The Relationship between Labor and Freedom in Classical Social Theory
Şükriye UlaşkınThe agenda of classical social theory has been formed to understand social and economic developments, the effects of these developments on society, and suggestions for solving social problems. The emergence of capitalist production and its impacts on society are areas where the intellectual activities of Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim, known as founding sociologists, are concentrated. Changes in labor characteristics and the principles that shape working life have found a place among the various concepts and discussions of the founding sociologists, and a theoretical ground for understanding modern labor has been formed. Based on relevant theoretical discussions, the main goal of this article is to develop an inquiry into the possibility of considering the concepts of labor and freedom together. Consideration of freedom, one of the most ancient and deeply rooted issues in the history of thought, in the context of labor will help us understand in which situations labor can create an opportunity for freedom or, on the contrary, a different form of slavery. The historical tracking of the relationship between labor and freedom is another element aimed in this article, from master–slave duality in Ancient Greece to the modern worker who has the right to freely sell his/her own labor power. In precapitalist societies, the structure of freedom that excludes labor made labor respectable, along with 19th-century social thinking. Contrary to the precapitalist freedom structure that excludes labor, the 19th-century social thought elevated labor to a respectable position. In this context, the relationship established by classical social theorists between labor and freedom has been effective in breaking away from the traditional definition of labor and becoming a reality that cannot be ignored for daily life, and in this reality, it becomes a necessary and desirable position in terms of freedom from time to time.
Klasik Sosyal Teoride Emek ve Özgürlük İlişkisi
Şükriye UlaşkınToplumsal ve ekonomik gelişmelerin anlaşılması, bu gelişmelerin toplumda yarattığı etkiler ve toplumsal sorunların çözümüne ilişkin öneriler klasik sosyal teorinin gündemini oluşturmuştur. Yeni ortaya çıkan kapitalist üretim biçimi ve bunun toplumda yarattığı etkilerin anlaşılması kurucu sosyologlar olarak bilinen Karl Marx, Max Weber ve Emile Durkheim’ın fikri faaliyetlerinin yoğunlaştığı alanlardır. Emeğin niteliği ile çalışma yaşamına yön veren ilkelerdeki değişimler, kurucu sosyologların çeşitli kavram ve tartışmaları arasında kendine yer bulmuş ve modern emeğin anlaşılmasına yönelik teorik bir zemin oluşmuştur. Bu doğrultuda bu makalenin temel amacı klasik sosyal teorideki tartışmalardan yola çıkarak emek, iş, üretim gibi kavramların kesiştikleri asgari çağrışım üzerinden özgürlük fikriyle kurulan ilişkiselliği ortaya çıkarmaktır. Düşünce tarihinin kadim ve köklü meselelerinden biri olan özgürlüğün emek bağlamında ele alınması, emeğin hangi durumlarda özgürlük için bir imkân oluşturabileceğini veya aksine farklı türden bir kölelik biçimi yaratabileceğinin anlaşılmasına yardımcı olacaktır. Antik Yunan’daki efendi-köle düalitesinden, kendi emek gücünü özgürce satma hakkına sahip modern çalışana gelene kadar, emek ve özgürlük arasındaki ilişkinin tarihsel takibi bu makalede amaçlanan bir diğer unsurdur. Bu amaçla klasik sosyal teori literatürü göz önünde bulundurularak yapılan kavramsal değerlendirmeler neticesinde bu makalede, kapitalizm öncesi toplum biçimlerinde özgürlüğün emeği dışlayan yapısının aksine 19. yüzyıl toplumsal düşüncesinin emeği saygın bir konuma yerleştirdiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu bağlamda klasik sosyal teorisyenlerin emek ve özgürlük arasında kurdukları ilişki, emeğin geleneksel anlamından koparak gündelik yaşam için göz ardı edilemeyecek bir gerçekliğe, bu gerçeklik içinde zaman zaman özgürlük açısından çeşitli boyutlarıyla gerekli ve arzu edilen bir konuma gelmesinde etkili olmuştur.
A lifestyle in which work is at the center of daily life and social relations are knitted around work is a turning point that occurred in the modern period. Since the modern period, work has been considered an indispensable action both individually and socially. When looking at premodern societies, we can see that work is at the opposite end of the spectrum of freedom. The association of labor with freedom is one of the crucial pillars of the developments that has made the modern perception of work a watershed moment in human history (Peksan, 2021, p. 320). The connection and the relationship established between labor and freedom were effective in regaining the lost value of work. The evaluations of classical social theorists on working life have the characteristic of being a field where the relationship between labor and freedom can be revealed. Based on discussions in classical social theory, the main goal of this article is to develop an inquiry into the possibility of considering the concepts of labor and freedom together. To that end, this article attempted to examine how thinkers’ theoretical perspectives are reflected in the work-freedom equation by examining the relationship that each founding sociologist has established between labor and freedom in the light of the course of freedom and work in human thought.
In According to Marx, it is impossible to talk about the liberating nature of an activity if it is conducted to meet the necessary needs and the boundaries of this work are determined by others. Because the area of freedom that exists beyond economic rationality should be sought outside of the realm of material production. Marx associates wage labor, which began with the emergence of a capitalist society, with unfree and subjugated labor. In this context, this is the first point where the relationship between labor and freedom in Marx can be explained. To Marx, labor can transform a person into a free individual, just as it is possible to transform him into a proletarian working under the yoke of others.
In Weber, the theme of rationalization is crucial in revealing the relationship that can be established between freedom and labor. Weber considered bureaucratic management style to be one of the rational behaviors. In the interpretation of a free contract, which is one of the fundamental principles of bureaucratic management, whether both the worker and the employer are recognized as free individuals remains unclear (Weber, 2005, p. 54). In bureaucratic organizational structures, the fact that relations become monotonous by depersonalizing restricts freedom. Weber is concerned that the widespread bureaucratization will erode individual liberties (Turhan, 2014, p. 263). Weber’s ideas, which view choice as the most fundamental feature of modernity, provide another argument for the relationship that can be established between labor and freedom. According to Weber (2011, p. 163), the idea of profession and Puritan morality is the founding elements of the capitalist spirit. Moreover, he contended that the concept of professional obligation based on religious foundations leads to a new lifestyle.
The main question Durkheim (2014) is interested in is how social solidarity is increasing despite the modern individual’s independence from society and gaining some autonomy. As an individual gains autonomy, he becomes more intricately connected to society. The division of labor increases the individual’s autonomy. In this context, greater division of labor implies greater social solidarity. Moreover, in traditional societies individual freedom is hampered by the transmission of professions from generation to generation. For Durkheim, in the relationship between the division of labor and freedom, freedom is liberation from collective consciousness.
When the historical development of the relationship between labor and freedom is examined, it is clear that the comments of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim fit the mission of restoring the lost value of 19th-century social thought to labor. Labor is a possibility for freedom for Marx, who seeks freedom beyond economic rationality. Durkheim defined freedom as man’s liberation from social consciousness through his profession. Although modern individual gains independence from society, he also contributes to social solidarity. In modern society, individuals are free to make choices, depending on the increase in opportunities. One of these freedoms is the free contract understanding that fits the bureaucratic organizational structure. However, Weber is concerned that, although rationalization and rationality create an environment conducive to productivity growth, increasing bureaucratic structures will create a kind of iron cage for modern society.
