Merkezî Ordunun Taşra Zâbiti: Kethüdâyerilik ve Osmanlı Askerî Teşkilatındaki Yeri
Coşkun ÜnsalOsmanlı daimî ordusunun bir parçası olan kapıkulu süvarileri, 16. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar merkezde veya merkeze yakın yerlerde yaşamışlardı. Yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren ise imparatorluğun pek çok yerinde boy göstermeye başladılar. Askerî ayrıcalıklarını merkezden uzak idarî birimlerde de devam ettirmek istemeleri ve ağalarından başka kimsenin müdahalesini kabul etmemeleri, taşrada büyük bir probleme dönüşmelerine sebep oldu. Taşrada ikamet etmeye başlayan ve zamanla oranın yerlilerine dönüşen kapıkulu süvarilerinin disiplin altında tutulması ve seferber edilebilmeleri için 1570’lerden itibaren zâbitler tayin edilmeye başlandı. Kethüdâyeri olarak anılan bu zâbitlerin tayinleri, 17. yüzyıl başlarından itibaren daha sistematik hale geldi. Süreç içerisinde taşra idaresinde önemli aktörlerden birine dönüşecek olan kethüdâyerilerle ilgili mevcut bilgiler oldukça sınırlıdır. Dolayısıyla analitik çalışmaların yapılmasına imkan verecek bir zemin hazırlanması gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı da kethüdâyeriliği betimleyici bir üslupla çeşitli yönleriyle ele almaktır. Çalışmanın giriş kısmında askerî dönüşüm kapsamında kethüdâyeriliğin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olan gelişmeler incelenecektir. Bilahare tayin prosedürü, kimlerden seçildikleri, hangi vasıflara sahip oldukları örnekleriyle birlikte izah edilecektir. Kethüdâyeri tayinlerinin hukukî, askerî ve içtimaî bazı zorunluluklara dayandığı, bunların süreç içerisinde taşrada âsayişin sağlanmasında önemli bir figüre dönüştükleri, bulundukları bölgede nüfuz sahibi kişiler oldukları veya kethüdâyeri tayin edildikten sonra nüfuz kazandıkları iddia edilecektir. Bütün bu izahlar süreç içerisinde konuyla ilgili yaşanan dönüşümlere ve istisnalara mümkün mertebe işaret edilerek yapılacaktır. Çalışmanın temel kaynağını Osmanlı arşiv kayıtları ve diğer çağdaş kaynaklar teşkil etmektedir.
The Provincial Officer of the Central Army: Kethüdâyeri and Its Role in the Ottoman Military Organization
Coşkun ÜnsalUntil the mid-16th century, the Kapıkulu cavalry, as a core component of the regular Ottoman army, resided primarily in the capital or nearby areas. However, in the latter half of the century, they began to establish a presence in various parts of the empire. Their desire to maintain military privileges even in distant administrative units and their tendency to reject interference from anyone other than their own commanders, led to significant challenges in the Ottoman provinces. To maintain discipline among the Kapıkulu cavalry, who had begun residing in the provinces and gradually integrating into the local population, and to ensure effective mobilization while the Ottoman state initiated the appointment of officers after the 1570s. The appointments of these officials known as Kethüdâyeri became systematic from the early 17th century onwards. Existing information on the kethüdâyeris, who were to become one of the most important actors in the provincial administration, is quite limited. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare a ground for analytical studies. The main purpose of this study is to examine various aspects of the kethudâyeris in a descriptive manner. In the introductory part of the study, the developments that led to the emergence of the kethudāyeris within the context of military transformation will be analyzed. Then, the appointment procedure, who were selected and what qualifications they possessed will be explained with examples. The study argues that the appointment of kethüdâyeri emerged in response to legal, military, and social needs, and over time, these officers became instrumental in maintaining public order in the provinces. Also, it will contend that they were influential figures within their regions prior to their appointment or gained such influence following their appointment. All these explanations will be made by pointing out the transformations and exceptions in the process as much as possible. The primary sources for this research are Ottoman archival records and other contemporary documents.
The Ottoman Empire initially formed a regular army by employing war captives through the pençik system, later by recruiting Christian youths via the devşirme system. While these soldiers primarily resided in or near the centre, some began settling in provincial administrative units from the latter half of the 16th century. These kapıkulu soldiers, keen to retain privileges tied to their military status, led challenges for local administrators whom they argued lacked the authority to oversee their actions. At the same time, local reaya exploited the presence of kapıkulu by impersonating them, moving from village to village and oppressing the populace. These complications prompted the introduction of provincial officers within the central army in the 1570s, and the appointment of such officers had become systematic by the early 17th century.
This study examines the kethüdâyeri, officers stationed in provincial administrative units tasked with overseeing the Kapıkulu cavalry, a key component of the Ottoman standing army. The introduction explores the consequences of Kapıkulu soldiers beginning to reside in provincial areas, referencing existing literature and where relevant contemporary sources. Subsequently, the study delves into the concept of kethüdâyeri, highlighting that various official carried this title.
In the section on “appointment procedure” this study examines the process of kethüdâyeri appointments for overseeing the Kapıkulu cavalry in the provinces. This analysis includes how appointments were made, the criteria for selection, and the length of service. While kethüdâyeri appointments were relatively rare in the 1570s, they became increasingly common from the early 17th century onward. This shift suggests a gradual spread of Kapıkulu cavalrymen across the empire and a notable increase in their presence in certain administrative units. Appointments were primarily based on letters from the six different ağa groups within the Kapıkulu cavalry, specifying the candidate selected for the position. These letters were sent to the kadı (judge) of the relevant administrative unit, where the appointment would be enacted, and copies were recorded in the official registers. Although the Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn (Imperial Council) occasionally issued decrees for these appointments, they invariably referenced the ağas’ letters as the primary basis for the decision. The position of kethüdâyeri was mainly occupied by members of the sipahis, the most esteemed class within the Kapıkulu cavalry. Also, individuals from the silahdars were also appointed occasionally. While experience was generally prioritized in selecting candidates, other qualifications were also valued such as proven service in military campaigns, a reputation for not causing harm to the local reaya, good relations with fellow Kapıkulu cavalrymen, and the administrative skills necessary to manage them effectively. Kethüdâyeri, who held considerable influence within provincial administration, were often either chosen from influential individuals or gained influence after their appointment. Examination of this rank reveals that the same individuals frequently held this position, and occasionally, individuals from the same family were also appointed as kethüdâyeri.
The “The Appointment of the Kethudâyeris as a Necessity and the Judicial Duties of the Kethudâyeris” section of the study illustrates that the appointment of kethüdâyeri emerged from specific legal necessities. When members of the Kapıkulu cavalry committed offenses, provincial administrators were not authorized to intervene directly; rather, such cases had to be reported to the central authority. This applied equally to individuals who disguised themselves as Kapıkulu cavalry, wielded swords, rode horses, and oppressed the population. The resulting rise in crime rates not only affected the local population (reaya) but also increased the workload of the central bureaucracy. To solve these issues, the role of kethüdâyeri was created as a legal intermediary to enable local prosecution of Kapıkulu cavalrymen without referring the case to the central administration. Another legal necessity led kethüdâyeri appointments was related to the confiscation of property left by Kapıkulu cavalrymen in the provinces. In cases where a Kapıkulu cavalryman died without heirs, his property fell outside the typical state revenue structure. The confiscation of such assets was managed through their officers. With the Kapıkulu presence in provinces, the question of who would confiscate the assets of those who died without heirs arose. Thus, kethüdâyeri were assigned responsibilities in the property confiscation process.
In the “Mobilization of Kapıkulu Cavalry and Kethüdâyeris” section, the study outlines the critical role of kethüdâyeris in mobilizing Kapıkulu cavalrymen, who had begun to live in various parts of the empire. Prior to the widespread settlement of Kapıkulu cavalry in provincial administrative units, these soldiers participated in campaigns under the banner of their ağas. Since they typically resided in Istanbul and a few major locations, preparing them for campaigns and dispatching them to the frontlines did not pose significant challenges. However, from the late 16th century, the settlement of Kapıkulu cavalrymen in various provincial administrative units, where they acquired property and family ties, significantly slowed their mobilization process. To address this issue, a class of officers known as kethüdâyeri was created to facilitate the efficient mobilization of these soldiers. Upon receiving a campaign order, the kethüdâyeri had to firstly inform the Kapıkulu cavalrymen under his jurisdiction. Subsequently, he handled their equipment and readiness, and coordinated their arrival to the front, often accompanying them on the campaign. Additionally, the kethüdâyeri managed several other duties, such as employing soldiers under his command in specific roles, selecting candidates for future service as Kapıkulu cavalry after a period as serdengeçti (bouncer) and identifying retired soldiers who were still capable of combat.
In the “Public Security Services and Kethüdâyeris” section, the study reveals the collaborative role of kethüdâyeri with provincial kadı in maintaining order. Until the latter half of the 16th century, provincial public order was typically overseen by subaşı and other traditional officials. However, as Kapıkulu soldiers began settling in the provinces, they assumed a greater role in maintaining urban security. When public order was threatened by Kapıkulu cavalrymen, orders from the central authority were directed to the kethüdâyeri and the kadı for resolution. From the mid-17th century onward, kethüdâyeri were increasingly listed alongside the kadı, voivode, mütesellim, ayan, and other local officials in maintaining public order. Therefore, in times of peace, kethüdâyeri mainly tasked to ensure public order together with the Kapıkulu cavalry under their command.
The kethüdâyeri also assumed significant roles in areas where crimes were likely to occur. One of their primary tasks was the assurance of travel security within their administrative unit. This duty often involved ensuring the safe passage of individuals traveling to or from Istanbul, providing protection for officials en route to new assignments or escorting criminals to the capital. Particularly in administrative units along the pilgrimage route, kethüdâyeri, along with their soldiers, annually ensured the travel security of the pilgrimage caravans and officials and guarded the surre treasury. Their duty of protection continued until they reached the boundary of the next administrative unit, where responsibility would then be transferred to that region’s kethüdâyeri. Sometimes, it was emphasized that documents should be issued to record the transfer of this duty.
Kethüdâyeri also played a crucial role in ensuring the security of treasury funds and goods. When funds or goods were sent either to the center or from the center to another location, directives were issued to the kadı, kethüdâyeri, janissary commander, provincial ayan, and other local officials. In accordance with these orders, the treasury or goods would be dispatched under protection, with the kethüdâyeri and their soldiers in each administrative unit along the route responsible for safeguarding them. This duty of protection would end at the boundary of the next administrative unit, where the responsibility was then transferred to the officials of that region.
