The distinction between the terms “skill” and “ability” is important. The essence of this differentiation should be highlighted at the outset. According to the Turkish Language Institution, “skill” is defined as the ability to accomplish a task and achieve the desired outcomes based on predisposition and learning, whereas “ability” is described as a boundary rooted in heritage and encompassing learning. The fundamental distinction between these terms lies in the emphasis on inheritance for “ability” and the acquirable and developable nature of “skill,” which also inherently includes ability. Additionally, a distinction exists between “skill” and “competence.” Competence is often used to denote skill sets, comprising practical and theoretical knowledge used to enhance performance, cognitive abilities, behaviors, and values (Succi, 2019, p. 284).

As defined by Peterson and Van Fleet (2004, p. 1298), “skill” encompasses the ability to perform a specific behavioral task or cognitive process related to a particular task. Notably, skill consists of three components: (1) domain-specific knowledge, (2) a method to access that knowledge, and (3) the ability to execute a series of behaviors or cognitions using the acquired information. However, the first two components serve as prerequisites for the observable action, with the third component being the observable skill. The necessity of recognizing, developing, and adapting skills to new conditions is crucial to prevent alienation and ensure professional success and satisfaction. Attewell (1990) explored some of the epistemological and conceptual problems of the term “skill” and explained four distinct sociological notions of skills, namely, positivist, ethnomethodological, Weberian, and Marxist. In addition to being fairly mundane, skill is also a phenomenon that tends to be objectively measured and hierarchically evaluated. Skill is the determinant of basic claims and ideals, such as success in business life, satisfaction, and sufficient income. For a person not to become alienated from his/her work and him/herself, he/she should realize and develop the skills suitable for new conditions (Attewell, 1990).

“Soft skills” encompass various key abilities, such as teamwork, effective communication, leadership, conflict resolution, planning, and problem-solving. Three fundamental skills in the workplace are emphasized (A Scans Report for America, 2000): basic skills (reading, writing, math, listening, and speaking), thinking skills (creative thinking, decision making, problem-solving, learning methods, and critical thinking), and personal skills (individual responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, selfmanagement, and integrity).

Katz is accepted as the first person who mentioned soft skills. Katz (2009, pp. 7–18) categorized skills into technical, human, and conceptual skills: Technical skills involve specific activities and methods; human skills center on working effectively with others; and conceptual skills encompass understanding an organization’s various functions and their relationship with external factors.

Hurrell, Scholarios, and Thompson (2012, pp. 165–166) explained three dimensions of the soft skills. The first component is the part related to the person’s qualifications/ qualities. This component can be defined as the skills expected from the employee to perform a specific job/task. The second component is skills related to the job itself, such as the job itself, the broader job context, recruitment, selection, and training practices. The third component is the skills that come to the fore with the impact of economic actors on the social structure. This component shows what is worthy of being labeled as skilled working in society. In other words, the soft skills of the individual at work should be understood as a reflection of what he/she brings as a skill to this job; the conditions, needs, and limitations of the job; and the skills that are valued (Hurrell et al., 2012, pp. 165–166).

The basic skills that come to mind when soft skills are mentioned are teamwork/ effectively working with others, communication, leadership, conflict management, planning/organization skills, management skills, problem-solving, self-awareness, critical thinking, technical skill/technology use, taking responsibility, time management, decision making, working under stress, competition, creativity, eagerness to learn, and emotional intelligence (Balcar, 2016; Chamorro-Premuzic et al., 2010; Freestone et al., 2006; Gündeş & Atakul, 2017; Jackson, 2014; Kember et al., 2007; Nair et al., 2009; Odusami, 2002; Özdemir et al., 2021; Radcliffe, 2005; Ratnaningsih, 2013).

However, the literature presented conceptual challenges in the understanding and application of soft skills, often leading to confusion among traits, values, characteristics, and behaviors. The distinction between cognitive and emotional abilities as soft skills and whether they are inherent or interpersonal adds complexity to the concept. The question of whether soft skills can be developed remains contentious, with a requirement for proper knowledge, practice, and feedback (Matteson et al., 2016, pp. 81–83).

Higher education is expected to provide students with the necessary knowledge and skills for individual and professional development (Franco-Angel et al., 2022; Gündeş & Atakul, 2017; Tambe, 2021). Developing skills requires accessing accurate information, having opportunities for practical experience, and receiving feedback on practical activities (Matteson et al., 2016), with universities being an ideal setting. However, in many countries, university graduates often lack industry-relevant skills (Patacsil & Tablatin, 2017; Radcliffe, 2005). For instance, Nair, Patil, and Mertova (2009) revealed significant discrepancies between engineering students’ developed skills and industry expectations in Australia’s Monash University undergraduate programs. Higher education institutions fall short of equipping graduates with skills that meet the expectations of governments, employers, and students for lifelong learning. Reports and plans from various countries, such as Australia, Germany, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, emphasize the necessity for higher education to impart high-order thinking skills to graduates, regardless of their field of study (Kember et al., 2007, p. 610).

Studies that considered soft skills as a prerequisite for learning academic knowledge (e.g., Barrie, 2006) coexist with those emphasizing the need to develop soft skills within the context of the relevant discipline (e.g., Kember et al., 2007). Barrie (2004, pp. 269–270) defined three encompassing attributes of university education outcomes: attitude toward knowledge (having knowledge), attitude toward the world (global citizenship), and attitude toward oneself (lifelong learning), which are supported through the development of five clusters of skills and abilities. These clusters provide a concrete manifestation of specialized undergraduate education within the individual’s personal qualities, cognitive abilities, and practical skills. These five clusters are research and inquiry; information literacy; personal and intellectual autonomy; ethical, social, and professional understanding; and communication. The challenge is that the skills to be imparted in universities are often listed without hierarchical order, shared meanings, or consensus among faculty members (Barrie, 2004), diminishing the impact of university-level learning on lifelong learning.

Universities are encouraged to embed soft skill development within technical skill courses as a functional and effective strategy (Balcar, 2016; Schulz, 2008). However, students also play a pivotal role in acquiring soft skills, necessitating personal effort and initiative (Majid et al., 2019, p. 18). The impact of socio-cultural factors and the individual’s background on skill development is emphasized; a student’s socio-cultural background and accumulated economic, cultural, and social capital can influence their engagement with the university and their ability to capitalize on opportunities for skill enhancement. Additionally, students’ lack of awareness regarding the importance of soft skills in employability and career development is another challenge (Majid et al., 2012). Students need to recognize the significance of these skills and actively engage in activities that foster their development.

When the examples of education and training models in the literature and the suggestions to support soft skills development are evaluated together, universities can support their graduates to develop soft skills. First, departments in universities should organize their curricula in a way that supports the acquisition of technical and soft skills. The important part here is to know the employment areas of the discipline well, ensure continuous cooperation with the relevant sectors and alumni, and recognize the current skills that graduates need in working life and include them in the curriculum. The education–teaching environment is student centered in a way that encourages students to learn, and the conceptual integrity of soft skills among faculty members is also a factor that facilitates students’ acquisition of skills. Apart from the curriculum, universities need to develop workshops and practical activities aimed at providing the basic soft skills expected of university graduates and the prominent soft skills specific to the field. Creating environments in which different actors (student–student, student– faculty member, student–graduate, etc.) will interact is important, particularly considering that students develop skills by observing others who are highly successful. These activities will make students feel like a part of their university, strengthen their sense of belongingness, and support them in developing their cultural and social capital. Finally, universities should conduct studies that consider students’ awareness/effort level toward social skills and the importance of socio-cultural factors.

This study aims to create a preliminary resource for the development of Turkeyspecific models for improving higher education–market cooperation and employment through soft skills acquisition.