Evaluation of the Arctic within the Framework of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Nesrin SingilIn recent years, the Arctic has faced problems such as the release of greenhouse gases as a result of melting glaciers. On the positive side, new waterways have created new opportunities in the region and facilitated the exploration of natural resources, including natural gases and oil in the coastal states. These developments elevated the importance of the Arctic and expanded the maritime areas along the coastal states. The Arctic and the issues related to its surrounding maritime areas area are managed under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This Convention is essential to ensuring the governance in the region and the prevention of marine pollution. Arctic states, with the exception of the USA, are party to it. However, the USA is bound to the provisions considered international customary law. In this study, the Arctic is discussed within the framework of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. First, the general characteristics of the region are examined. Second, the Arctic Council, which emerged as a result of the need for cooperation in the region, is reviewed. Third, we cover the effects of global climate change. In the second part of the study, the Arctic is discussed in terms of UNCLOS. In this framework, Article 234 with the title “icecovered areas,” which we call “a special arrangement” for the region, is discussed. Finally, the maritime areas of the Arctic are defined. Within this scope, territorial sea, straits, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone, and the high seas in the Arctic have been handled under separate titles. These maritime areas have been evaluated within the framework of the relevant provisions of the Convention.
Arktik Bölgesi’nin 1982 tarihli Birleşmiş Milletler Deniz Hukuku Sözleşmesi Çerçevesinde Değerlendirilmesi
Nesrin SingilSon yıllarda Arktik Bölgesi’nde buzulların erimesi neticesinde sera gazlarının salınımı gibi birtakım zorluklar ile karşı karşıya kalınmıştır. Diğer taraftan, yeni su yollarının açılması, doğal gaz, petrol gibi doğal kaynakların keşfinin kolaylaşmasını sağlayarak, kıyı devletleri bakımından birtakım imkânları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu durumun ise, Bölge’nin önemini artırdığı açıktır. Bu nedenle Bölge’de, özellikle kıyı devletleri deniz alanlarını genişletme eğilimi göstermektedir. Arktik’te ortaya çıkan deniz alanlarına ilişkin sorunların çözümünde, 1982 tarihli Birleşmiş Milletler Deniz Hukuku Sözleşmesi’nin dikkate alınması gerekmektedir. ABD dışındaki Arktik devletleri, bu Sözleşme’ye taraftır. Ancak ABD de bu Sözleşme’nin uluslararası örf ve âdet hukuku haline gelmiş hükümleri ile bağlıdır. Ayrıca bölgedeki yönetişimin sağlanması, deniz kirliliğinin önlenmesi gibi hususlarda da bu Sözleşme’ye ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Bu çalışmada Arktik Bölgesi, 1982 tarihli Birleşmiş Milletler Deniz Hukuku Sözleşmesi çerçevesinde ele alınmıştır. Çalışmanın birinci bölümünde, ilk olarak Bölge’nin genel özellikleri incelenmiştir. Daha sonra, Bölge’de iş birliği ihtiyacının bir sonucu olarak ortaya çıkmış olan Arktik Konseyi’ne değinilmiştir. Ardından ise, küresel iklim değişikliğinin Bölge üzerindeki etkilerinin gösterilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmanın ikinci bölümünde ise, BMDHS bakımından Arktik Bölgesi ele alınmıştır. Bu çerçevede ilk olarak, Bölge’ye yönelik özel bir düzenleme diyebileceğimiz, ‘buzla kaplı alanlar’ başlıklı 234. madde ele alınmıştır. Ardından ise, Arktik Bölgesi’nin deniz alanları detaylandırılmıştır. Bu bağlamda, Arktik Bölgesi’nde karasuları, boğazlar, kıta sahanlığı, münhasır ekonomik bölge ve açık denizler ayrı başlıklar altında ele alınmış ve bu deniz alanları, Sözleşme’nin ilgili hükümleri çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir.
The Arctic is located in the northernmost part of the world. It covers the north pole and the Arctic Ocean covered with ice in the Arctic circle. Eight states compose the Arctic: Denmark, Canada, Iceland, Finland, Norway, Russia, United States of America (USA), and Sweden. However, five of these states should be examined mainly in the context of problems within the region. These states, referred to as “the Arctic Five,” are Denmark, Canada, Norway, Russia, and the USA.
The protection of the fragile structure of the Arctic has forced the coastal states to cooperate. The most important of these cooperation structures is the Arctic Council, which was established by the Arctic states in 1996. The Council is essential for environmental protection in the Arctic.
In recent years, developments caused by climate change have increased the importance of the area. Climate change led to an increase in global temperature. Therefore, some problems such glacial melting in the polar cap, the increase in sea level, the flooding of some states’ coastlines, and extreme weather conditions have emerged. Industrialization is the main reason for these problems. The increase in the emission of harmful gases as a result of industrial activity is the causatory factor in this change. As a result of melting glaciers, greenhouse gases, accumulated in the frozen soil for centuries, will be released. This situation will cause irreversible damage for the future of the earth.
In contrast to the damages caused in the Arctic, climate change also brings benefits for coastal states, such as the two new waterways: the Northeast Passage and the Northwest Passage. Furthermore, natural resources such as natural gases and oil have become easier to explore. While the developments in the region benefit the coastal states, they have led to problems in the maritime areas. Arctic states tended to expand their maritime areas leading to overlap between the coastal states. Although states try to resolve these problems with bilateral or multilateral agreements, unresolved issues remain. For this reason, “the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” (UNCLOS) primarily addresses the problems related to maritime areas.
As stated, Arctic states have become a party to UNCLOS, except for the USA. Nevertheless, the USA is bound by the provisions considered customary international law. There is a special regulation in Article 234 titled “ice-covered areas” in the Convention. This Article, on the other hand, regulates the authority to make a regulation only for the prevention of marine pollution.
In this study, we discuss the condition of being an archipelago state in the context of UNCLOS. In addition to the archipelago state, territorial sea is analyzed. It should be stated that scientific research on the territorial sea of the coastal states requires explicit consent of the coastal state. Three conflicting straits with international status are discussed in this study. In addition, applications of Russia, Canada, Denmark and Norway to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), regulated in Annex II of the Convention, are reviewed in determining the outermost limit of the continental shelf. It should be noted that the jurisdiction of the CLCS is limited to non-overlapping areas. In other words, coastal states need to come to agreement on overlapping areas. Similarly, the exclusive economic zone delimitation issues between the parties is discussed in this study. Finally, an assessment of high seas is made within the framework of UNCLOS and “the 2018 Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean.” We conclude with an evaluation of whether the UNCLOS is sufficient in terms of solving the conflicts between the states in the Arctic.
