DD51EE224FEC8102354D8CBFA88D" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form.</a> The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing. Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication, and must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed. Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers, and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the journal. Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective. Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side. A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process. The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for double-blind peer review evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Peer Review

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.​ The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated?- Are the methods described comprehensively?- Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

Manuscript Rules1. The articles written in Turkish of Turkey, except special uses, ought to be befitted to Spelling Dictionary by Turkish Language Association in terms of spelling rules. The writings must be expressed clearly in terms of scientific dimensions.2. Title: It should describe the article and reflect the basic concepts, discussions and the main argument of the article. Turkish title should be written in bold, 11 point size, Times New Roman;English title should be 10 point size, bold, Times New Roman. Arabic, Persian and Urdu title should be in bold, 11 point size, Traditional Arabic, in the middle under the English title. It should not exceed 12 words.3. Author’s name and address: The name and surname of author under two lines of title, in the right side, right justified. An Asteriks symbol should be added at the end of the author’s surname as a footpoint, and include the author’s academic title, and e-mail address (9 points, justified) . [Prof. Dr., Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Arabic Language and Literature Chair, ORCID:…….., (……@......)].4. Abstract: It must contain a short summary of the main parts (entry, evidence, method, argument, result and proposal) of the article. It should provide the reader to modify the content of the article in a short time and to decide if he needs to read the whole article or not. The given information should not exceed one sentence. The evidences and the resolution part may consist of more than one sentence. The sentences must be clear and understandable and must be written in the past tense. In the abstract, there should not be any tables, illustrations, quotations and references.Turkish abstract should be at the beginning of the article text following the title, between 180-200 words, 10 point size, right and left 10 mm spaced and justified. English abstract should followTurkish abstract. If the article is written in a different language from these two languages, the third abstract should be prepared in the relevant language by the same rules.5. Keywords: should be given following the abstract written in Turkish, English and in the relevant language if any. Keywords should be up to 5 words and should provide access to the article.6. Article Text: Articles should be submitted as Microsoft Word, Word 98 or higher versions documents. The text should be written in Times New Roman, 11 point size, at 1 line spacing. The articles in Arabic, Persian and Urdu should be written in Traditional Arabic, 11 point size, at 1 line spacing . The page size should be 165X240, 20 mm space from the right and left page sides, 30 mm from the bottom, 35 mm from the top of the page. The paragraph indentation should be 5 mm.7. Titles in the article: Subtitles should be 11 point size and letter/number system should be based on. The first letter of the each Word in the title should be capital.8. Informative Abstract: It has the same characteristics with abstract basically, but it is different from the abstract in terms of the length and details. It gives more detailed information than the abstract. The length of the summary should be %10-15 of the article. Tables and diagrams can take place in the summary. It should be at the end of the article and should contain the aim, argument, method, evidence and result of the article as it is in the abstract. The given information should be more detailed in comparision with the abstract. Any evidence and result that does not take place in the article also should not take place in the summary. In the summary, there should not be any references to the article text.9. Submitted articles, including abstracts and references, must not exceed 11,000 words. Articles exceeding this limit may be published at the discretion of the Editorial Board based on their significance. Materials related to publication, such as supplementary texts, should be included in the Appendix of the manuscript.10. Left header in the article: The name of the article should be written.11. Right Header in the article: Author’s name/ ŞARKİYAT MECMUASI SAYI…(201..-1/2) the pages of the artical in the journal should be written.12. Footnotes/ Quotations and References: Footnotes should be given automatically in the MS Word program at the foot of each relevant page as 9 point size and justified. If the footnote is a website, the access date should also be given in parentheses. Chicago Manual of Style is used in writing footnotes and bibliography.Ensure that the following items are present:- Abstract- Extended Abstract- Introduction- Article Text- Conclusion- References

Author Guidelines

Journal of Oriental Studies - Şarkiyat Mecmuası has adopted the “notes and bibliography” documentation system preferred by many in the humanities, including those in literature, history, and the arts. This style presents bibliographic information in notes and, a bibliography. Authors who would send proposals to the journal are kindly invited to follow the examples given below when writing the footnotes and compiling the bibliography. These examples are borrowed from the Chicago Manual of Style (http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-1.html). A few more examples have also been added. Further information and numerous examples about the “notes and bibliography” system are available at the 14th and 15th chapters of the Chicago Manual of Style (16th edition). A bibliography is needed at the end of research (original) articles, review articles and articles in translation. It should include all sources given in footnotes, captions and appendixes. The bibliography can include separate sections such as archival, manuscript, secondary, and/or electronic sources. Secondary sources are listed after the author’s name. When referring to archival material and manuscripts please note the name of the library and the collection, number and date of the document used if available. Authors who do not have surnames (i.e. Salih Zeki), should be listed according to their first names: Salih Zeki should enter the bibliography under the letter S. Authors with surnames are listed after their surnames (i.e. Adıvar, A. Adnan). Examples: fn (first note), sn (subsequent/short notes), bib (bibliography). Book, one author fn Zadie Smith, Swing Time (New York: Penguin Press, 2016), 315–16. sn Smith, Swing Time, 320. bib Smith, Zadie. Swing Time. New York: Penguin Press, 2016. Book, two authors fn Brian Grazer and Charles Fishman, A Curious Mind: The Secret to a Bigger Life (New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2015), 12. sn Grazer and Fishman, Curious Mind, 37. bib Grazer, Brian, and Charles Fishman. A Curious Mind: The Secret to a Bigger Life. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2015. Chapter or other part of an edited book In a note, cite specific pages. In the bibliography, include the page range for the chapter or part. fn Henry David Thoreau, “Walking,” in The Making of the American Essay, ed. John D’Agata (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016), 177–78. sn Thoreau, “Walking,” 182. bib Thoreau, Henry David. “Walking.” In The Making of the American Essay, edited by John D’Agata, 167–95. Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016. In some cases, you may want to cite the collection as a whole instead. fn John D’Agata, ed., The Making of the American Essay (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016), 177- 78. sn D’Agata, American Essay, 182. bib D’Agata, John, ed. The Making of the American Essay. Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016. Translated book fn Jhumpa Lahiri, In Other Words, trans. Ann Goldstein (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016), 146. sn Lahiri, In Other Words, 184. bib Lahiri, Jhumpa. In Other Words. Translated by Ann Goldstein. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016. E-book For books consulted online, include a URL or the name of the database. For other types of e-books, name the format. If no fixed page numbers are available, cite a section title or a chapter or other number in the notes, if any (or simply omit). fn Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), chap. 3, Kindle. sn Austen, Pride and Prejudice, chap. 14. bib Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007. Kindle. fn Brooke Borel, The Chicago Guide to Fact-Checking (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 92, ProQuest Ebrary. sn Borel, Fact-Checking, 104–5. bib Borel, Brooke. The Chicago Guide to Fact-Checking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016. ProQuest Ebrary. fn Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders’ Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), chap. 10, doc. 19, http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/. sn Kurland and Lerner, Founders’ Constitution, chap. 4, doc. 29. bib Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders’ Constitution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/. fn Herman Melville, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (New York: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1851), 627, http://mel.hofstra.edu/moby-dick-the-whale-proofs.html. sn Melville, Moby-Dick, 722–23. bib Melville, Herman. Moby-Dick; or, The Whale. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1851. http://mel.hofstra.edu/moby-dick-the-whale-proofs.html. Journal article In a note, cite specific page numbers. In the bibliography, include the page range for the whole article. For articles consulted online, include a URL or the name of the database. Many journal articles list a DOI (Digital Object Identifier). A DOI forms a permanent URL that begins https://doi.org/. This URL is preferable to the URL that appears in your browser’s address bar. fn Shao-Hsun Keng, Chun-Hung Lin, and Peter F. Orazem, “Expanding College Access in Taiwan, 1978–2014: Effects on Graduate Quality and Income Inequality,” Journal of Human Capital 11, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 9–10, https://doi.org/10.1086/690235. sn Keng, Lin, and Orazem, “Expanding College Access,” 23. bib Keng, Shao-Hsun, Chun-Hung Lin, and Peter F. Orazem. “Expanding College Access in Taiwan, 1978–2014: Effects on Graduate Quality and Income Inequality.” Journal of Human Capital 11, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1086/690235. fn Peter LaSalle, “Conundrum: A Story about Reading,” New England Review 38, no. 1 (2017): 95, Project MUSE. sn LaSalle, “Conundrum,” 101. bib LaSalle, Peter. “Conundrum: A Story about Reading.” New England Review 38, no. 1 (2017): 95–109. Project MUSE. fn Susan Satterfield, “Livy and the Pax Deum,” Classical Philology 111, no. 2 (April 2016): 170. sn Satterfield, “Livy,” 172–73. bib Satterfield, Susan. “Livy and the Pax Deum.” Classical Philology 111, no. 2 (April 2016): 165–76. fn Rachel A. Bay et al., “Predicting Responses to Contemporary Environmental Change Using Evolutionary Response Architectures.” American Naturalist 189, no. 5 (May 2017): 465, https://doi.org/10.1086/691233. sn Bay et al., “Predicting Responses,” 466. bib Bay, Rachael A., Noah Rose, Rowan Barrett, Louis Bernatchez, Cameron K. Ghalambor, Jesse R. Lasky, Rachel B. Brem, Stephen R. Palumbi, and Peter Ralph. “Predicting Responses to Contemporary Environmental Change Using Evolutionary Response Architectures,” American Naturalist 189, no. 5 (May 2017): 463–73. https://doi.org/10.1086/691233. News or magazine article Articles from newspapers or news sites, magazines, blogs, and the like are cited similarly. Page numbers, if any, can be cited in a note but are omitted from a bibliography entry. If you consulted the article online, include a URL or the name of the database. fn Farhad Manjoo, “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera,” New York Times, March 8, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html. sn Manjoo, “Snap.” bib Manjoo, Farhad. “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera.” New York Times, March 8, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html. fn Rebecca Mead, “The Prophet of Dystopia,” New Yorker, April 17, 2017, 43. sn Mead, “Dystopia,” 47 bib Mead, Rebecca. “The Prophet of Dystopia.” New Yorker, April 17, 2017. fn Tanya Pai, “The Squishy, Sugary History of Peeps,” Vox, April 11, 2017, http://www.vox.com/culture/2017/4/11/15209084/peeps-easter. sn Pai, “History of Peeps.” bib Pai, Tanya. “The Squishy, Sugary History of Peeps.” Vox, April 11, 2017. http://www.vox.com/culture/2017/4/11/15209084/peeps-easter. fn Rob Pegoraro, “Apple’s iPhone Is Sleek, Smart and Simple,” Washington Post, July 5, 2007, LexisNexis Academic sn Pegoraro, “Apple’s iPhone.” bib Pegoraro, Rob. “Apple’s iPhone Is Sleek, Smart and Simple.” Washington Post, July 5, 2007. LexisNexis Academic. Readers’ comments are cited in the text or in a note but omitted from a bibliography. Eduardo B (Los Angeles), March 9, 2017, comment on Manjoo, “Snap.” Book review fn Michiko Kakutani, “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges,” review of Swing Time, by Zadie Smith, New York Times, November 7, 2016. sn Kakutani, “Friendship.” bib Kakutani, Michiko. “Friendship Takes a Path That Diverges.” Review of Swing Time, by Zadie Smith. New York Times, November 7, 2016. Encyclopaedia entry fn Mogens Herman Hansen, “Athenian Democracy,” The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1996). sn Hansen, “Athenian Democracy.” Bib Hansen, Mogens Herman. “Athenian Democracy.” The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1996. Interview fn Kory Stamper, “From ‘F-Bomb’ to ‘Photobomb,’ How the Dictionary Keeps Up with English,” interview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air, NPR, April 19, 2017, audio, 35:25, http://www.npr.org/2017/04/19/524618639/from-f-bomb-to-photobomb-how-the-dictionary-keeps-up-with-english. sn Stamper, interview. bib Stamper, Kory. “From ‘F-Bomb’ to ‘Photobomb,’ How the Dictionary Keeps Up with English.” Interview by Terry Gross. Fresh Air, NPR, April 19, 2017. Audio, 35:25. http://www.npr.org/2017/04/19/524618639/from-f-bomb-to-photobomb-how-the-dictionary-keeps-up-with-english. Thesis or dissertation fn Cynthia Lillian Rutz, “King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013), 99–100. sn Rutz, “King Lear,” 158. bib Rutz, Cynthia Lillian. “King Lear and Its Folktale Analogues.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013. Paper presented at a meeting of a conference fn Rachel Adelman, “ ‘Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On’: God’s Footstool in the Aramaic Targumim and Midrashic Tradition” (paper presented at the annual meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 21–24, 2009). sn Adelman, “Such Stuff as Dreams.” bib Adelman, Rachel. “ ‘Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On’: God’s Footstool in the Aramaic Targumim and Midrashic Tradition.” Paper presented at the annual meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 21–24, 2009. Manuscripts fn Feyzi, Muhadarat-ı Feyzi, Istanbul, Istanbul University Rare Books and Manuscripts Library, MS T6833, 48a. sn Feyzi, Muhadarat-ı Feyzi, MS T6833, 51b. bib Feyzi, Muhadarat-ı Feyzi, Istanbul, Istanbul University Rare Books and Manuscripts Library, MS T6833, 1a-70b. fn Salih b. Nasrullah, Ghayat al-itqan fi tabdir badan al-insan,Istanbul, Süleymaniye Library, MS Ayasofya 3682, 26a. sn Salih b. Nasrullah, Ghayat al-itqan, MS Ayasofya 3682, 23b. bib Salih b. Nasrullah, Ghayat al-itqan fi tabdir badan al-insan,Istanbul,Süleymaniye Library, MS Ayasofya 3682, 1a-311a. Copied on 10 Rabi I 1135 (19 December 1722). Archival documents fn Ottoman Archives of the Turkish Prime Ministry (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi, BOA), Cevdet Askeriye (C.AS.) 71/3352, 9 Şevval 1211 (7 Nisan 1797). sn BOA, C.AS. 71/3352. bib Ottoman Archives of the Turkish Prime Ministry (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi, BOA). Cevdet Askeriye (C. AS) 71/3352, 9 Şevval 1211 (7 Nisan 1920). fn Topkapı Palace Museum Archives(Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Arşivi, TSMA), E. 3202-2=597-2-7. sn TSMA, E. 3202-2=597-2-7. bibTopkapı Palace Museum Archives(Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Arşivi, TSMA). E. 3202-2=597-2-7. Website content fn Katie Bouman, “How to Take a Picture of a Black Hole,” filmed November 2016 at TEDxBeaconStreet, Brookline, MA, video, 12:51, https://www.ted.com/talks/katie_bouman_what_does_a_black_hole_look_like. sn Bouman, “Black Hole.” bib Bouman, Katie. “How to Take a Picture of a Black Hole.” Filmed November 2016 at TEDxBeaconStreet, Brookline, MA. Video, 12:51. https://www.ted.com/talks/katie_bouman_what_does_a_black_hole_look_like. fn “Privacy Policy,” Privacy &amp; Terms, Google, last modified April 17, 2017, https://www.google.com/policies/privacy/. sn Google, “Privacy Policy.” bib Google. “Privacy Policy.” Privacy &amp; Terms. Last modified April 17, 2017. https://www.google.com/policies/privacy/. fn “About Yale: Yale Facts,” Yale University, accessed May 1, 2017, https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts. sn “Yale Facts.” bib Yale University. “About Yale: Yale Facts.” Accessed May 1, 2017. https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts. Personal communication Personal communications, including email and text messages and direct messages sent through social media, are usually cited in the text or in a note only; they are rarely included in a bibliography. fn sn Sam Gomez, Facebook message to author, August 1, 2017.

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Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	Leyla Yakupoğlu Boran
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Journal of Oriental Studies

ISSUE 40, 2022

The Caliph Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasir in Arabic and Turkish Literature: A comparative study between ʿAbdūl-ḥaqq Ḥāmid and Georgy Zeidan

Poetry on the Issue of Creating the Holy Qur’an

Challenges That Students Face in Developing and Overcoming Listening Skill (In Teaching Arabic to Non-Native Speakers)

An Attempt to Analysis on Najib al-Kîlânî’s Story “Yawm alFerah/The Day of Wedding"

An Opponent of the Turkish State Who Distanced Himself from the Critical Poem “Hân-ı Yağma”: An Examination of Ihsan Adli Serter

Chinese Sources on Early Mongol History

Poem Types Used in Arabic Literature from the Beginning to the Present

Truth and Tralatition in Terms of the Relationship Between Word and Meaning

The Representation of Diacritics in the Arabic Writing System and Ancient Arabic Scholars’ Determination of Linguistic Rules

The Exiled Poet Maḥmūd Bayram Al-Tūnīsī

Relations Between Irāḳ Seljuk State and ʿAbbāsīd Khalīfate According to Tajaribu’s-Salaf

The Theme of “Hopelessness” Among the Diwan School Poets: The Example of Abbas al-Akkad

The Way to the Governorship of Damascus: Ismaʻil al-ʻAzm’s Career Before His Governorship

Trade in the Shadow of the Holy War: Medieval East Mediterranean Trades

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