The global population of older adults is increasing rapidly, necessitating diverse approaches to address this demographic shift across societies and families. Türkiye is experiencing a notable demographic change in this increase in older adults, prompting urgent scholarly studies into how intergenerational relationships are in parallel with socioeconomic shifts (Tufan, 2003; 2014). 

Social, cultural, political, and economic dynamics significantly influence attitudes toward intergenerational relations within families (Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2015; Lowenstein & Daatland, 2006). The family change model posits that both cultural and socioeconomic contexts shape attitudes toward caring for older parents (Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2015). In lower socioeconomic status (SES) contexts, children are often perceived in terms of their material or economic (i.e., instrumental) value, particularly in providing “old-age security,” whereas in higher SES contexts, children are valued more for their psychological or emotional contributions. Consequently, in collectivist or lower SES contexts, children are more likely to be viewed as potential caregivers for their aging parents than in individualist or higher SES contexts. 

Filial obligation norms involve societal expectations concerning children’s roles and responsibilities toward their aging parents. The dual filial piety model (Bedford & Yeh, 2019) distinguishes between reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety, with the former related to parent-child relationship dynamics and the latter associated with socioeconomic and cultural factors. Filial obligation norms play an important role in shaping attitudes and behaviors related to caregiving for older parents (Bedford & Yeh, 2019). In Türkiye, where the elderly population is increasing rapidly, there is a pressing need for studies examining how cultural and socioeconomic shifts influence attitudes toward caring for older parents (Ar & Karanci, 2019; Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2015; Tufan, 2014).

This study examines how attitudes toward caring for older parents as measured by filial obligations norms and the intention to support parents in the future are related to cultural values (relatedness and autonomy values, alongside the instrumental and psychological value attributed to children) as well as sociodemographic variables (including family living arrangements and parental educational attainment). Furthermore, this study examines how material and emotional filial obligation norms predict the intention to provide future support for older parents.

Türkiye occupies a unique position in scrutinizing the influence of cultural and sociodemographic factors on attitudes toward eldercare. Cultural values and norms in Türkiye reflect elements of both relatively individualistic Western ideals and collectivist Eastern traditions. Moreover, internal migration patterns from Eastern to Western regions have enriched and complicated the cultural landscape, particularly in urban centers, where a blend of Western Eastern norms is prevalent (Akyil et al. 2016). Akyil and colleagues (2016) explain shifts in family values in Türkiye over recent generations, attributing them to political and economic changes, urbanization (which has led to diminished intergenerational economic reliance), and increased female workforce participation (resulting in reduced maternal authority). Notably, rising values in Türkiye include self-esteem, individual autonomy, and the psychological valuation of children, while diminishing values include authoritarian parental control, filial concern, and intergenerational financial dependencies. Nevertheless, the significance of tightly-knit family bonds persists.

Previous studies have examined filial obligation norms in both relatively collectivist (Cheung & Kwan, 2009; Tsutsui et al. 2014) and individualist cultures (Lowenstein & Daatland, 2006), as well as in countries receiving immigrants from collectivist backgrounds (de Valk & Schans, 2008). However, examination of filial obligation norms remains scarce in Türkiye, where a unique blend of individualist and collectivist values is emphasized (Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2015). Studies conducted in Türkiye have predominantly focused on the attitudes and perceptions of adult children currently providing care for elderly parents, yielding inconsistent findings (Ar & Karanci, 2019; Gök Metin, Karadas, Balci & Cankurtaran, 2019). Consequently, there is a striking need for research in Türkiye that examines attitudes toward eldercare in conjunction with cultural, family, and sociodemographic variables. Notably, it is crucial to examine the attitudes and intentions of young university students, who are likely to assume caregiving responsibilities for their aging parents in the near future (Akyil et al., 2016). 

In this study, attitudes toward caring for older parents are examined concerning both individualist and collectivist values, family living arrangements, and parental education levels. Drawing upon the family change model (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1996, 2013), family living environments (rural, urban, suburban) are closely related to SES and cultural values. According to this model, higher SES contexts foster emotional dependence and autonomy within family relationships, whereas lower SES contexts engender material and instrumental dependencies. Moreover, feelings of responsibility toward caring for older parents are closely related to SES and cultural influences (Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2015).

Filial obligation norms have been explored with the living environment (Cheung & Kwan, 2009; Lowenstein & Daatland, 2006), highlighting its significance as a sociodemographic variable that shapes cultural and family values alongside socioeconomic development (Dinn & Sunar, 2017; Kağıtçıbaşı et al. 2010). Rogers-Sirin and colleagues (2017) discovered that as maternal education levels increase, traditional collectivist family values, such as harmony and hierarchy-based respect for older family members, decrease. 

Thus, this study adopts a comprehensive approach, integrating cultural (autonomy and relatedness values, and the value attributed to children) and sociodemographic variables within the framework of the family change model (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1996, 2013). It examines attitudes toward caring for older parents through the lenses of filial obligation norms and intentions for future caregiving. Notably, this study marks the first exploration of the relationship between cultural, sociodemographic factors, and attitudes toward eldercare within the framework of the family change model in Türkiye (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1996, 2013). In addition, this study sheds light on how attitudes toward child rearing and eldercare evolve across socioeconomic differences in Türkiye. The hypotheses (H) of this study are presented below: 

H1. Participants residing in urban areas and with parents possessing higher education levels exhibit (a) lower scores in terms of material dependencies (instrumental value of children and material filial obligation norms) and (b) higher scores in terms of emotional dependencies (psychological value of children and emotional filial obligations norms) compared with those living outside urban areas and with lower parental education levels.

H2(a). The psychological value of children and relatedness values positively predict emotional filial obligation norms, even after controlling for family living arrangements and parental educational levels. (b) The instrumental value of children and relatedness values positively predict material filial obligation norms after controlling for family living arrangements and parental educational levels.

H3. Material filial obligation norms positively predict the intention to care for parents in the future, even after accounting for the effects of emotional filial obligation norms. 

Method

Participants comprised 364 university students who completed measures assessing filial obligations norms, intention to support parents in the future, cultural values, value of children, and sociodemographic variables.

All data were analyzed using SPSS 24.0. First, exploratory factor analyses were conducted for the measure of filial obligation norms, which were translated into Turkish for this study. Subsequently, descriptive and correlational analyses were conducted. Gender differences were examined using one-way ANOVA, while sociodemographics differences were explored using MANOVA. Finally, multiple hierarchal regression analyses were performed.

Results

A series of MANOVAs revealed that participants hailing from urban areas were less inclined to endorse material filial obligation norms, as well as instrumental and psychosocial values of children, compared to their counterparts from non-urban areas. Moreover, individuals with lower maternal educational attainment exhibited higher levels of children’s instrumental value. In addition, those with lower paternal educational levels demonstrated higher levels of material and emotional filial obligation norms, as well as instrumental and psychological values of children, along with relatedness values.

To assess H2(a) and (b), hierarchal multiple regression analyses were conducted. In Step 1, family living arrangements and parental education levels were included as control variables. Subsequent analysis revealed that in Step 2, paternal education level, instrumental and psychological values of children, and relatedness values significantly predicted material filial obligation norms. Conversely, the psychological values of children and relatedness values emerged as predictors of emotional filial obligation norms. 

In investigating H3, hierarchal multiple regression analyses were conducted. In Step 1, gender was included as a control variable due to observed differences in the intention to support parents in the future. The results showed that gender and maternal filial obligation norms significantly predicted the intention to support parents in the future in Step 2. 

Discussion 

The findings of this study align with both the family change model (Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2015) and the dual filial piety model (Bedford & Yeh, 2019). Participants from lower SES backgrounds exhibited higher levels of collectivist values and norms, such as relatedness values, instrumental and psychological values attributed to children, and material and emotional filial obligations norms. Contrary to expectations based on the family change model, participants from higher SES contexts demonstrated lower levels of not only instrumental but also psychological value attributed to children. According to the model, the latter should increase in higher SES or more individualistic contexts. These results imply that young university students with fathers educated to a university level or higher, and/or those from urban areas, tend to harbor relatively negative attitudes toward parenthood or becoming parents in general. 

Emotional filial obligation norms were predominantly predicted by relatedness and psychological values attributed to children, emphasizing mutual and close family relationships. Conversely, material filial obligation norms were less influenced by these values and were also predicted by the instrumental value attributed to children. These results imply that material filial obligations norms are more susceptible to situational factors, a crucial consideration (e.g., Tsutsuiet al. 2014) for future research in Türkiye. Moreover, the intention to support parents in the future was predicted by gender and material filial obligation norms. Women university students, in particular, exhibited a greater willingness to make sacrifices for their potentially dependent parents in the future. Given that material filial obligations norms represent hierarchy-oriented family relationships and obedience to social norms (Bedford & Yeh, 2019), it is possible that participants who endorsed these norms more readily also expressed greater intention to support their parents in the future.