İbrahim

Prof. Dr.

İbrahim

Mustafa

Rabia

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Elif

We can define figurines as three-dimensional works of art, typically representing living beings, which are crafted from easily portable materials such as baked clay, stone, wood, metal, and bone. They constitute small archeological finds, and are among the important materials of the excavated settlements. They offer valuable insights into the daily life, belief systems, and artistic expressions of prehistoric communities. They are generally designed in different types such as human beings, animal, and stylized forms of both. It is evident that the purposes behind producing figurines, which symbolize living beings, varied significantly. Figurines are human-made plastic works of art belonging to settled life, shaped by the influence of the natural environment in which people live. Both human-shaped and animal-shaped figurines reveal aspects of belief and sanctity. In particular, animal-shaped figurines are considered a reflection of the importance of animal husbandry as a primary economic activity. Accordingly, this study focuses on the typological classification of animal figurines unearthed in early Karaz culture excavations in Erzurum Province. Furthermore, it compares these figurines with contemporaneous examples from other regions and explores the social interactions of the Karaz culture communities. The Karaz culture, which flourished in Eastern Anatolia, is dated to the period between the Late Chalcolithic Age and Middle Bronze Age II (3500–1500 BCE), as evidenced by the excavations at Sos Höyük. Scientific excavations indicate that the earliest traces of Karaz culture settlements in the Eastern Anatolia Region were found in the Erzurum Province. Archeological research in this region began in the first half of the 20th century, revealing the earliest evidence of settled life. Data from key settlements, including Karaz Höyüğü, Pulur Höyüğü, Güzelova Höyüğü, and Sos Höyük, have enabled the identification of defining features of the Karaz culture, such as architecture and ceramics. The communities of the Karaz culture, often described as organized nomadic and semi-nomadic groups, sustained their livelihoods through animal husbandry and agriculture. Within these rural settlements, people produced tools and other items from various materials to meet their needs. Animal figurines are among these artifacts, offering significant insights into the economic and cultural practices of the Karaz communities.The methodology adopted in this study involved a detailed typological analysis of 20 baked clay figurines from the Karaz culture, registered in the Erzurum Archeological Museum. Photographs and technical drawings of the figurines were produced and incorporated into the study. The museum records and excavation inventory data were carefully examined to establish the dating of the figurines. A comparative analysis was conducted to identify similarities with figurines from other excavation sites, while emphasizing the general characteristics of the Karaz culture baked clay animal figurines. The figurines analyzed in this study were recovered from three key sites: two examples from Pulur, five from Güzelova, and thirteen from Sos. Excavations at Pulur, located west of Erzurum, were conducted in 1960 under the direction of Hamit Zübeyr Koşay, following an invitation by Ataturk University. The excavation team included Hermann Vary and several students from Ataturk University, who participated as assistants. During these excavations, four stratigraphic building levels associated with the Karaz culture, dating to the 4th millennium BCE, were identified. The characteristics of the third building level at Pulur were determined by the stone foundation structures and hearths. At a depth of 4.8 m from the excavation’s starting point, a stylized baked clay bird figurine was uncovered beneath a hearth associated with this level. Additionally, a bull figurine, crafted from baked clay, was discovered on the fire floor within Hearth T.Excavations at Güzelova were undertaken in 1961 and were also led by Hamit Zübeyr Koşay and Hermann Vary on behalf of Ataturk University. Among the animal figurines recovered from this site were representations of bulls, goats, birds, and other unidentified animals. A goat figurine attributed to the Karaz culture was found in the second building level. Of the two bird figurines unearthed, the first was located at a depth of 4 m during a trench excavation, while the exact context of the second specimen was not specified. Similarly, two baked clay bull figurines were recovered; the first was discovered in Pit A of the fourth building level at a depth of 6.5 m, whereas the location of the second remains undocumented. An additional unidentified terracotta animal figurine was also identified at Güzelova.Antonio Sagona of Melbourne University conducted excavations at Sos, located approximately 24 km east of Erzurum, between 1994 and 2000. Radiocarbon dating of the site identified five stratigraphic layers, spanning from the Late Chalcolithic Age to the Middle Ages. Sos yielded most animal figurines recovered during early excavations in the Erzurum region. A total of 13 baked clay animal figurines were documented, representing rams, sheep, birds, and unidentified animals. One unidentified animal figurine was discovered near the edge of the hearth fill at the southeastern end of a structure associated with the Early Bronze Age. Two additional unidentified figurines, along with a thin baked clay crucible, were recovered from the upper section of a refuse pit that cut through a wall dated to the Late Chalcolithic Age. The ram and sheep figurines exhibit features characteristic of Karaz culture artifacts. While some figurines were recovered with precise contextual information, such as their location within the mound, others were documented in the excavation inventory sheets with only trench and level details.&nbsp;An examination of the production techniques and ware characteristics revealed that the figurines were hand-shaped from baked clay, well-fired, and demonstrated high-quality craftsmanship. Their lengths range from approximately 2.8 cm to 7 cm. The figurines are predominantly brown and gray in color, with the surface textures reflecting the natural color of the clay. The surfaces of the figurines containing sand and grit additives are often mottled due to firing.&nbsp;The figurines were classified into five typological categories: bull, ram, sheep, bird, and undefined. The bull figurines share common characteristics, including horn protrusions, plump bodies, and short, thick legs that taper into triangular forms. One bull figurine from Pulur Höyüğü is depicted in a standing position with short, stubby legs and a thick tail that is partially separated from the body. Its face extends forward, and its body is short and plump. Another bull figurine from Güzelova Höyüğü features short, triangular horns that protrude upwards from the head. Although the facial details are damaged, its short, thick legs and distinct tail taper at the tip, and the body remains plump. A third bull figurine, also from Güzelova Höyüğü, has one horn that is slightly curved and extends forward but is broken at the tip, while the other horn is missing. Its short leg taper into triangular forms, and the downward-extending tail is attached to the body. The ram figurines were all recovered from Sos Höyük. The consistent and compact style of those figurines are typified and emphasized by their distinct, curved horns and short legs, which taper at the ends. Smilarly, one sheep figurine, also from Sos Höyük, draws attention with its thick (fat) tail, which serves as its most defining feature. The bird figurines consist of one example from Pulur Höyüğü, two from Güzelova Höyüğü, and one from Sos Höyük. The characteristics of these figurines were affected by their emphasized head parts, particularly the protruding beaks. In one example, the body remains plain with minimal detailing, while in another, vertical relief lines on the back of the head appear to depict feathers. This typological and comparative analysis highlights the diversity and craftsmanship of baked clay animal figurines within the Karaz culture. These artifacts not only reflect the technical skills of their creators but also provide insights into the symbolic and functional roles of animal imagery within the cultural and economic context of the Karaz communities.Figurines recovered within the Karaz culture area provide important information about the interactions and communication of different human communities that formed this culture in a wide area of spread, both within themselves and with other communities. Although there are inconclusive data regarding the stratification of the early period excavations in Pulur and Güzelova, the artifacts recovered from the Sos Höyük excavations have been both stratigraphically defined and have radiocarbon dating results. Accordingly, the 20 animal figurine samples discussed within the scope of the study are dated to the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age.The 20 animal figurines found in the Erzurum Archeological Museum show that they had an important place in the belief system of the culture. They stylized domesticated animals such as bulls, rams and sheep, as well as animals they observed in nature such as birds. Animal husbandry and agriculture constituted the main sources of income for the people of the Karaz culture, who adopted a rural life. Fertility, sustaining production and the continuity of the lineage were very important issues for the people of this culture. They must not have neglected to bless their animals, which were important to them, in their religious ceremonies. The fact that the figurines have high-quality and a mottled surface proposes the idea that they were used in religious ceremonies related to fire.It is understood from the findings in the study that domesticated animal species such as rams, sheep and bulls had an important place in the belief system in connection with animal husbandry, which was one of the livelihoods of the people of the period. It can be interpreted that animal figurines found a place in the religious worships of the Karaz people, whose livelihood was based on cattle and sheep breeding, in connection with the cult of fertility. The pitchers-depicting the face of a bird found in the temple area in the Pulur-Sakyol Höyüğü excavations are noteworthy. The bird figure is a subject that has not been addressed much in archeological studies. There is not much evidence to say what the bird image symbolized or what it meant religiously in the Karaz society. However, it is thought that the bird images used in Paleolithic Age rock painting and on Neolithic Age temple walls mostly represented the soul and were related to the renewal of life. As a result, the similarities found among the figurines recovered within the Karaz culture distribution area revealed that animal figurines had an important place in the belief system of the human communities that formed this culture and that there was cultural interaction between them.Baked clay animal figurines from the Karaz culture have not been collectively discussed in other publications. It is expected that the baked clay animal figurines from the Karaz culture, which are discussed and compared for the first time in this article, will lead to further studies.&nbsp;

Baked Clay Animal Figurines of the Karaz Culture from Early Excavations in the Erzurum Archeological Museum

In the ancient world, the tools used by people to keep their clothes on their bodies were called fibulae. The earliest examples of fibulae were produced in Southeastern Europe at the end of the Bronze Age. Fibula production spread throughout Anatolia and the Near East during the Iron Age. Fibula production increased in Anatolia during the Phrygian Kingdom Period. During the Phrygian Kingdom Period, fibulae became objects used for ornamental purposes and as an element of prestige rather than necessities. In addition to the widespread use of bronze in the production of fibula, examples are made of silver, gold, and electrons. Apart from daily use, fibulae were used as objects that tied the sacks containing ornaments, grave gifts, cult items and cremation remains. The depiction of dresses with Phrygian=style ornaments and Phrygian=style belts on the figures in the Late Hittite reliefs, in addition to the fibulae, indicates that Phrygian=style clothing became fashionable in this period.In this article, fifteen fibulae in the collection of the Hierapolis Archeology Museum are published. The artifacts came to the Museum between 1977 and 2012. The fibulae were purchased by the museum and recorded in the inventory. The fibulae are all made of bronze.Previously, E. Laflı and M. Buora, in their joint publication, provided information about the types of fibulae with catalog numbers 4, 7, and 10, which are displayed in the museum. Along with 3 artifacts for which we received scientific study and publication permission, scientific publication of twelve fibulae were realized through our work. In our study, information about the characteristics of the fibulae and the types to which they belong is given. The works of E. Caner and O.W. Muscarella were used regarding the types of fibulae.According to the mold samples recovered during the excavations, fibulae are produced by pouring the metal alloy into a pre=prepared mold. Phrygian fibulae are classified according to their body forms, body ornaments, and needle holders. Phrygian fibulae have U, D, bow and horseshoe=shaped body forms. Phrygian fibulae are distinguished from other types of fibulae by their spiral bow and needle holder with a sword handle.&nbsp;The artifacts with catalog numbers 1, 2, 4, and 8 are U=shaped fibulae. From their circular bodies, the curved artifacts with catalog numbers 3, 6, 11, 12, and 14 are fibulae with a D=shaped body. Fibulae with catalog numbers 5, 7, 10, and 15 are artifacts with a horseshoe bodied. The artifacts numbered 9 and 13 are fibulae with arc=shaped bodies. Fibulae with catalog numbers 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, and 14 are small. Considering their small size, it can be assumed that they were produced for daily use. It is noteworthy that the fibulae with catalog numbers 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, and 15 were produced in large sizes. Considering the large size of the six fibulae, it is highly probable that they were used as votive gifts.&nbsp;According to the museum inventory records, fibulae with catalog numbers 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 originate from Çivril District of Denizli Province. The fibulae with catalog numbers 2, 7 are from Işıklı Town, Çivril District, Denizli Province. Catalog numbers 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are of uncertain origin.The fibulae of the Hierapolis Archeology Museum were classified by comparing them with fibulae that were found previously. They are is classified as C II / XII, 5 with catalog number 1; fibula H II, 3 / XII, 13 with catalog number 2; fibula A IV, 4 / XII, 9 with catalog number 3; fibula H II, 2 with catalog number 4; fibula A III, I / XII, 7 with catalog number 5; fibula F, 3 / XII, 5 with catalog number 6; fibula A I, 2 / XII, 7 with catalog number 7; fibula N II, 2 / XII, 13 with catalog number 8; fibula type Theselia and The Islands with catalog number 9; fibula A I, I / XII, 7A with catalog number 10; fibula J I, I / XII, 14 with catalog number 11; fibula type L I / XII, 14 with catalog number 12; fibula type IV with catalog number 13; fibula A III, 1 / XII, 7 with catalog number 14; The fibula A I, 2 / XII, 7 with catalog number 15.The southern borders of classical Phrygia extend to the south of Lake Tatta (Salt) (Strabo, XII, VI, 4). In the southwest, it forms the borders of the Kibyratis Phrygians. The Kibyratis extends from Acıpayam (Denizli) to Tefenni (Burdur) and Söğüt Lake (Burdur).We can say that the borders of classical Phrygia and the Phrygian Kingdom are not the same. With archeological studies, the borders of the Phrygian Kingdom are better understood. Starting from the east, the upper watercourse of the Kızılırmak forms the south=eastern borders of the Phrygian Kingdom. The presence of many Late Hittite stone artifacts in the south of the eastward section of the Kızılırmak River supports the idea that Kızılırmak formed the border between the Phrygian and Late Hittite Kingdoms. In the west, in the south of Salt Lake, similar Phrygian ceramics were found in Alaaddin Hill at the provincial center of Konya. The stepped structure found on the Payallar Plateau between the mountainous parts of Hadim and Alanya are artifacts related to Phrygian beliefs, which were found in the south of Central Anatolia.&nbsp;In 2019, a stone block with hieroglyphics was found near Türkmen=Karahöyük (Konya). The inscription is dated to the second half of the 8th century BC. The Hartapuš, King of the Late Hittite Period, gives information in a hieroglyphic inscription stating that he conquered the Land of Mušku. According to the information given by Hartapuš, the borders of the Late Hittite Period expanded toward the Salt Lake. The recently published Insuyu Stele (Konya) proves that the Late Hittite dominance extended west of the Salt Lake. The Daydalı Stele found in Emirdağı, Afyon has been evaluated as an artifact produced in Phrygian lands in the past. The Daydalı Stele is likely to have been produced by the Late Hittites. During this period, the Phrygian borders seem to have narrowed from the Salt Lake and the south of Afyon toward Gordion, prompting the Phrygian peoples in the region to migrate in that direction.&nbsp;It is understood from the ruins of Çavuş Village that the southern borders of the Phrygian Kingdom extended to the north of Beyşehir Lake in the Lakes Region. A Phrygian inscription was found in Çepni (Afyon). Further south, Phrygian=style roof tiles were found to the east of Lake Yarışlı (Burdur). Because of excavations in Tumulus D (in the ending of 8th century and in the 7th century BC) in the Elmalı Plain in southwestern Anatolia, artifacts with Phrygian inscriptions were unearthed. According to the inventory records of the Hierapolis Archeology Museum, seven of the fibulae (Catalog No. 1=7) were found in Çivril District. Because of archeological surveys, Phrygian ceramics dating back to the 7th century BC were found in the mounds around Çivril. It is thought that there was a Phrygian settlement in the region during this period. The presence of the open=air sanctuary of Kybele near the ancient city of Eumeneia in Çivril reveals that Phrygian beliefs continued in the region during the post=Phrygian period. Seven Phrygian fibulae of Çivril origin were dated to the end of the 8th century BC and the 7th century BC in our study. Phrygian ceramics and fibulae found around Çivril are artifacts of the same age. The fibulae support the idea that the inhabitants of Çivril and its surroundings in the 7th century BC were Phrygians. Starting from the end of the 8th century BC, the Phrygian borders have been narrowing from the south of the Salt Lake to the direction of Gordion, while the Çivril District of Denizli has been included in the Phrygian cultural borders. There is no solid evidence to support the Phrygian migration to the northeast of Denizli around Çivril and Işıklı at the end of the 8th century BC. However, there is evidence that the region in question was included within the Phrygian cultural boundaries at the end of the 8th century BC.Thirteen of the fibulae (Catalog No. 1=8, 10=12, 14, 15) have Phrygian=style needle holders in the form of sword hilts. The sword=hilted pin holder is characteristic of the Phrygian fibulae. Catalog No. 9 and 13 have flattened needle holders. The body shape of the fibula with catalog number 13 is similar to that of the Phrygian fibulae. Catalog number 9 fibula with a flattened needle holder has disc=shaped ornaments at the ends of the curved body. Catalog number 9 resembles the Thessalian and island=type fibulae. It was evaluated that fourteen fibulae were Phrygian fibulae and one fibula was imported. The fibulae recovered in the study were dated to the 8th−7th centuries BC.Fibulae of Çivril origin may be produced for daily needs. Apart from this, they can be considered as cult objects, indicating that the open=air sanctuary of Kybele near Eumeneia was also considered to be sacred during the Phrygian Period.&nbsp;

A Group of Iron Age Fibulae From Hierapolis Archeology Museum

Umut

The settlement, known as Spilos Magnesia or Magnesia ad Sipylum in ancient sources, was located on the slopes of Mount Spil, which rises south of today’s Manisa city center. The Topkale Slope, one of the natural slopes extending from the mountain toward the Gediz Plain, harbors the remains of the ancient settlement. Sandikkale Hill, the summit of the slope, was the acropolis of the ancient city.Until recently, Sipylos Magnesia was a city first founded in the Hellenistic Period. Recent research has proved that the history of the city on the Topkale Slope dates back to the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The most important source of this new information was the small amount of surface ceramics found on the Topkale Slope.The three pieces of cultural artifacts examined in this article reinforce the fact that there is a cultural trace of the Archaic Period in the center of Sipylos Magnesia and its immediate vicinity. One of them is a bichrome Lydian pottery with a concentric circle patterned paint decoration. It is a small sherd of a plate or a bowl and was found on the surface of the Topkale Slope.This sherd is one of the two main types of the bichrome ceramic group, which was popular in Lydia during the Archaic Period. The sherd was fired at high temperatures, has a red (2.5 YR&lt;5/6), slightly micaceous paste, and is decorated with a dark reddish brown (2.5 YR&lt;2.5/4) decoration over a reddish brown (2.5 YR&lt;4/4) slip. It is known that this material type is represented by locally produced or imported examples in a wide geography including almost all of Western Anatolia and the Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Levant and Palestine cultures except Lydia.It is possible to find stylistic and analogical similarities of the concentric circle&lt;decorated pottery both in terms of paste, slip and decoration in nearby cultures. Based on these examples, the sherd found at Topkale was produced in the 7th century BC.Two other unpublished finds that may shed light on the cultural structure of Sipylos Magnesia during the Archaic Period are a complete terracotta lekythos and two rim fragments of a terracotta sarcophagus.The Lekythos and two fragments of a terracotta sarcophagus were discovered by chance in 2008 in Topçuasım Quarter, Topçuasım Quarter, Yunusemre District, Manisa Province, located on parcel 1509, block 3 (F. 2) according to the land registry records. During the construction works carried out on the property in question, these cultural assets were excavated from the excavation section and handed over to the Manisa Museum authorities.The Lekythos was found in two pieces, broken at the neck, and was restored and made whole. The lekythos has a reddish yellow (5 YR&lt;7/8) paste fired at high temperature and is slipped in a light yellowish brown (10 YR&lt;6/4) color. There is no decoration on the surface. The rim has a mushroom&lt;shaped, concave form. The neck is cylindrical and short with a horizontal groove running around the center. After the neck, the lekythos has a broad shoulder section and the body extends in a slightly inverted "S" profile from top to bottom. It rises on a conical foot. It has a single small handle with a rounded cross&lt;section rising between the neck and shoulder.In terms of form, the find is classified as a Samian or Lydian lekythos with its conical base and broad shoulder, and is close to the examples known from the excavations in the Lydian region. This type is widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean in the mid&lt;6th century BC with examples of high&lt;quality production. The specimen analyzed here, with its simpler workmanship without any decoration, can be dated to the end of the third quarter or the fourth quarter of the same century (ca. 530&lt;510 BC). The fact that the conical base, which is frequently seen on the lydions, the original cosmetic vessel of Lydia, is also preferred on this lekythos, and other similarly shaped examples suggest that this artifact may have been produced in Lydia.

New Finds Shedding Light on the Archaic Period of Sipylos Magnesia

Hüseyin

Mardin’in 30 km güneyine konumlanan Dara (Anastasiopolis) Bizans İmparatoru I. Anastisius (MS 491A518) isteği ile Sasanilere karşı doğu sınırlarını koruyan garnizon kenti olarak 503A507 yılları arasında tahkim edilmiştir. BizansASasani sınırlarının kesiştiği bir konumda olmasından dolayı güneyde MS 6. yüzyılın en önemli askerî ve siyasi merkezlerinden birisi durumuna gelmiştir. Dara’nın kurulduğu lokasyonun MS 6. yüzyıl öncesi ile ilgili arkeolojik bulgular sınırlıdır. Bununla birlikte, 2021 yılı kazı sezonunda güney batı surlarının hemen bitişiğinde bulunan bir alanda (Aba Höyük) yapılan incelemeler sonucunda Erken Tunç Çağ’a ait seramikler tespit edilmiş ve Dara’nın beş bin yıllık tarihî geçmişe sahip olduğu belgelenmiştir. Kentin kurulum aşaması I. Justinianus (MS 527A565) döneminde de devam etmiştir. Kazı buluntuları, I. Justinianus döneminde surların güçlendirilmesinin yanı sıra, kent içerisinde kamusal yapılarda düzenA lemeler yapıldığını göstermiştir. Dara’daki agora köprüsü ve çevresindeki düzenlemeler I. Justinianus’un kentteki bayındırlık faaliyetlerini I. Anastasius’tan sonra devam ettirdiğini doğrulamaktadır. Kent stratejik durumundan dolayı sürekli kuşatmalara maruz kalmış ve sık sık el değiştirmiştir. Dara (Anastasiopolis), MS 577A591 ve MS 606A620 yılları arasında Sasani hâkimiyetine girmiştir. MS 620 tarihinde tekrar Bizans’ın eline geçen Dara, yaklaşık MS 639 yıllarında Kuzey Mezopotamya’nın büyük bir bölümüne sahip olan Arapların kontrolüne geçmiştir. Uzun süre Arapların yönetimi altından varlığını sürdürmüştür. Emevi ve Abbasi Dönemleri'nden sonra Dara (Anastasiopolis), MS 12. yüzyılın ortaA larında Emir Timurtaş tarafından Mardin Artuklu Beyliği’ne bağlı bir kent hâline getirilmiştir. Kısa bir süre Eyyûbîler egemenliğinde kalan kent, bu dönemden sonra eski önemini kaybetmiş, İbn Battûta’nın aktarımlarına göre MS 14. yüzyılda küçük bir köy yerleşimine dönüşmüştür. Bugünkü Mardin ili, Artuklu ilçesi sınırları içerisindede bulunan Dara köyü yerleşiminin kökeni MS 18. yüzyılın sonlarına dayanmaktadır.Bu çalışmada ele alınan Geç Antik Çağ’a özgün bir form olan ampulla, içerisine sıvı konan minyatür matara tipi kaplara verilen genel isimdir. Ampullalarda boyuna asılması için omuzun iki yanında açılmış küçük delikler ya da sonradan gövdeye eklenmiş kulplar karakteristiktir. Pişmiş toprak örnekleri yaygın olmakla beraber, cam ve metalden yapılmış ampullalara da rastlanmaktadır. Kalıp yapımı bir ampulla üretmek için ilk önce “patris” olarak adlandırılan pişmiş toprak veya ahşap gibi başka tür malzemeden biçimlendirilmiş bir model gereklidir. Daha sonra patristen beğeniye göre üretimleri için “matris” olarak adlandırılan model kalıp oluşturulmaktadır. Seramik hamuru henüz kurumamışken bu kalıp içerisine bastırılarak şekillendirilmekte ve kurumaya bırakılmaktadır. İki ayrı kalıp içerisinden çıkarılan hamur birleştirilirmektedir. Birleşim yerleri bir alet yardımıyla düzeltilmektedir. Kulplar kalıptan çıkarıldıkA tan sonra aplike edilerek ampullalar fırınlanmaktadır. Aynı kalıp defalarca kullanıldığı için fabrikasyon üretim söz konusudur.Ampullalar Hristiyanlıkta dinî törenlerde şarap ve suyun yanı sıra hastalara ayrılan ya da vaftiz törenlerinde kullanılan kutsanmış aromatik yağları koymak için kullanılmıştır. Geç Antik Çağ en yaygın kullanıldıkları evredir. Bu dönemde hacılar tarafından kutsal yerlerden alınan hac hatıraları arasında hacı madalyonları/pulları ve hacı mataraları yaygındır. Söz konusu kaplar mucize gösteren su kaynakları ya da başta Hz. İsa olmak üzere kutsal sayılan kişilere ait mezarlarda yanan kandillerden alınan yağa temas ederek kutsal olan sıvıyı koymak için kullanılmış ve matara formlu hacı ampullaları olarak adlandırılmıştır. Kutsal topraklardan dönen hacılar yaşadıkları kentlere kutsadığı, kötülükA lerden koruduğu, şifa verdiğine inanıldığı için ampullalar içerisinde kutsal su götürmüşlerdir. Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi’nde de ampullalar bu işlevlerini devam ettirmiş olmalıdır.&nbsp;Genel olarak iki tip ampulla formu bulunmaktadır. Birincisi bu çalışmanın da konusu olan Menas ampullaları, ikincisi Anadolu ampullalarıdır. İlk tip, ikinci tipe göre daha yassıdır ve gövdesi daireseldir (lentoid). Gövdesine sonradan eklenmiş kulpları vardır. Üzerinde genellikle Aziz Menas’ın tasviri görülmektedir. İkinci tip yassı, oval formlu, kısa boyunlu ve küçük kulpludur. Üzerinde hayvan betimlemeleri, aziz figürleri, haçlar görülmektedir. Anadolu ampulA lalarının Ephesos’ta üretildiği ve dış piyasaya satıldığı düşünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte Anadolu ampullalarının üretimini tek bir merkeze bağlamanın doğru olmadığı da öngörülmektedir. Nitekim Batı Anadolu’da yapılan kazıların birçoğunda ampulla örnekleri çıkarılmaktadır.&nbsp;Ephesos, Laodikeia, Hierapolis, Knidos, Kibyra gibi Batı Anadolu’da kentlerinde ele geçen ampullalar Anadolu etkileşimli olup Anadolu ampullaları olarak isimlendirilmektedir. Oysa Dara kazılarında bulunan Aziz Menas ampulA lası doğrudan Abu Mina’daki örneklerle benzerlik sergilemektedir. Bu bağlamda Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi’nde İskenderiye yakınlarındaki Abu MinaADara bağlantısı ortaya çıkmaktadır. Dolayısıyla Dara’dan Abu Mina’daki Aziz Menas’ın kompleksini ziyaret edip bu vesile ile kutsal topraklarda hac vazifesini yapmış olan Daralı vatandaşlar tarafından ampullanın hatıra olarak alındığı söylenebilir. Diğer yandan kazı buluntusu olan ampulla, kentteki henüz ortaya çıkarılmamış bir kiliseye ait liturjik eser de olabilir.&nbsp;Dara, MS 6. yüzyılda Kuzey Mezopotamya’nın en büyük garnizon kenti olmasının yanında dinî ve siyasi bir merkezdir. Bu sebeple dinî anlam içeren Menas ampullasının kentin Abu Mina ile olan dinî bağlantısının somut bir kanıtı olduğu ileri sürülebilir. Ampullanın boyutları ve üzerindeki betimlemelerin Abu Mina’daki ampullalarda görülen ortada Aziz Menas, iki yanında diz çökmüş deve figürleriyle olan birebir benzerliği dikkati çekmektedir. Dara’daki örnekte olduğu gibi Aziz Menas’ın orans duruşu ve iki yanındaki deve figürleri Menas ampullalarında karakteristik özellik olup, yukarıda belirtilen form yapıları da standarttır.Aziz Menas, İmparator Diocletianus (MS 284A305) döneminde yaşamış Mısırlı bir Hristiyan’dır. Roma ordusunda asker olan ve zamanla rütbe alan Menas, Frigya sınırları içerisindeki Cotyaeum’da (Kütahya) İmparator Diocletianus ve Maximianus’un (MS 286A305) Hristiyanlar aleyhine verilen ceza ve emirleri dolayısıyla Hristiyan olduğunu açıklayarak ordudan ayrılmış ve tek başına bir dağda inzivaya çekilerek Tanrı’ya ibadet etmeye başlamıştır. Ancak imparator Diocletianus döneminde sürdürülen Hristiyan katliamları sonucu MS 295 yılında öldürülmüştür. Rivayete göre cesedi ilk olarak yakılmak istenmiş, uzun uğraşlar sonunda yanmadığı için gemiyle ilk olarak Mısır’a, sonrasındaysa develere yüklenerek doğduğu yer olan İskenderiye’ye götürülmek istenmiştir. Fakat develer Abu Mina denen yerde durarak diz çökmüşler ve daha fazla ilerlemek istememişlerdir. Bundan dolayı azizin cesedi develerin durduğu yere gömülmüş ve İmparator Arcadius (MS 395A408) tarafından mezarının olduğu yere bazilika, manastır, hamam ve sarnıçtan oluşan bir kompleks yaptırılarak dinî bir kimlik kazanması sağlanmıştır. Böylece Abu Mina’da yer alan bu dinî kompleks Geç Antik Çağ ve sonrasında hacı olmak üzere kutsal topraklara giden Hristiyanlarca sıklıkla ziyaret edilen önemli hac merkezlerinden biri hâline gelmiştir. Çalışma konusunu oluşturan Menas ampullaları Abu Mina’daki Aziz Menas kompleksini ziyeret eden hacıların yolculuk sonrasında buradan aldıkları kutsal su veya yağı taşımaları için yapılmıştır. Böylelikle Abu Mina’da standart bir formda üretilmiş ve üzerlerinde Aziz Menas’ın betimlerinin olduğu ampullalar ortaya çıkmıştır. Yukarıda özet olarak verilen hayat hikayesi ile bağlantılı şekilde Aziz Menas betimlemeleri için Bizans tasvir sanatında bir modelleme oluşturulmuştur. Buna göre merkezde orans duruşta Aziz Menas, iki yanında diz çökmüş develer değişmez bir kalıptır. Bunun dışında tasvire eklenen diğer sembol veya bezemelerde herhangi bir standart form aranmamaktadır.Bu çalışmada, Dara’daki Agora kazılarında ele geçen bir Menas ampulası ele alınmıştır. Daha önceki sezonlarda Dara’da gerçekleştirilen kazılarda bu tipte bir ampullaya rastlanmadığı için Dara kazı buluntusu olarak tekildir. Öte yandan 1986 yılında başlayan ve aralıklarla devam eden kazıların özellikle kentin nekropolisinde ve sarnıçlarında yoğunlaştığı dikkate alındığında buluntu olarak kayıt altına alınmaması normal karşılanabilir. Dara’da Agora ve çevresinde 2020 yılı itibarıyla başlayan sivil mimariye yönelik çalışmalarla bu sayının artacağı düşünülmektedir. Değerlendirme konusu Menas ampullası 2021 Agora kazılarında 1C100 açmasında CYNA05 kodunda dükkânların arkasındaki 6 No.lu mekânda (6M) ele geçmiştir. Çok az bir bölümü ortaya çıkarılan 6 No.lu mekânın hem batı hem de kuzey yönde devam ettiği görülmüştür. Söz konusu mekânda yapılan çalışmalarda, evrensel ölçülerle bağlaşık 555.13 m seviyesinde büyük blok taşlar kullanılarak inşa edilmiş bir zemin tespit edilmiştir. Bu zemin 554.03 m olan agora seviyesinden yaklaşık 1.10 m daha yüksektedir. Oldukça sağlam bir şekilde izlenen zemin, düzgün işlenmiş büyük boyutlu taşların birbirine bitişik hâlde dizilmesiyle oluşturulmuştur. Mekânın batı kısmında, zeminde çökme olduğu görülmüştür. Çökmenin olduğu alandaki döşeme taşlarının da yerinde olmadığı izlenmiştir. Bu taşların sonraki dönemlerde farklı yapılarda kullanılmış olması muhtemeldir. Mekânın kuzeybatısında gerçekleştirilen kazı çalışmalarında, üzerinde birkaç harften oluşan yazıtlı blok taş ve korkuluklar ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Yazıtın hemen önünde küçük bir haç sembolü ve yanında XMГ (Meryem’in Oğlu İsa) yazısı bulunmaktadır. Taşın kısa kenarına yazılmış olan bu kısaltma Hz. İsa’yı sembolize etmektedir. Gerek korkuluklar ve gerekse Hz. İsa’nın kısaltmasını sembolize eden yazıtlı taş, 6 No.lu mekân ve çevresinde dinî bir yapının olabileceğini düşündürmektedir. Antik Dönem yazarlarının eserlerinde kentte birden fazla kilise olduğu aktarımından yola çıkılarak burada bir kilise yapısından söz edilebilir. Ancak bu çıkarımın doğrulanması için daha fazla veriye gereksinim duyulmaktadır.Yaklaşık 7.3 cm çapında, 1.3 cm kalınlığında olan buluntu ampullanın kulpları ve gövdesinin üst bölümü kırık ve eksiktir. Munsell renk kataloğuna göre 6 YR 6/6 kırmızımsı sarı hamur yapısına sahiptir. Birinci sınıf kalıpla üretildiği için figür ayrıntıları oldukça belirgindir. Aziz Menas’ı konu edinen betimleme her iki yüzde kendini tekrar etmektedir. Ampullanın yuvarlak halka içine alınmış bölümünde ortada orans duruştaki Aziz Menas betimlenmiştir. Aziz Menas kısa bir tunik giymekte ve uzun pelerini arkasından sarkmaktadır. Aziz’in iki yanında diz çökmüş deve figürleri resmedilmiştir. Her ne kadar ampullanın üst bölümünde eksik bölümler olsa da benzer örnekler yardımıyla Aziz Menas’ın omuz hizasında iki yanda Malta haçının işlenmiş olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu haç sağlam olan parçalarda A yüzde sağda, B yüzde ise solda görülmektedir. Betimi çevreleyen bordürde ise nokta kabartma dizisine yer verilmiştir.Elde edilen veriler Dara Agora kazılarında ele geçen ve şu an için tekil örnek oluşturan Menas ampullasının tarihA lendirilmesi konusunda yeterlidir. Ampulla stratigrafik olarak kazılan Agoranın ilk evresi olan MS 6. yüzyıl başlarına ait tabakada değil, üst dolgu tabakasında bulunmuştur. Bir başka ifadeyle buluntu MS 7. yüzyıl tabakasında ele geçmiştir. Bu tabakada erken dönem yapılarına ilave ekler yapılmış olup mekânlarda fonksiyon değişikliği tespit edilmiştir. Dara, MS 606A620 yılları arasında Sasanilerin, MS 639 yılından sonra ise Arap hâkimiyeti altına girmiştir. MS 7. yüzyıldaki Bizans hâkimiyeti MS 620A639 arasındadır. Bu verilerden hareketle her ne kadar üretimleri MS 5A7. yüzyıllar arasında popüler olsa da Dara buluntusu bir adet Menas ampullasının üretiminin MS 620A640 arasına tarihlendirilmesi önerilmektedir.

An Ampulla of Saint Menas from Dara (Anastasiopolis)

Merve

Şerife

Anadolu toprakları, yüzyıllar boyunca birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış ve bu medeniyetler, yaşamları boyunca inşa ettikleri tarihî yapılarla Türkiye'nin kültürel zenginliğine büyük katkılarda bulunmuştur. Bu yapılar, geçmiş ve gelecek arasında bir köprü kurarak toplumsal ve sosyal hafızanın oluşumuna destek olmuş, kültürel mirasın sürekliliğini sağlamıştır. Bu bağlamda, tarihî yapıların korunması, 21. yüzyılın en önemli mimarlık sorunlarından biri haline gelmiştir. Tarihî yapıların korunması, önceden yapılmış araştırma ve analizlerin kapsamı ve derinliği ile doğrudan ilişkilidir. Detaylı analizler, korunması gereken yapıların anlaşılmasını ve doğru restorasyon müdahalelerinin yapılmasını sağlayarak, bu yapıların gelecek kuşaklara aktarılmasına katkıda bulunur. Bu nedenlerle, Kırşehir-Merkez ilçesine bağlı Taburoğlu köyü yakınlarında bulunan ve Kültür Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Müdürlüğü tarafından tescillenen Bizans Dönemi'ne ait tarihî Üç Ayak Kilisesi'nin korunması amacıyla kapsamlı mimari ve malzeme analiz çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu analizler, kilisenin özgün yapısal ve malzeme özelliklerinin detaylı bir şekilde incelenmesini sağlayarak, yapının korunması ve restorasyonu için gerekli bilgileri sunmaktadır. Bizans Dönemi'ne ait olup 11. yüzyılda inşa edildiği belirlenen Üç Ayak Kilisesi, özellikle son yıllarda hem antropojenik hem de doğal etmenler nedeniyle önemli ölçüde hasar görmüştür. Bu hasarların sonucunda, yapının bazı bölümleri tamamen yıkılmış ve yalnızca kalıntıları günümüze ulaşabilmiştir. Bu yapı, Bizans mimarisinin nadir ve özgün örneklerinden biri olarak dikkat çekmektedir. Özellikle simetrik çifte kilise planı, tamamen tuğladan inşa edilmiş olması ve yerleşim alanlarından uzak, açık bir düzlükte yer alması gibi özellikleriyle öne çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca, kilisenin hiçbir yapı kalıntısının bulunmadığı bir alanda inşa edilmesi, yapının mimari bağlamında belirsizlikler ve özgünlükler barındırmaktadır. Bu nedenle, Üç Ayak Kilisesi, Bizans mimarisinin araştırılması ve korunması açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır.Yaklaşık iki asırdır çeşitli şekillerde araştırmalara konu olan Üç Ayak Kilisesi, ilk kez 1842 yılında İngiliz seyyah W. I. Hamilton’un kitabında yer alarak bilim dünyasına tanıtılmıştır. Bu ilk referans, yapının tarihi ve kültürel önemi hakkında ilk izlenimleri sunmuş ve kilisenin bilimsel araştırmalara açılmasının kapılarını aralamıştır. Takip eden yıllarda, İngiliz araştırmacı W. Ainsworth, bu yapıyı ziyaret eden ilk kişi olarak kaydedilmiştir. Ainsworth, kısa bir tanımlama yaptıktan sonra kilisenin gravürünü çizmiş ve bu da yapının görsel belgelenmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. 1900'lerin başlarından itibaren, Üç Ayak Kilisesi, çeşitli araştırmacıların ilgisini çekmiştir. Bu dönemde, H. H. Graf Von Schweinitz, Hititolog H. H. von der Osten, R. Krautheimer, S. Curcic, Hild ve Reitle gibi isimler, yapının tarihî ve mimarî özelliklerini inceleyerek çeşitli çalışmalar yapmışlardır. Bu araştırmalar, kilisenin Bizans dönemi mimarisi ve dinî mimarisi açısından ne denli önemli olduğunu vurgulamış ve yapı hakkında çeşitli bilgiler sunmuştur. Türk sanat tarihçisi Semavi Eyice, 1968 yılında gerçekleştirdiği detaylı çalışmada, Üç Ayak Kilisesi’nin mimari yapısını ve tarihini kapsamlı bir şekilde ele almıştır. Eyice'nin bu kapsamlı araştırmaları sonucunda, kilisenin planı ayrıntılı bir şekilde ortaya konmuş ve yapı hakkında birçok önemli bilgi elde edilmiştir. Özellikle, Eyice'nin çalışmaları, kilisenin mimari özelliklerini ve tarihî bağlamını anlamada büyük bir katkı sağlamıştır. Son yıllarda da, çeşitli araştırmacılar Üç Ayak Kilisesi üzerinde detaylı incelemeler yaparak yeni ve önemli bulgular elde etmişlerdir. Bu çalışmalar, kilisenin hem Bizans mimarisi hem de dinî mimarisi açısından büyük bir öneme sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Yapının tarihi ve mimari değeri, bu tür bilimsel araştırmalar sayesinde daha iyi anlaşılmakta ve korunma çabalarına ışık tutmaktadır.Çalışmanın saha aşamasında, ilk olarak Üç Ayak Kilisesi'ne dair yapılan yerinde gözlemler ile geçmişte gerçekleştirilen araştırmalar bir araya getirilmiştir. Bu kapsamlı analizler sonucunda, kilisenin plan tipi, yapım tekniği ve kullanılan malzemeler detaylı bir şekilde belirlenmiştir. Bizans mimarisinde ikili, üçlü plan tipleri bulunmaktadır ancak bu yapılar sonradan eklenen parçalar ile ikili veya üçlü plan tipine dönüştürülmüştür. Yapımında ikiz olarak tasarlanan yapı ise bilinmemektedir. Bu bağlamda Üç Ayak Kilisesi tuğla yığma tekniğiyle oluşturulmuş türünün nadir örneğidir. Yapının çifte plan tipi ve gizli tuğla tekniği ile oluşturulduğu bilinmektedir. Apsis cephesinin çok yüzlü olduğu, narteksinin tek katlı olduğu, naos üstündeki kubbenin pandantiflerle taşındığı, cephelerdeki nişlerin ve niş içinde iç içe tasarlanmış pencerelerin varlığı tespit edilmiştir. Tuğla aralarından düşen üç farklı harçta yapılan deneyde harcın ortalama basınç dayanımı 3.6 MPa olarak tespit edilmiştir. Gözlemler, bu harcın dayanımının el ile kolayca ufalanabilecek kadar düşük olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, tuğla derzlerinde kullanılan özel derzleme harcı, dış etkilerden doğrudan koruma sağlayarak ve cephede estetik bir görünüm kazandırarak düşük dayanımlı harçların korunmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, 90 cm kalınlığındaki taşıyıcı duvarlarda tasarlanmış kemerlerin üst kısmında kalacak şekilde zeminden yaklaşık 380 cm yükseklikte çapı genelde 18 cm olan birer adet daire formlu ahşap hatıl bulunmaktadır. Boyutları yaklaşık 140x170 cm olan ayaklarda ise taşlarla oluşturulmuş 50 cm yüksekliğindeki subasman seviyesi üzerinden başlanarak yaklaşık 40 cm, 160 cm ve 300 cm yüksekliklerinde üçer adet 18x18 cm ebatlarında ahşap kare hatıl mevcuttur.Kullanılan yatay ahşap hatıllar taşıyıcı duvar narinliğini düşürmüş ve yapının depreme dayanıklılık performansını arttırmıştır. Tuğlaların yığında pişirme yöntemi ile oluşturulduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Bizans Dönemi'nde tuğla pişirmek için özel fırınların kullanıldığı bilinse de yapının yakın çevresinde buna dair herhangi bir kalıntı saptanmamıştır. Tuğlalar yığın hâlinde yakılarak da pişirilebilmektedir. Ancak yapıda kullanılan tuğlaların pişirme yöntemine dair kesin bilgi için yapı çevresinde kapsamlı kazı yapılması ve bu bilgiye dair veri sağlayacak olumlu ya da olumsuz kanıt aranması gerekmektedir. Tuğla işçiliğine bakılarak taşıyıcı duvarların Opus latericium tekniğiyle inşa edildiği saptanmıştır, ancak temelde ve bazı duvarların üzerinde kesme taşlar da bulunduğu için yapının genelinde hibrit yapıyı karakterize eden Opus mixtum tekniği kullanıldığı düşünülmektedir.&nbsp;Çalışmanın deneysel aşamasında, Üç Ayak Kilisesi'nden alınan harç ve tuğla numuneleri üzerinde detaylı karakterizasyon çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu süreçte, harç ve tuğla örneklerinde malzeme özelliklerini belirlemek için çeşitli analiz yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Özellikle, harç örneklerinde X-Işını Kırınımı (XRD) yöntemi kullanılarak malzemenin mineral bileşenleri ve kristal yapısı hakkında kapsamlı veriler elde edilmiştir. Ayrıca, tuğla örneklerinde X-Işını Floresansı (XRF) yöntemi uygulanmış ve tuğlanın kimyasal bileşimi hakkında bilgi toplanmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, Taramalı Elektron Mikroskobu Enerji Dağılım Spektroskopisi (SEM-EDS) tekniği ile tuğlaların mikro yapısı ve elementel kompozisyonu detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Bu analizler, malzemelerin fiziksel ve kimyasal özelliklerine dair kapsamlı veriler sağlamış ve yapı malzemelerinin karakterizasyonunu derinleştirmiştir. Sonuç olarak, elde edilen bu veriler, hem yapının mevcut durumunun anlaşılmasına hem de gelecekteki restorasyon ve korunma stratejilerinin belirlenmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. Tuğla ve harçta yapılan malzeme karakterizasyonu ile çoğunlukla alümino silikat mineralleri olmak üzere tuğlada koesit, hematit ve kalsit gibi mineraller de görülmüştür. Tuğlada yapılan ve XRF ile elde edilen oksit oranları da bu sonucu destekler niteliktedir. Harçta yapılan XRD deneyinde belirlenen mika ve bazı alümino silikat türleri harç içindeki kilin belirtisidir. Yoğun görülen kalsiyum pikleri ise kirecin göstergesidir. Buna göre harcın kireç harcı olduğu saptanmıştır. Ayrıca kil içeren XRD deseninde C-S-H piki görülse de bu pik çok zayıf olduğu için harcın hidrolik özelliğinin olmadığı düşünülmektedir. Harcın düşük basınç dayanımı (3.6 MPa) da harcın hidrolik olmadığı yönünde veri sağlamaktadır. Ancak harcın hidrolik olup olmadığını belirlemek için XRD ve basınç dayanımı deneyi tek başına yeterli değildir. Harcın niteliğine dair daha net sonuç elde etmek için Termogravimetrik ve Diferansiyel Termal (DTA-TG) analiz yapılması önerilmektedir. Tuğladaki mineral oluşum ve yok olma sıcaklıkları incelendiğinde, tuğlanın pişirilme sıcaklığının yaklaşık olarak 850-900 °C arasında olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu tespit, yapılan deneysel analizler ve elde edilen verilerle sınırlı kalmıştır. Tuğlanın pişirilme sıcaklığı hakkında daha kesin ve ayrıntılı bilgi elde etmek için Diferansiyel Termal Analiz (DTA) ve Termogravimetrik Analiz (TG) yöntemlerinin uygulanması önerilmektedir. Bu analizler, malzemenin termal özelliklerini daha hassas bir şekilde belirlemeye olanak tanır ve tuğlanın üretim süreci hakkında daha detaylı veriler sağlayabilir. DTA-TG analizleri, tuğlanın pişirilme sıcaklığının yanı sıra, pişirme sırasında meydana gelen kimyasal ve fiziksel değişimleri de ortaya koyarak, malzemenin karakterizasyonunu daha derinlemesine anlamamıza yardımcı olabilir. Bu tür kapsamlı analizler, restorasyon ve koruma süreçlerinde gerekli olan bilgilerin elde edilmesini destekleyecektir.Tuğlada yapılan SEM-EDS (Taramalı Elektron Mikroskobu Enerji Dağılım Spektroskopisi) analizi, malzemenin mikro yapısına dair önemli bulgular sunmuştur. Bu analiz sonucunda, tuğlanın içinde camsı bir yapı görülmemiş olup, heterojen bir mikro yapı ile karşılaşılmıştır. Bu durum, tuğlanın pişirilme derecesi aralığını belirlemek amacıyla yapılan XRD (X-Işını Kırınımı) analizleriyle tespit edilen pişirme sıcaklıklarıyla uyumlu olduğunu doğrulamıştır. SEMEDS analizi ayrıca, tuğlanın rengini veren demir (Fe) elementlerinin varlığını da teyit etmiştir. Kuvars 1050°C sıcaklıkta eridiği için 850-900°C’de pişirildiği tespit edilen tuğlanın iç yapısı heterojen kalmış, erime neticesinde oluşan camsı kristal bir iç yapı gözlemlenmemiştir. Daha geniş malzeme alanına dair veri elde edilmesi için mikroskobik inceleme de yapılabilir çünkü SEM_EDS analizi malzemenin çok kısıtlı bir alanında gerçekleştirilmektedir. Tuğla numunelerde gerçekleştirilen basınç deneyi neticesinde tuğlanın ortalama basınç dayanımı 9.8 MPa olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu özellikler ile malzemelerin mekanik ve fiziksel özelliklerinin açığa çıkarılması ve dayanıklılık deneylerinin yapılması bu verileri daha da kuvvetlendirecektir. Herhangi bir onarım veya restorasyon durumunda malzemelerin tespit edilen bu özellikleri yeni malzeme önerisi geliştirmeyi kolaylaştırıcı bir altyapı sunmaktadır. Mevcut durumda hasar oranı oldukça ileri seviyeye ulaşmış olan Üç Ayak Kilisesi gibi tarihî yapıların korunması ve muhafaza edilmesi, kültürel mirasın sürekliliği açısından hayati bir önem taşımaktadır. Bu yapılar, sadece kültürel ve tarihî değerlerinden dolayı değil, aynı zamanda yapıldıkları dönemin mimari ve teknolojik bilgilerini yansıttıkları için de korunmalıdır. Bizans dönemine ait bu tür yapıların korunması, sadece geçmişin izlerini korumakla kalmaz, aynı zamanda medeniyetimizin teknoloji ve sanat alanındaki gelişimlerini de belgeleyerek geleceğe aktarır. Dolayısıyla, bu tür tarihî yapıların korunması, medeniyetimizin kıymetli mirasını gelecekteki nesillere güvenilir ve sağlam bir şekilde ulaştırmak için vazgeçilmez bir yoldur. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışma aracılığıyla Üç Ayak Kilisesi ve benzeri tarihî yapıların korunmasına yönelik önemli veriler elde edilmiştir. Bu veriler hem mevcut yapıların korunmasını hem de insanlığın ortak mirasına katkıda bulunacak şekilde gelecekte benzer yapıların ayakta kalmasını sağlamaya yönelik bilimsel ve pratik yaklaşımları destekleyecektir

Architectural Investigation and Material Characterization of Byzantine Brick Masonry Church: A Case Study of the Üç Ayak Church

İsmail

Sevcan

Assist. Prof. Dr.

Bracelets, which have an important place among ornaments or jewelry used since the Neolithic period, provide important information about the social, economic, artistic and cultural ties of the societies in the geography where they are found. Glass bracelets, which emerged approximately a thousand years after the discovery of glass in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC, can vary in design and color in many regions in different periods. During excavations in Anatolia, many glass bracelets from the Roman and Byzantine periods were found. Data from the Islamic period -especially from the Middle Ages- have only recently begun to be shared. Archeological excavations in Anatolia have always yielded various fragments showing the use of qualities of glass. When the glass products unearthed in the excavations are evaluated from past to present, they reveal the development of glass production techniques. Thanks to the excavations carried out in Harran, a critical settlement center in the Southeastern Anatolia Region, rich finds from the Islamic period are being unearthed every day. Harran has been home to many civilizations with a history dating back to 6000 BC and experienced its most powerful period in terms of religion, trade, culture, art and science during the Seljuk-Ayyubid period in the Middle Ages. In addition to the impressive architectural structures and numerous ceramic artifacts unearthed during excavations in the city, glass bracelets were recovered. Although there are several studies on architectural artifacts and ceramics, no study has yet been conducted on glass artifacts and glass bracelets. For this reason, a preliminary evaluation of the glass bracelets recovered between 2013 and 2023 belonging to the Harran Excavations conducted under the direction of Prof. Dr. Mehmet Önal was made in this study. These artifacts, which will be introduced to the scientific world for the first time by us and will contribute to the research on Seljuk-Ayyubid period glass art, are examined according to their production technique, color, size and ornamentation. By making comparisons with the glass bracelets found in the excavations of the Middle Ages, the period and its place in the period were tried to be determined, thus a new study that will help to understand Harran in particular or the cultures with which it interacted has emerged.&nbsp;Sumerian, Akkadian, Old Assyrian, Hurri, Mitanni, Hittite, Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, Median, Hellenic, Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Hamdanid, Fatimid, Numeyrid, Seljuk, Zengid, Crusaders and Ayyubids lived in and around Harran. Harran experienced its heyday during the Zengid and Ayyubid periods, was abandoned after the Mongol invasions between 1260 and 1272, came under the rule of the Mamluks in the first half of the 14th century and joined the Ottoman Empire in 1516.Harran remained under the rule of the Seljuks for about 40 years. In 1081, Sharaf al-Dawla Muslim bin Quraysh, an ally of the Seljuks, captured Harran and appointed Yahya bin al-Shatir as its governor. The city changed hands frequently in the hands of the Seljuks from 1086 until the Seljuk Sultan Mahmud appointed Imad al-Din Zengi as atabek of Mosul, Harran and Aleppo.&nbsp;Harran excavations yielded rich finds from various periods, especially from the Middle Ages. Among these finds, glass artifacts have a very important place. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Önal, the Head of the Archaeology Department at Harran University and the Director of the Harran Excavations, led the 2013-2023 Harran excavations, which were funded by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, and the Turkish Historical Society. During these years, excavations were carried out in the bazaar area to the east of the Great Mosque of Harran and in the Inner Castle of Harran. The bracelets analyzed were recovered from these two different excavation sites. No study has yet been conducted on the glass artifacts found in Harran. In this unique study, glass bracelets, the most qualified group of glass artifacts found in Harran, were examined. Information on the use of glass bracelets was obtained, the forms and decorations of the bracelets were classified, they were identified according to their colors and decorations, and they were dated according to the layers in which they were found and similar examples.The glass bracelets found at Harran were produced in both attached and unattached techniques. Although the bracelets found during the excavations at Harran 2013-2023 were generally found as broken pieces, they present different typologies. They are divided into different sub-groups according to their cross-sectional and ornamental features. The examples are mostly circular, rectangular, triangular, and square. While the forms of the bracelets were created, their ornamentation was also completed.The sections are mostly circular, square, triangular, and rectangular, shaped according to the construction technique. While these forms were being created, some examples were decorated at the same time. Bracelets with circular cross-sections appear as twisted bracelets with frequent or infrequent twisting, spiral thread wrapping, and plain undecorated bracelets. Most of the bracelets with square cross-sections are decorated with drops or dots in the appliqué technique. Triangular and rectangular bracelets have colored ornaments in the etching technique.The glass bracelets found in the Harran excavations were evaluated in different sub-groups in terms of their ornamental features as normal spiral-wrapped or twisted bracelets, spiral and parallel thread-wrapped bracelets, bracelets decorated with appliqué technique and bracelets with incised technique. The colors used in the spiral twisted bracelets are opaque black, shades of blue and green, and fuchsia. In spiral thread-wrapped bracelets, red, yellow, and blue colors predominate among the thread colors used on black. The bracelets in the feed and applique techniques are quite colorful. In the appliqué bracelets, appliqués surround the bracelets at certain intervals in the form of tiny drops. In some examples, the drops are the same color as the bracelet itself, while in others they are in a different shade. The most striking example is a bracelet with an evil eye bead decoration. On the bracelet, which is designed in yellow and red colors, tiny blue droplets are placed inside the white drops to give the appearance of an evil eye bead. Bracelets with blue drops on black, red drops on green and yellow drops on blue were also found. The colors of red, yellow, black, green, green and brown were predominantly used on the bracelets in the feeding technique. Among the colors used on the glass bracelets, i.e., the colors fed, yellow is dominant. The applied motifs generally consist of horizontal, diagonal stripes or irregular linear and point decorations.The spiral twisted bracelets in Harran are similar to the monochrome twisted bracelets in Amorium, Demre St. Nicholas, Mersin Yumuktepe Mound, Kuşadası Kadıkalesi samples, Beyşehir Kubad-Abad Palace samples, Samsat, Ani, Gevale Castle, Bergama, Kocaeli and Mardin Museums. Parallel fiber or thread-wrapped bracelets are in interaction with the examples from the Samsat and Ani excavations. Similar ones are located in Elazığ Museum. Examples of bracelets in which small glass bumps in the form of drops are applied to the surface in a single row are a bracelet in the Erzurum Museum and examples of El-Kadim, Tel Dan, El-Şir. These also interact with the Syrian and Egyptian examples. Similar bracelets in the impregnation technique can be found in Tel Dan, the Metropolitan Museum and the Erzurum Museum.Strong signs of a temporary glass workshop were also encountered in Harran, which is one of the most important excavations of the Seljuk-Ayyubid Period archeology in Anatolia. Because of the examination and research on glass artifacts, bracelets thought to be manufacturing errors and glass slags found in Harran Inner Castle were found. These are important clues that glass production was made in Harran. Additionally, a large number of glass artifacts unearthed in a shop in the Eastern Bazaar of the Harran Ulu Mosque and a building space related to glass found in the Harran Mound indicate that glass production may have been possible in Harran. During the research conducted in Harran, some data about glass finds were first obtained in 2014 from the bazaar area to the east of the Harran Ulu Mosque. In this area, a space with a stone floor was unearthed in the trench designated as 7h\e2. A brick-paved platform with a height of 0.50 m above the ground was encountered in the west of the place, and glass goblet fragments were found extensively in this part. This place, located in the bazaar area, can be considered a shop where glass works are sold, considering its plan and function.During the studies carried out in the Harran Höyük 8f-e5 East Trench in 2015, two cooking-related structures were unearthed. Among these buildings, the building called Cooking Area No. 2 is made of brick and has a barrel-vaulted upper cover and a triangular opening. It was observed that there was a channel at the front of the building. Assuming that the function of this channel is the area where the glass melting shovel is left to cool, this structure could be a glass furnace. Finally, during the Harran Inner Castle excavations carried out in 2023, glass bracelets and glass slags, which were understood to be production errors, were found in hall number 4 on the 2nd floor of the castle and in the vaulted room number 4. Additionally, many glass bracelet fragments were recovered from these areas.Fifty percent of the glass bracelets from Harran were unearthed during the excavations at the Harran citadel-palace. Most of these are fragments of colored and decorated glass bracelets. In this context, especially elaborately designed bracelets appealed to a higher economic level of society. The bracelet fragments recovered from the Great Mosque of Harran are simpler. These are also indicative of the economy of the local population living outside the castle. The Harran glass bracelet finds can be dated to the 12th-13th century based on stratigraphic data and comparisons with similar examples. This conclusion can also be reached by dating the other artifacts found in the layers where the glass bracelets were found, namely terracotta artifacts, coins, metallic artifacts and inscriptions. Although it is not yet clear whether the use of glass bracelets continued in the city after the Seljuk rule of Harran in the 12th century, it is quite possible that glass bracelets were produced in Harran, the most important settlement of the plain, considering the production data. Nevertheless, further research based on chemical analysis should be conducted to determine the geographical distribution and dating of the glass bracelets. Thus, the glass bracelet recovered during the excavations can be analyzed in more detail.&nbsp;

Glass Bracelets Found in Harran Excavations (2013-2023)

Gökçen

Emre

Nurdan

The 1964 Venice Charter emphasized the importance of preserving cultural heritage in its historical context, underlining the need for continuous conservation in urban and rural areas. Conservation efforts preserve cultural assets for future generations and to use the knowledge accumulated over time. In rural areas, traditional architectural solutions reflect socio-cultural values, adapt to environmental factors such as climate and topography, and offer sustainable methods. The conservation of rural settlements and traditional building techniques has become a field of study for national and international researchers since the second half of the 20th century. Rural heritage, representing tangible and intangible cultural heritage, faces significant threats such as vandalism, abandonment, neglect, and loss of traditional handicrafts. This study describes the conservation problems of the architectural heritage, especially the mosques of the Principalities period, located in the rural areas of the Kastamonu Central district.&nbsp;When the traces of architectural heritage in rural Kastamonu are followed, it is seen that the traces of Turkish architecture date back to the 13th century. The first Turkish raids to the region started in 1081, and Kastamonu was annexed to Turkish lands in 1212 by Emir Hüsamettin Çoban Bey, one of the emirs of the Seljuk State. When the foundation records are examined, early architectural works belonging to the Çobanoğlu Principality can be seen in the rural areas. One of these structures is the Sheikh Ahmet Mosque, built in Gölköy Village. Another architectural heritage is the Akça-su Mosque, built in Şeyh Village.&nbsp;Çobanoğlu Principality ruled in the region for 97 years. With the Kösedağ War (1248), the Mongol influence in Anatolia and the political problems in the Anatolian Seljuk State enabled the establishment of the Candaroğlu Principality in the region in 1309. Candaroğulları also served as an end principality. The first known structure built by Candaroğulları in the countryside is the Halil Bey Mosque in Duruçay Village, built in 1363. In 1366, the Mahmut Bey Mosque was built in Kasaba Village, which is thought to have been used as the settlement of the Candaroğlu dynasty. With its construction technique and ornaments, this mosque is a cultural asset of high original value in the Kastamonu region.The study carried out archival research and field studies for the four important mosques mentioned. Within the scope of archival research, the records of the Kastamonu Regional Directorate of Foundations, district mufti registry books, and Ottoman state archives were analyzed. Field studies included an inventory of the mosques, measurements, photographic records, and user interviews.&nbsp;The Şeyh Ahmet Mosque in Gölköy is a rectangular building with stone walls. Its original elements include a mihrab, a wooden ceiling, and a porticoed entrance. Over time, cement plaster and modern interventions have altered the original structure. Conservation issues include damp damage and inappropriate modern additions. The historical significance of the mosque derives from its continuous use as a social and religious center. However, inappropriate interventions have affected its structural integrity and historical authenticity.The Akça-su Mosque in Sheikh Village dates back to the 13th century. It has a similar rectangular plan with stone walls and wooden elements. The original minaret was destroyed in an earthquake and was rebuilt using modern techniques and materials. The mosque’s importance stems from its use as a social center serving the surrounding villages during the Ottoman period. Modern interventions such as cement plaster and the replacement of original wooden elements with contemporary materials have created significant conservation challenges.&nbsp;The Halil Bey Mosque in Duruçay Village uses materials from early architectural works. The unique elements include an ornate wooden ceiling and reused Byzantine columns. Conservation strategies should prioritize the preservation of these unique historical features. The architectural significance of the mosque derives from its innovative use of different architectural traditions. However, environmental factors and inadequate maintenance have deteriorated these unique features and require urgent and careful conservation work.The Mahmut Bey Mosque, located in Kasaba Village, is famous for its wooden structure and detailed painted decorations. In 2023, it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under the title ‘Medieval Wooden Hypostyle Mosques of Anatolia’ together with the Great Mosque of Afyonkarahisar, the Arslanhane Mosque, the Sivrihisar Great Mosque and Eşrefoğlu Mosque. The detailed wooden architecture and ornamental elements represent the pinnacle of Beylik period craftsmanship. The rapid deterioration caused by visitor activities and environmental control requires a balanced conservation approach that includes managing touristic activities and environmental impacts.This study analyzed four mosques associated with the Beylik period by observation. With the information obtained from archive records and oral interviews with the users, the interventions that the buildings have undergone were determined. The deterioration of the buildings was identified through observation, and the causes of the deterioration were discussed. The factors that cause deterioration in historical buildings are divided into environmental (natural) and human-induced. Causes that may arise from the initial construction of the building are excluded because they also affect the architectural values of the buildings. Environmental factors are categorized as disasters, sun exposure, rain and wind erosion, vegetation, fungal and insect growth, and ground conditions, while artificial factors are categorized as abandonment, vandalism, and faulty repair.Surface losses due to rain and wind erosion were observed in the buildings. The spolia column capitals used in the last prayer hall of the Halil Bey Mosque in Duruçay Village have abrasion and fragment loss due to wind erosion. Since wood materials have an organic structure, they are exposed to insects and decay in case of insufficient drying during the construction phase or wear of the protective layer applied over time. The Mahmut Bey Mosque’s interior structure is made using the wooden interlocking technique. It was determined that the wooden materials of the mosque had blow holes and were exposed to dry rot due to fungus. The ground conditions on which the buildings are built caused some deterioration in the structure. For example, in the Duruçay Village Halil Bey Mosque, dampness was formed on the wall surfaces due to moisture from the ground. Another factor that causes deterioration in buildings is wrong interventions and faulty repairs. The continuity of use of the architectural heritage is important for the preservation of the building. Historical buildings face various risks, and as a result, deterioration and destruction occur. The unconscious application of relatively new materials and techniques, such as intervention with RC construction techniques, cement-based mortars, and replacing window openings with PVC material, damages the original values of mosques.In addition to the geography of rural Kastamonu, the dominance of the continental climate in the interior, transportation difficulties, and the changing understanding of comfort are among the factors that cause the emptying of village settlements. Another factor is the changes in agriculture and animal husbandry policies after 1980. For this reason, the loss of the productive village identity led to the dehumanization of villages that already consisted of a few households. The decrease in the number of households in the villages also affects the number of congregations. According to the information from the oral interviews, the Akça-su mosque in Şeyh Village also faces this risk. The fact that the Imam hatib of the Akça-su Mosque is still on duty offers a solution to prevent the abandonment of the building.Except for the Mahmut Bey Mosque, additional buildings were constructed for each mosque over time. This has resulted in new openings in the original body wall or existing openings' closures. Adapting historical buildings to today’s contemporary conditions and expanding them with additional structures is possible. However, in the mosques examined, some decisions were made that may harm the original condition of the building, and this situation affected the architectural and documentary values of the mosques. The intervention in the last prayer hall of the Halil Bey Mosque exemplifies this situation. For reasons such as ease of use and wind blocking, the PVC material with a wooden appearance was covered between the fluted columns with Corinthian capitals, and the perceptibility of the last prayer hall was reduced.Except for the Mahmut Bey Mosque, the other buildings were plastered with cement-based finishing. This method of intervention, which was carried out to prevent mortar discharge between the stones due to environmental influences, damages the natural structure of the stone and reduces its strength. Within the building, it is observed that the wooden materials are painted to protect them against insects and decay. This causes the loss of the decorations on the pediments of the cloisters and ceiling cores. Other external factors to which mosque buildings are exposed are deterioration due to material wear during historical processes, atmospheric events, and natural disasters. When these risk factors occur, it is necessary to develop the appropriate intervention methods within the framework of expert opinion. However, the benefactor who built the Akça-su Mosque, whose body wall collapsed due to an earthquake in the first half of the 20th century, had the minaret built similar to a minaret from the Hejaz region. In this way, even a minaret added later affects the authenticity of the mosque.Intervention and expert opinion in the conservation approach are important for the protection of buildings with original architectural value under registration. The buildings should be documented and evaluated in the context of their architectural history. However, this process alone does not offer a solution to a holistic conservation approach. Users need to be made aware of the protection of cultural assets and the values of the architectural heritage.The four mosques analyzed were used as divan/Friday mosques serving several villages and forming a common social and cultural space during the Ottoman period.These mosques have architectural, historical, documentary, spiritual, religious and esthetic&nbsp;value. All these values need to be transferred to the future. When conservation problems are evaluated, the main problems that cultural assets are exposed to can be listed as follows: Not having a holistic conservation plan, being exposed to environmental and human-induced deterioration, and unconscious intervention methods. In a holistic conservation approach, raising the conservation awareness of the local administration, the employees responsible for the mosque, and the village community is an important factor. Imams in charge of the mosque and villagers should be aware of their cultural heritage.To protect the rural architectural heritage, stakeholders such as state institutions, local administrations, non-governmental organizations, experts in the field, and professional chambers, especially local people, should come together during the project and create a participatory conservation approach. In areas where intangible architectural heritage needs to be protected, the ability of local governments and state institutions to reach out to communities, groups, and individuals and their experience in conducting joint activities with non-governmental organizations is important for cultural heritage conservation. Therefore, stakeholders responsible for conserving these mosques should develop a holistic approach to conserving the tangible and intangible cultural heritage with professional associations, civil society organizations, users, and local communities. To this end, official institutions in the hierarchy, starting from the level of ministries to village representatives, should play an active role in inventory, documentation, and archive work, as well as in the use of tools such as education, awareness raising, press, and social media.Mosques can be intervened with modern equipment against physical environmental conditions. Structural (reinforcement, ventilation, heating, lighting, etc.) evaluations should be made for these divan mosques with high architectural and historical value. Comprehensive analyses should be conducted for such interventions. For example, in interviews with the congregation of the Mahmut Bey Mosque in Kasaba Village, it was stated that the Friday and Eid prayers are performed collectively with the people living in the villages connected to the divan in the spring and summer months within the scope of the divan tradition. However, it was stated that the heating problem could not be solved in the winter months because the mosque had not intervened. It is important to prepare a comprehensive guide for the protection planning of the mosque where there is a fire risk.

Investigation of Kastamonu Principalities Period Rural Mosques in the Context of Architectural Conservation

Murat

Tuba

Pınar

The Seljuk period represents a rich and deep-rooted historical process in which important examples of the TurkishIslamic architectural style are given. Residences and public buildings such as caravanserais, inns, baths and mosques, which are the products of this process, contain very diverse and unique qualities in terms of their architectural qualities and decoration elements. These qualities have been studied by many researchers from different disciplines for many years; Some of these qualities have inspired today’s designs. The Seljuk period holds an important place in the history of Turkish architecture. The architecture of the Seljuk period attracts attention with its unique design and esthetic approach. The Malatya Grand Mosque is one of the unique works of the Seljuk State in Anatolia in terms of its applied plan scheme, technical features, materials and ornaments.The Malatya Grand Mosque is a historical building that should be protected as a cultural heritage and transferred to the future with all its original qualities. In this sense, according to the regulation published by ICOMOS in 2003 and containing regulations on the documentation of architectural heritage, it should be treated both as a historical document and as a work of art. According to the Turkish Architectural Heritage Protection Declaration put forward by ICOMOS in 2013, it is essential to preserve the originality of the building in all its dimensions in the interventions to be made for the protection of historical buildings in our country. It is of great importance to examine the decorations, which contribute significantly to the originality of the Malatya Grand Mosque, in depth and to transfer them to the future accordinglyThe Malatya Grand Mosque is located in Meydanbaşı District of the Battalgazi district, 8 kilometers north of the city center. The structure covers a quadrangular area of 33x50 meters, centered on the Malatya city walls. The Malatya Grand Mosque has a shape that reflects the characteristics of the Seljuk period, with its rectangular shape in terms of plan features, a dome in front of the mihrab, four swans and a courtyard with porticoes in the east-west directions. In the Malatya Grand Mosque, stone and brick were used as building materials. The facade character of the building, which has three doors in the east, west and south directions, carries the characteristics of the period to the present day. Tile mosaics with different geometric patterns are embroidered on the facades. The use of various colors for different motifs attracts attention. In addition, the tile decorations in the courtyard of the building represent the decoration features of the Seljuk period. Decorations in the building; It reflects the characteristics of the period in a cultural, social and artistic context.The Great Mosque of Malatya, a prominent example of a Seljuk-era mosque that has survived to the present day, occupies a significant place in the cultural memory of the city due to its architectural characteristics and decorative elements. The transmission of this memory to future generations, its preservation in all its aspects, and its detailed documentation hold significant importance both in terms of the structure itself and in the context of the city and region. In particular, the presence of decorative elements in various forms across different parts of the structure reflects the fundamental characteristics of the Seljuk ornamentation and decorative traditions. Over the course of history, the mosque has been subjected to multifaceted academic studies by numerous researchers. However, the earthquakes of 2020 in Elazığ and 2023 in Kahramanmaraş have underscored the urgent need for comprehensive conservation efforts. A critical component of these efforts is the detailed analysis of the decorative elements distributed across different sections of the structure. Within this framework, a thorough investigation of these features and the subsequent evaluations will provide substantial contributions to the planned conservation initiatives.The aim of the study is that ornaments and decorations that reflect thousands of years of culture of people and societies appear as an important architectural element in shaping, diversifying and enriching the spaces and facades of buildings. In this context, analyzing the current state of ornamentation and decorative elements, which represent significant and unique details of architectural heritage, identifying their identity and artistic qualities, and ensuring their holistic transmission to future generations are among the primary objectives. This study aims to numerically reveal the fractal dimension values by analyzing the facade and interior decorations of the Malatya Grand Mosque, an important structure of the Seljuk period, using the fractal analysis method. Thus, we aimed to numerically compare the similarities and differences of these decorations, which bear the traces of the period and enrich the interior and facade structure of the building, by grouping them within themselves. In line with this study, the aim is to draw attention to the importance of a more holistic conservation by increasing awareness about the harmony and balance in the ornaments and decorations of historical buildings shaped according to the socio-cultural and physical norms of the period.Within the scope of the study, the tile and stone decorations in the Malatya Grand Mosque were discussed. The decorations were examined in terms of geometric qualities and evaluated accordingly by the morphological analysis method. In the study, the quantitative analysis method was used to obtain and evaluate data. The ornaments were examined in terms of their geometric qualities and handled with the “Fractal Analysis” method, which allows evaluation in terms of morphological qualities.In 1976, the Polish mathematician Mandelbrot derived the concept of a fractal from the Latin word “fraktus.” This concept means “fragmented, fractured.” A fractal can be defined as a scale-independent repetition of a given module. The fractal analysis method has found the opportunity to be used in the field of architecture as well as in many other fields. Fractal analysis is expressed as the visual richness created by repetition, self-similarity and characteristic forms in harmony. With the fractal analysis method, the visual complexity values of the architectural objects are calculated and interpreted.The fractal analysis method facilitates the understanding of the physical structure as well as the form. It is possible to observe fractal geometry in nature and artificially in many areas of the life cycle of living things. A fractal is formed by repeating the same module from unit to whole. It is contiguous from the smallest unit to the entire form, and differences can be seen in the fractal dimension values depending on the geometric structure of the form. Fractals reveal the existence of order in all situations containing “randomness.” The Fraclac plug-in of the fractal analysis Image-J program was used to calculate the fractal geometry values of the facades of the buildings evaluated within the scope of the study.The fractal dimension value varies between 1 and 2. A value approaching 1 indicates low visual complexity, and a value approaching 2 indicates high visual complexity. The fractal dimension values provide information about the visual complexity levels of architectural objects. It is possible to make comparisons with similarities and differences.Considering that there was a certain order and harmony in the plans, facades and decorations in the Seljuk period buildings; The morphological differences and densities seen in the crown door and interior decorations of the examined building are important data that should be taken into consideration in the context of conservation. In this sense, the fractal compositions of the decoration elements on a microscale and within themselves should be considered when protecting these elements and conservation practices should be developed accordingly. As a result, the study aims to provide a resource for similar research with the fractal analysis data obtained and to emphasize the importance of these analyses in terms of conservation.The intense fractal values of the crown doors require special study in the context of the conservation of the ornamental elements at these points. In this context, these artistic elements can be described as both historical documents and complex-shaped works of art according to the relevant regulations; According to its geometric analysis, it would be appropriate to examine it meticulously by architectural and art historians, conservation and materials experts, and to develop multidisciplinary conservation practices. The relatively simple ornaments and embellishments on the facade moldings are at least as important as the elements with an intense fractal value on the crown gates. In this context, it is important to preserve the simplicity of the moldings on the facade and transfer it to the future.&nbsp;In general, it can be stated that floral motifs with close fractal values and geometric interlockings and motifs are also well represented among the decorations in the building. Conservation efforts should be carried out in a balanced and sustainable manner, considering this harmony.Because of the study, the forms found in the decorations on the east and west crown gates, mihrab and courtyard of the Malatya Grand Mosque were classified under four separate headings. According to this classification, each decoration was examined morphologically on a microscale using the fractal analysis method. Accordingly, the results obtained show that the fractal values of the muqarnas on the crown gates are higher than those of the other decoration elements. These are followed by geometric interlaces and motifs, and vegetal motifs and moldings respectively. The fractal values of these three elements are very close to each other. These data show that the muqarnas on the crown gate have a more complex geometry than the other decoration elements.

Evaluation of Malatya Grand Mosque Ornaments Using the Morphological Analysis Method

Gülçin

Fatih

The term "Medrese" originates from Arabic and signifies "to read, comprehend, learn a text, and repetitively recite it for memorization." In Islamic nations, it denotes a structure characterized by its unique architecture, typically constructed around a spacious courtyard, either open or enclosed, where disciplines consistent with Islamic religious doctrines are taught, alongside accommodations for students’ residency and study. Madrasahs were first established in the 9th and 10th centuries. Some sources accept that the madrasahs started with "Suffe", which is a section of the Masjid9i Nabawi. The Masjid al9Nabawi is a mosque established under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad. This masjid consists of 3 sections: The section where the Prophet Muhammad and his family stayed, the worship area, and the place where students stayed and received education. The first truly established madrasah was founded in the 11th century in Nisabur, Iran. The first madrasah established in Anatolia was the Yağıbasan Madrasah, founded by the Danishmendids in Niksar, Tokat, where medicine was taught. The most comprehensive madrasah, which is an example for the later ones, is the Nizamiye Madrasah built during the Seljuk period. It was built by Nizamü'l9Mülk in Baghdad in 1057. Nizamiye Madrasah is considered to be the first and real university of Islam in terms of providing free education, scholarships to students, providing accommodation and meeting the social needs of students. When we look at the reasons for establishing madrasahs, many opinions are put forward. The difficulty of conducting worship and education at the same time in mosques, the need for an institution that would meet the needs of the educational institution and the students, the intensity of the lessons in mosques, the establishment as a continu9 ation of masjids and mosques, the training of clergymen, statesmen, members of justice, scholars and derris, The establishment of madrasahs as a continuation of institutions established for library purposes such as Dar al9hikme and Beytu'l9Hikme, known as Dar al9ilim, to prevent inter9sectarian propaganda, to support a jurisprudential sect, to educate poor and talented students and to bring them into society are seen as the purposes of the establishment of madrasahs. Madrasahs are divided into general madrasahs and specialized madrasahs. General madrasahs provide primary and secondary level education and many sciences such as the Qur'an, hadith, fiqh, jurisprudence, vocabulary, nah, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, history and geography are taught together in these madrasahs. Specialized madrasahs, on the other hand, provide higher level education and allow specialization in fields such as literature, theology, medicine, mathematics and natural sciences, such as dar al9qurra, dar al9hadith, dar al9tib (medical madrasah) etc. In addition to the cultural value they carry, madrasahs are important architectural elements both in terms of their architecture and their relationship with the city. When evaluated stylistically, they have a plan scheme consisting of cells, classrooms, a masjid and a mausoleum arranged around a courtyard and enriched with 194 iwan. The most important building elements of madrasah architecture are the portal, courtyard, iwan, winter classroom, tomb (masjid) and cells. The portal is the richly decorated, monumental entrance of the madrasahs. It emphasizes the entrance on the facade. The courtyard is an area in the center of the building, surrounded by walls or porticoes, gathering all the spaces and acting as a nodal point. The iwan is a space closed on three sides, with the open side facing the courtyard, raised by a few steps from the courtyard, and covered with a vault or dome. The winter classroom is a classroom space located to the right or left of the main iwan for use in cold weather. The mausoleum is a space covered with a dome, usually where the madrasah masters are buried, and can be located in different places according to the madrasah plan scheme. Cells, on the other hand, are the rooms lined around the courtyard and opening to the courtyard, which may have a portico in front of them according to the plan scheme, used by the students for sheltering and studying. When evaluated as an urban element, madrasahs are buildings that have the characteristics of "urban nucleus" in the words of Kevin Lynch with the relationship they establish with their surroundings and the meaning they carry. Urban nuclei are important nodes and focal points that are the nucleus of the region and create areas of gathering and activity. At the same time, some urban nuclei are signposts that create visual perception and reference for their surroundings. It would be appropriate to say that madrasahs are the product of interdisciplinary cooperation. The strategic perspectives of the states in making construction decisions, the mission of the madrasah, the foundation culture kept alive during the construction process, the esthetic and meaning value of its formal elements, and the architectural enrichment with other types of buildings built together make madrasahs important architectural elements with both physical and spiritual dimensions. Such structures naturally affect the city in both physical and spiritual dimensions. In the physical dimension, it has the power of influence that can determine the way of land use, the density of construction around it, building types, urban silhouette (storey height, material / texture selection, etc.), urban orientation and development, zoning decisions, and transportation network; while in the spiritual dimension, it is effective in the formation of urban identity, memory, culture, and brand value. The madrasahs built in Konya city center added cultural value to the city in the period they were built and served to create a brand value such as "capital of science and culture". In addition to this service, they have become a symbol of urban esthetics and richness in terms of architecture. Especially in the Seljuk Period, very magnificent madrasahs were built, and these madrasahs have become the icons of the city of Konya today. This study identifies medreses constructed in the Konya city center during the Seljuk, Karamanids, and Ottoman periods and investigates their contributions to subsequent regional developments. The names, construction dates, and present conditions of the identified medreses are tabulated. The locations of the madrasahs are expressed both in writing and cartographically, with reference to today’s urban texture. The existence of 25 madrasahs in the Seljuk Period, 17 in the Karamanids Period, and 44 in the Ottoman Period could be identified in the city center of Konya. The institutionalization of madrasahs in Konya and its surroundings occurred during the Seljuk period. This was a period when Konya shone in every sense, became a center of education and culture and had an important political and military power. Almost all of the valuable madrasahs that have survived to this day in Konya are the works of the Seljuk Period. The Karamanids, who came after the Seljuk Empire, built some madrasahs and tried to protect the cultural heritage inherited from the Seljuks. Toward the end of the 13th century, the Seljuks disintegrated and the conflicts and political problems between the principalities established in various regions in this period caused educational activities to slow down. Many madrasahs became unusable due to lack of maintenance. After the Karamanids, new educational structures were not established in Konya until the 18th century, but as of the 18th century, Konya started to rise again, and many madrasahs were built. In addition to madrasahs, lodges, mosques and zawiyas were built, libraries were established and many valuable works were endowed to these libraries. However, as the Ottoman Empire began to weaken, madrasahs began to lose their importance. The madrasahs built in Konya city center added cultural value to the city in the period they were built and served to create a brand value such as "capital of science and culture". In addition to this service, they have become a symbol of urban esthetics and richness in terms of architecture. Especially in the Seljuk Period, quite magnificent madrasahs were built and these madrasahs have become the icon of Konya today. On an urban scale, madrasahs have a relationship with urban development in the period in which they were built. Konya city center was first established on Alaaddin Hill and then developed to the north of the hill. It is seen that the Seljuk Period madrasahs were also concentrated in this direction. Afterwards, the city started to develop toward the east of the hill. In the Ottoman Period, it is seen that the madrasahs were concentrated on the Alaaddin9Mevlana axis in the east of the hill. In fact, this situation is not a coincidence. Madrasahs were generally built with the support of foundations, and in accordance with the foundation culture, other buildings that could meet the expenses of the madrasah were also endowed while the madrasah was being built. Endowing income9generating real estate is considered a part of the process of establishing a madrasah. The endowed buildings may be an existing structure or they may be built with the madrasah or for the madrasah in the close neighborhood of the madrasah. The areas where madrasahs are concentrated are also the areas where urban mobility and commercial activities are intense in the relevant period. Madrasahs not only bring mobility to the area where they are built, but also the places where they are built are usually located within the development area of the city. It is possible to observe this situation, especially on the Alaaddin9Mevlana axis, where the madrasahs of the Ottoman Period are concentrated. Madrasahs have contributed to this axis being an important trade axis throughout history. Today, this area is the area where cultural and commercial activity is the most intense and constitutes the historical city center of Konya.It has been observed that madrasahs also affect the functions of the buildings in their immediate surroundings in line with their area of specialization. Karatay Madrasah was an educational institution where fiqh was taught, equivalent to today’s law faculties, and the Konya Courthouse was located just behind the Karatay Madrasah. The area between Alâeddin Dârüşşifâsı (House of Healing), the medical madrasah of the period, and Kadi Izzeddin Maristan9ı Atik is now surrounded by buildings serving health9related functions. It is seen that the neighborhood of the building, which was used as the Provincial Public Library for many years and was demolished in 2012, was also neighbored by library buildings in the past. The "educational" identity of the areas where some madrasahs are located continues today. Finally, the madrasahs built in the city center of Konya, in addition to their impact on urban shaping, have given Konya the identity of a capital of science, science and culture since the Seljuks, played a role in the naming of the districts and left important spiritual traces where urban memory is preserved and reminded for centuries.&nbsp;

Effects of Madrasah Buildings in Konya on the Formation of the City Center

Uğur

Mosques and tombs in Islamic societies are structures that are the center of social, political, cultural and artistic services. Zile’s historical past and cultural heritage dates back to the Roman period. Zile is a district rich in religious and civil architecture. One of the important building types of Turkish-Islamic architecture is mosques and tombs. One of these mosques and tombs is Sheikh Ethem Çelebi (Beyazıt Bestami) Mosque and the Musa Fakih Tomb located in the district center. The word “cami”, which comes from the root “cem” in Arabic and means “gathering, bringing together”, is an abbreviation of the definition of el-mescidü’l, which was first used for large mosques where only Friday prayers were performed. Over time, mosques where Friday prayers were performed and a pulpit was built for the imam to read the sermon were used as mosques, while small temples without a pulpit, i.e., where Friday prayers were not performed, were used only as masjids. Masjid is a building name meaning “place of prostration” from the root sücüd, which means “to bow, to put the forehead on the ground with humility” in Arabic. There are two types of plan schemes in the mosque architecture of the Turkish Islamic period. The first of these is the multi-supported, domed grand mosques where the naves developed parallel to the mihrab wall intersect with another nave in front of the mihrab. The second is the structures with open courtyards in the middle, swans, domes in front of the mihrab and multisupports. We can give examples of the first plan scheme as Diyarbakır Ulu Mosque and Bitlis Ulu Mosque. We can give examples of the second plan scheme as Malatya Ulu Mosque and Adana Ulu Mosque. The first structures in Ottoman architecture sit on dome body walls.In terms of cultural heritage located in the district center, Zile is one of the leading rich districts of Tokat. Historically, it has been an important center of many important states. Compared to other districts of Tokat, Zile, which has a historical past, has different types of structures built in different periods. One of these different types of structures consists of mosques, tombs and fountains. The structure gives the impression of a small social complex consisting of a mosque, tomb and fountain. The Sheikh Ethem Çelebi Mosque and Tomb located in the district center is also known as the Beyazıt Bestami Mosque and Tomb in sourcesThe mosque has a rectangular plan close to a square. The upper cover of the structure is inclined in three directions, covered with wood from below, covered with tiles from the outside and made in the form of a hipped roof. The eaves are wide toward the outside and covered with wood from below. The main walls of the structure supports the weight of the roof. The roof dominates the space where the mosque side is located. The decoration in the mosque is generally concentrated on the mihrab and ceilings. In particular, a border belt with plant decorations extends around the mihrab from three sides. These plant decorations are made in the form of gold gilding on a blue background. The plant decorations mostly include rosettes, peaches, curly branches and palmettes.The mosque is built on a single floor, but the upper cover is in the form of a roof. There are two windows on the south facade of the structure. The north facade opens to a garden. The east facade is blind. The entrance to the mosque is provided from the west facade. There is one window at the bottom and three windows at the top on the west facade of the mosque. The entrance door is made of wood with a single wing, the upper floor windows are made of wood and the lower floor windows are made of PVC. The lower floor windows have iron bars. There are no iron bars on the upper floor windows. The plaster on some parts of the walls of the structure has fallen off. The entrance to the tomb is made from inside the mosque, but it is also made from the south facade. The upper cover dome drum of the tomb is kept high. In addition, there are rectangular wooden windows on the dome drums. There is a door and two windows on the south facade of the structure. There are no windows on the east facade.&nbsp;The minaret is on the north side of the structure. It has a square base, a cylindrical body, a single balcony and is covered with a dome. The entrance to the tomb is barrel-arched and the door is made of wood. The entrance door has marble coating on three sides. The entrance section of the mosque is slightly lower due to the road level. The windows are made of wood and are undecorated. The dome of the tomb is octagonal. The dome is plastered from the inside and covered with tiles from the outside and covered with lead. There are windows made of wood on the dome drum. The eaves are wide to the outside and covered with wood from the bottom. There are deteriorations and flaking in the plasters of the walls. Similar situations are also seen on the dome drum. The ceiling part is flat with wooden slats in the middle and is made in square and rectangular shapes. The edges are made in the shape of a diamond and have geometric decorations. A blue tone is applied on a white background on the ceiling. The ceiling moldings are made in the shape of a diamond. The pulpit and the sermon podium were made without decoration. There are three panels on the west and east sides of the walls of the harim section and two panels on the south side. The interior walls are made of wooden paneling up to the basement level. The interior walls of the mosque are undecorated compared to the tomb.&nbsp;The tomb section has more decorations than the mosque. Especially on the interior walls of the tomb, there are intense plant decorations. There is a sunburst form in the middle of the dome. Motifs and decorations are usually in a form. There are plant decorations and panels on the dome skirts and drums. Palmette motifs are seen more frequently on the dome skirt, which is stylize and decorated with curved branches and rumi. Baroque medallions are placed in the triangular areas between the arches. Under the medallions, there is a large watermelon in a footed fruit plate. Information about the people whose graves are located is written on the walls of the tomb. There are weeping willows, cypresses and decorative plants on the arches of the tomb. There is a depiction of the city of Mecca and the Kaaba on the tomb wall. The fountain is built adjacent to the tomb wall and has a single facade. There is a long rectangular basin (trough) in front of the structure. There is no decorative element in the structure. There are deteriorations and separations in the basin part of the fountain. The basin part is divided into three parts with this deterioration. Intervention is necessary to protect the fountain. First, the reservoir part should be scrapped.&nbsp;In this study, the place and importance of the mosque, tomb and the wall paintings on the tomb in 19th century Turkish art were revealed and an attempt was made to determine their current status. First, the island, plot and parcel statuses, geographical location and history were examined. In the following section, the plan, facade and ornamental features of the structure are examined in detail. The study was evaluated on a single structure. The research was limited to the Sheikh Ethem Çelebi Mosque and Tomb. As a result of the studies conducted on the Sheikh Ethem Çelebi Mosque and Tomb, the architectural and ornamental features of the structure are similar to the structures belonging to the mosque and tomb architecture in the rural textures of the surrounding regions. The fact that the mosque and tomb are together shows the characteristics of a social complex. The fact that the mosque is built in a rectangular shape close to a square in plan is similar to the structures around it. If we were to give a few examples of these structures, we can give the Boyacı Hasanağa Mosque, Alacamescit Mosque, Alçılı Village Mosque, Karahoca Village Mosque and Cumapazarı Mosque.&nbsp;The mosque and tomb section are currently undergoing restoration interventions. The plaster debris on the walls of the structure should be scraped and cleaned. The windows and doors of the mosque have been replaced and similarly, the original windows and doors should be made from wood. The corroded window bars should be replaced. The interior walls of the tomb should be scraped and cleaned. The separations seen in the basin section of the fountain should be scraped, the joints should be filled, and the plaster should be applied. Today, the mosque and tomb structure are being restored with material and moral support by conducting surveys, restitution and restoration projects and obtaining permissions from the necessary places. It is important in terms of cultural heritage that such structures are restored and, protected and their sustainability is ensured. Geometric and plant decorations, which started to be seen in civil structures in the 18th century, have shown an increasing tendency until today. In particular, these decorations are not limited to civil structures only, but have also been seen in religious structures. However, depictions used in religious spaces are also encountered in mosques located in small district centers, far from the center, rather than in large cities.

Architectural and Ornament Program of The Zile Sheikh Ethem Celebi (Beyazıt Bestami) Mosque and (Musa Fakih) Tomb

Göksun

Orangeries, part of the longstanding and established culture surrounding the preservation and cultivation of delicate plants in Istanbul, gained a new status in the late nineteenth century through changing architectural features and usage patterns. This study primarily establishes a historical background regarding the role of orangeries, which served as new interior spaces accessible to people alongside the cultivation of specific plants, within the context of Istanbul’s palace and residential culture. By utilizing archival records and architectural drawings from the Ottoman Archives of the Presidency (BOA), photographs from the Yıldız Albums, and literary narratives, the research investigates the architectural characteristics of these structures during the nineteenth century, discussing the transformations in garden and landscape traditions and the consequent increase in their visibility. The orangeries evolved into greenhouses through an experimental process encompassing technological advancements that pioneered modern architecture in Europe and provided new spatial experiences with significant impacts in public domains. The potential of these structures to emerge as new public venues within the Ottoman capital was also examined in a comparative framework alongside their European counterparts. The final section of the text addresses the historical legacy of residential gardens and orangeries, which have largely disappeared, leaving minimal physical traces and with their documentation almost nonexistent, in light of the substantial transformations experienced by Istanbul’s urban landscape and housing culture in the twentieth century. Another aim of this part is to explore the place of this lost tradition within collective memory through literary narratives.&nbsp;Historically, the practice of cultivating plants beyond their native climates dates back to antiquity. Particularly aromatic plants such as oranges and lemons have been preserved in special structures across the Middle East and Europe for centuries. The first citrus trees were brought to the Mediterranean and Europe from India via Iran in the late thirteenth century. This geographical relationship is reflected in the similar nomenclature for lemons across Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and various European languages. The modern history of orangeries began in the sixteenth century in Europe, where they served as status symbols in the gardens of the nobility and wealthy merchants. Early examples were constructed in France and Italy to shelter citrus trees during the colder months, featuring wooden frames and transparent surfaces. In the succeeding centuries, these structures evolved into larger, more monumental masonry forms, distinguished by their expanded glazed surfaces. Similarly, orangeries in Istanbul also have a rich historical context, particularly in relation to the Ottoman cuisine and the palace’s demand for citrus products. Archival evidence from the sixteenth century indicates that lemons were transported to Istanbul from the southern regions while citrus trees were being grown in the gardens of the Topkapı Palace. Beginning in the late seventeenth century, the earliest references to orangery structures appear in repair records for the Tersane Gardens, Beylerbeyi, Beşiktaş, and Topkapı Palaces.&nbsp;In the nineteenth century, the plants to protect and grow inside them varied, including tropical and sub-tropical plants. The challenge of growing them in the inconvenient climates of Northern Europe brought innovation to these structures in terms of structural systems, materials, production methods, and acclimatization technologies. The new glasshouses of the mid-nineteenth century were new scientific grounds for botanical and horticultural research as well as architectural laboratories for testing new materials, tectonics, and spatial experiences, with a crucial impact on the advancement of modern architecture.The technological evolution and proliferation of orangeries and greenhouse structures in Europe, particularly in England, occurred through the possibilities provided by prefabrication and modularity. This process also facilitated their arrival in the Ottoman capital. An early example in Istanbul is Sultan Mahmud II’s order for a flour mill, which marked the beginning of the construction of prefabricated wrought iron structures in the capital. The introduction of new orangeries made from prefabricated wrought iron and glass, imported from England, accelerated these technological transfers.Notably, in the palatial gardens, new orangeries were designed with new tectonics and built as prefabricated iron and glass structures brought from England starting in the 1850s. Dolmabahçe Palace, with its monumental architectural design, opened toward the Bosporus while being separated from the city by a long, high wall at its western boundary. The Camlı Köşk (Glass Kiosk), a winter garden placed on the palace’s solid wall, was characterized by its transparent façade featuring various types of colorful and crystal-like glass, and it was described by the late Ottoman author Hâlit Ziya Uşaklıgil as a “spectacle” overlooking the city. Another intriguing architectural structure within the same palace complex was the twin orangeries made of glass and wrought iron, flanking the southern gate leading to Mâbeyn Garden. A third orangery, referred to as the "billûr saray" (glass palace), was constructed in the enclosed rear garden of Çırağan Palace following an extended construction period. Detailed archival correspondence traces each stage of its ordering, manufacturing, and transportation processes, shedding light on the unexpected challenges that emerged and documenting the intermediary agents engaged throughout this intricate process in 1859-64. Commissioned bySultan Abdülmecid, this structure was ordered as an integral element of the Sultan’s vision for a romantic English garden.In 1841, as house advertisements began appearing in the rapidly expanding newspapers, listings mentioned proper&lt; ties with orangeries across various city districts. Although the spatial characteristics of these residences indicated that they were not particularly exclusive, it can be asserted that these orangeries were originally constructed as modest timber structures, as iron was not widely available at the time.From the 1870s onwards, a commercialization process accompanied the formal and technological evolution of orangeries in England. These structures began to be publicly experienced in botanical gardens and parks, while standardized designs and reduced costs led to their availability in catalogs for middle-class homes. By the late nineteenth century in Istanbul, while orangeries remained confined to the private gardens of palaces and residences, their variety and visibility increased. During the formation of Yıldız Palace, a French influence focusing on orangeries and greenhouse structures gained prominence in palace gardens, following the implementation of the English romantic garden tradition by Bavyerian Christian Sester and his apprentices in the late nineteenth century. Sultan Abdülhamid II, who rarely left Yıldız Palace during his reign from 1876 to 1909, developed a passion for carpentry, gardening, and the care of exotic plants gathered from around the world. A significant figure during this period was Charles Henry, a French greenhouse expert appointed as the palace’s last head gardener around 1900, who introduced a more functional hot water climate control system for the greenhouse instead of dry channels. Photographs from the Yıldız Albums showcase a wide array of glass and wrought iron orangeries built in the gardens of the Yıldız Palace.By the second half of the nineteenth century, landscaping and plant cultivation projects involving local and foreign gardeners had proliferated, leading to the appearance of kiosks, flower beds, artificial ponds, and large, transparent orangeries in many home gardens. Photographs from the Yıldız Albums depict high-ranking Muslim and non-Muslim bureaucrats’ gardens in neighborhoods like Nişantaşı and Beşiktaş, where orangeries were integral components of the picturesque landscapes, indicating the palace’s influence on urban gardening esthetics. The emergence of these structures also reflected a fashion in the period’s popular culture. Publications like Servet-i Fünûn and Şehbâl reminded readers of the appropriate time to move delicate flowers into orangeries, showcasing images of winter blooms.Refik Halit Karay (1888-1965), a late Ottoman and early Republican author, narrated the spatial and social transformations of Istanbul in parallel with Türkiye’s political history, with a melancholic narrative in his various works. In his 1943 book titled "Three Generations, Three Lives," (Üç Nesil Üç Hayat), he comparably depicted daily life in Istanbul during the reigns of Sultan Abdulaziz, Sultan Abdulhamid II, and the Republican period. Karay described the landscape fashion reflected in the garden of an upper&lt;class mansion in the Hırka-ı Şerif neighborhood of the Fatih district during the "Aziz Era," followed by the transformation of orangeries (limonluk) into "ser" during the Abdulhamid II era, and finally recounted the sad story of the warm-climate trees that lost their mansions and orangeries.Orangeries appear to have become a symbol of the spatial transformation accompanying Istanbul’s social history. Another aspect of the change narrated by Karay for Fatih occurred across the Bosporus, in the garden villas and mansions of Kadıköy. The many innovations that transformed residential life and social interactions also altered the role of gardens in everyday life, rendering orangeries increasingly obsolete. Another literary testimony regarding this situation is found in the novel "A Rose Bloomed in My Garden" (Bahçemde Bir Gül Açtı) by Mahmut Yesari (1895-1945), another late Ottoman and early Republican author, published in serialized form in the newspaper Milliyet. Here, the tension between the old and the new is explored within the context of significant societal changes, depicting orangeries as burdens of the past.In the societal context of the Early Republic, a noteworthy decision emerged from the political will advocating for public participation in urban spaces: the relocation of two orangeries from the Yıldız Palace to the garden of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara, thereby making them accessible for public use. Postcards depicting the Assembly garden feature the cross-vaulted orangery, transferred from Yıldız Palace, positioned behind a cascading fountain. This larger orangery was demolished for reasons that remain unknown between 1935 and 1937, while no further information or documentation regarding the smaller structure has been located. This act of relocation and transformation underscores the shifting values and architectural priorities of the time, reflecting a broader trend in the reimagining of public spaces in the context of the modern Turkish identity.Finally, this research raises two significant themes related to architectural history. First, it addresses the structural evolution of the long&lt;established tradition of orangeries in Istanbul, influenced by European technologies, specialized botanical interests, and increasing plant diversity. These structures often remained anonymous and did not participate in industrial production as standardized buildings, warranting further research. Second, the discussion points to the limited interaction between these private residential spaces and the public realms in urban settings during the Late Ottoman period. The Early Republican period saw a unique attempt to preserve this tradition through the relocation of two Yıldız Palace orangeries to the Turkish Grand National Assembly’s garden in Ankara, reflecting a political commitment to public accessibility in garden spaces. Still, while innovative designs existed, their visibilityand accessibility in the urban space remained restricted, highlighting the need for further investigation.Overall, orangeries in Istanbul have evolved as integral components of garden culture, becoming expressions of a new class esthetic in the nineteenth century. By the mid-twentieth century, they had largely disappeared from the urban landscape. This study highlights how orangeries, initially designed to protect valuable citrus plants like lemon, gained architectural prominence in Istanbul gardens. In Europe and North America, orangeries similarly evolved as pivotal structures in modern architectural history, marking advancements in materials, structural techniques, and spatial experiences, with their function gradually shifting from plant conservation to human use. In Istanbul, the most refined examples of orangeries appeared in palace gardens, influenced by European styles, and by the Late Ottoman period, they had become status symbols in private gardens as well. Archival drawings and photographs show them as either stand-alone buildings or extensions of the main residences. The rise of iron and glass industrial production enriched their technical and esthetic qualities although there is no evidence that they were mass-produced as prefabricated structures.In conclusion, gardens represent some most fragile and variable spaces in architectural history, often eluding documentation. The visual materials accompanying this study testify to a distinct aspect of Istanbul’s history, showcasing the delicate structures and plants that are increasingly difficult to trace. The ongoing rapid transformation of Istanbul threatens not only its architectural fabric but also its natural landscapes, complicating efforts to trace the architectural culture nourished by gardens and plants. Contemporary urban transformation policies, which prioritize buildings over the broader landscape, along with significant market pressures on urban land, place garden and plantculture at risk of near-total extinction. This study aims to illuminate the nearly lost spatial sensitivity embedded in Istanbul’s historical landscape and its collective memory, contributing to discussions that may aid in reviving this cultural heritage.

In Search of A Lost Heritage: Orangeries in Istanbul in the the 19th Century

The radical change in the postal organizations of the Ottoman Empire began immediately after the Tanzimat era. Although it is known that the first steps were taken during the reign of Mahmud II, the first concrete change was the establishment of the Ministry of Posts and the enactment of the regulation in 1840. The postal organization, which was first developed and institutionalized in Istanbul, soon spread to the major provinces of the empire. In fact, as early as 1841, postal organizations were established in cities such as Yenişehir, Thessaloniki, Serres, Nis, Ioannina, Ankara and Kayseri. By 1849, the number of provincial postal organizations had risen to 44. The regulations of 1840 and 1870 shaped the administrative organization of the postal organization, and efforts were made to benefit from the communication technologies of the time, using the reports of foreign experts. The telegraph played an important role in the development of communication technology. The telegraph, the new communication technology introduced in the Ottoman lands during the Crimean War, became widespread in the Ottoman lands soon after the war. The Telegraph Administration, which initially had a directorate7level management structure (1855), was merged with the Post Ministry in 1871, and the name of the Ministry was updated to the Post and Telegraph Ministry. Another change in the name of the ministry came with the spread of telephone technology in the Ottoman Empire. After the first attempts in 1881, telephone lines became widespread in 1908 and the name of the ministry in charge of transport and communication was changed to the Ministry of Post, Telegraph and Telephone by a decree in 1911. The development of the Ministry of Post and Telegraph continued during the reign of Abdülhamid II, and post and telegraph buildings were built or designed in many parts of the empire. However, in settlements that did not have an independent structure, postal and telegraph services were provided within buildings such as government buildings, municipal buildings and banks.The main subject of this study is the construction process and project files of the Telegraph and Post Office building that was planned to be built in Konya Province. Some files in the Ottoman Archive contain the official correspondence and project files related to the building in question. The correspondence and project file dated 1899 shows that the Konya Provincial Council requested for the building. The Provincial Council stated that the existing post office building was in a dilapidated condition and that the construction of a new post office building was imperative. The construction projects and findings are also attached. The Konya Provincial Council also mentioned that the poor condition of the building undermined the representation of the state. The Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs responded negatively to this request. The main reason given was that the budget allocated by the Ministry for constructing the building was insufficient. Based on this letter to the Ministry of the Interior, the response of the Ministry of the Interior was also negative. However, it has also been reported that initiatives have been taken to renovate the buildings, which are in a dilapidated state and undermine the image of the state. In addition to the file in question, there are other documents relating to the construction of the building. As part of the study, these documents were also analyzed and the correspondence that occurred after the preparation of the project was evaluated. The correspondence between the Konya Provincial Assembly, the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Post and Telegraph on May 22, 1899, June 29, 1899, July 5, 1899, July 23, 1899 and November 18, 1900 emphasizes the urgency of the construction of a post office building, but also shows that the amount determined was not appropriate.The planned building project consisted of floor plans and a main facade design. In the project prepared by Mehmet Şaban, the Deputy Chief Engineer of Konya Province, the floor plans repeated a scheme found in many public buil7 dings. A wide corridor in the center of the plan and rooms lined up on either side of the corridor form the layout of the building. The building has three floors and a basement. The ground floor of the building was to be used as a post office and the first floor as a telegraph office. The rooms on the ground floor, which have different dimensions, function as the "Postal Center Manager's Room", "Chief Engineer's Room", "Coffee Oven", "Kavas (Bodyguard) and Sergeant's Room", "Store" and "Post Office". In addition, in the post office room on this floor, there are two separate sections, labeled "the place of receipt of letters and leveling letters" and "the place of receipt and distribution of security deposits". The first floor, which was used as a telegraph office, consists of the following rooms: "Chief Manager's Room", "Telegraph Center Manager's Room", "Communication Room", "Pen Room", "Inspector's Room", "Foreign Communication Room" and "Rest Room". The façades of the buildings were designed in the neoclassical style. The ornamental elements of the door and window frames and the symmetrical openings show that the basic elements of neoclassical architecture were preferred in this building. Another file that provides details about the architectural features of a building is the Discovery Book. The discovery book shows that the body walls of a building are built with two different types of stone. However, wooden materials were preferred for the ceiling and floor coverings inside the building and for the roof structure. The use of beams for the basement floor, which is not shown in the plan drawing but in the façade drawing, was noted in the discovery book. On the basis of this, the ground floor has a jack arch technique. In the seal and signature section of the survey book in the file, it can be read that the project in question was prepared by Mehmet Şaban bin Ahmet, the Deputy Chief Engineer of Konya Province. The name in question is also mentioned in the Konya Province Annual of 1899.It can be seen that the main obstacle to the construction of the Konya Telegraph and Post Office building was mainly financial. In fact, this situation is not unique to this building. In the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century, one of the biggest problems in the construction of public buildings was the budget. When budgets were insufficient, the provincial assemblies could resort to various means. Donations collected from prominent individuals and families in the region (iane), the sale of land owned by the provincial council or the relevant institution, or lotteries were different ways of raising funds for construction. In the case of the Konya Telegraph and Post Office, there is no evidence that these means were used.&nbsp;The Konya Post and Telegraph Building consists of a space defined as a sofa/divanhane/corridor/lounge in the center and a scheme consisting of rooms located on both sides of the space, which is often found in traditional residential architecture in terms of plan features. In this context, it can be said that it has a common design approach with the Bursa, Kastamonu, Giresun and Antalya Telegraph and Post Office buildings, although it has similar features with the plan scheme of many public buildings.An analysis of the building, façade and massing characteristics shows that the neoclassical style is gaining in importance in the design process. In the second half of the 19th century, it is known that the neoclassical style was favored in many public buildings. It can be seen that this process continues in the Post Office and Telegraph buildings. The design approach close to the style preferred in the Konya Post and Telegraph Building can also be observed in the British Post Office Building in Galata, Giresun, Niş and Cisr7i Mustafapaşa Town Telegraph Offices. In general, the post office buildings have forms that are in accordance with the architectural texture of the region, especially the residential architecture.Another striking feature of the Konya Telegraph and Post Office building is that the postal and telegraph services are divided into separate floors and the administrative structure is proportionally distributed within the plan scheme. The ground floor is reserved for postal services and the upper floor for telegraph services.The construction process of the telegraph and post office building, which occupied the Konya Provincial Assembly for a short period, has been studied with the help of original documents, the reasons why the construction of the building was not carried out have been detailed, the design details of the project have been discussed and its place in the construction activities of the period has been determined. As a result, it is believed that a detailed study of the post and telegraph buildings of the Ottoman period will lead to a better understanding of their place in Ottoman architecture and will contribute to future research in this field.

Unimplemented Project: Konya Telegraph and Post Office Building

Bilgen

Cevriye

The notion of conservation evolved throughout history and gained different meanings in different geographies. Alt7 hough conservation has a long history as an action, its emergence as a theoretical field dates back to the nineteenth century. The concept of conservation has been transformed with the different meanings that major concepts such as time, history and memory have acquired over time. The theory of values developed by Alois Riegl in "The Cult of the Modern Monument: Its Nature and Origin,” (1903) opened a different channel in conservation studies. It is a theory that provides answers to the questions of which monuments should be preserved and how.The conservation consciousness that emerged in the Renaissance is based on the centuries7long "The Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns" in literature and art in Europe and the Renaissance’s transition from a cyclical or theological concept of time to an irreversible, progressive concept of time. The periodization of antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times is made in the early Renaissance period and antiquity is defined as resplendent light, the Middle Ages as the Dark Ages and the Renaissance as the awakening from darkness, rebirth. In this framework, the renaissance ignores the Middle Ages in a sense, emphasizing Classical Antiquity and defining themselves as modern dwarfs on the shoulders of ancient giants. This, in turn, led to the study of Classical Antiquity, especially in Italy, during the Renaissance period, and the formation of a conservation consciousness in this framework.The transition period from the 19th to the 20th century was such a period that the moderns considered themselves superior to antiquity from the 17th century onwards, and that they no longer had ancient giants to stand on their shoulders; at the same time, tradition and social structures were questioned and shattered, and all grounds that could form a basis were destroyed. Perhaps the only point that can provide a basis is the desire of the nation7states that emerged in the process of modernization to construct a historical past that will prove themselves on the world stage. Therefore, for every nation7state, monuments symbolizing these historical values are important and worth preserving. In such a transitional period, Riegl’s text is important in that it not only provides rational definitions and classifications but also proposes a system of values that can include singular examples and cannot be reduced to mere physicality. Its inclusive theoretical infrastructure is also valuable in that this system of values has the possibility of being developed.&nbsp;In Vienna at the end of the 19th century, unlike German art historians who based their understanding of history on Hegel’s philosophy, the work of historians approaching Hegel from a distance highlighted the prominence of rationalism, positivism, and empiricism derived from Enlightenment thought. At the same time, Friedrich Nietzsche’s critiques of Enlightenment thought were being followed, and debates on "Philosophical Irrationalism" were also occurring in the Viennese art historical context. Consequently, the rational understanding brought by Enlightenment thought, alongside the questioning of this rational understanding, created an environment that allowed for the emergence of diverse perspectives within the field of art history.&nbsp;Riegl entered this multi7faceted environment in 1880 by joining the Austrian Institute for Historical Research, one of the prominent institutions of the Austrian Empire. At the time Riegl joined the institute, efforts were underway to apply scientific methods to art history and to construct a new art historical framework in this context. Moriz Tausing, who was in charge during this period, directed these efforts while advocating for the necessity of art history finding its own intellectual and autonomous academic methodology. Both Tausing and Riegl prioritized the physicality of the art object rather than seeking the source of the art historical method externally. This understanding seems to have influenced Riegl’s recognition of the significance of changes over time in objects and, consequently, his formulation of the theory of the value of age.While following rationality in the sense of "historical objectivity," Riegl integrated discussions of temporality and individuality into his efforts to preserve, demonstrating a non7reductive approach. Riegl advocated an understanding of objectivity based not only on the physical characteristics of objects but also on perceptual psychology and phenomenology. Therefore, Riegl was interested not only in the physical characteristics of monuments but also in how individuals perceived them. This understanding forms a significant pillar of his work The Modern Cult of Monuments.&nbsp;The most distinctive feature of modernity is the concept of "progressive, linear time." Riegl’s understanding of time forms the foundation of his value theory. He identifies two key conceptions of time: first, “time as a historical concept,” and second, “time as a phenomenon embedded in artifacts.” In the first conception, Riegl acknowledges the linear progression of modern time. In the second, he emphasizes the notions of temporality and continuity. According to Riegl, an art historian must grasp the interplay between these different perspectives on time—fluid and transient on one hand, and linear7interactive on the other. Another significant aspect of Riegl’s understanding of time is its connection to the concept of nature. For him, development signifies “continuous change or oscillation,” but not necessarily progress toward perfection. Riegl argues that science demonstrates how everything inevitably moves toward decay. This perspective challenges the modern notion of progressive time rooted in Enlightenment thought. In the late 19th century, when the concept of progressive time was a central tenet in Europe despite widespread upheaval, Riegl emphasized the primacy of natural processes.&nbsp;Riegl’s system of values involves the questioning of the commemorative value. In this theory, there are two main categories: commemorative values and present7day values. Commemorative values include age value, historical value and intended commemorative value; present7day values include use value and art value. The distinguishing feature of Riegl’s theory is the age value. In “The Cult of the Modern Monument,” Riegl discusses the aforementioned values compared with each other, but mostly with the age value, because the age value can contradict other values.Riegl defines the age value with reference to different concepts: "imperfection, closure and lack of completeness," "deterioration," "disintegration," "disintegration into fragments," "reassembly of the singularity into its elements," "unification with formless nature." This idea, which also includes Riegl’s view of the concept of time, is based on the "pure, legitimate cycle of becoming and passing away" of nature in general. According to him, while a work of art is produced in a completed form by moving from parts to the whole, it returns to nature by disintegrating and dispersing after its incarnation. When talking about the age value of a monument, he also refers to the "unmistakable perception of the traces" of this dissolution.In Riegl’s theory, historical value refers to a "singular" stage in the creation of a monument as a whole. It is a value that does not include deterioration and seeks and prioritizes completion. According to Riegl, "the higher the historical value, the lower the age value." For Riegl, who believes in historical continuity, the singular moment symbolized in the understanding of historical value is more important than the development itself. It is an understanding that freezes time, emphasizes the period in which the monument was produced and attributes a special importance to this period.Intended commemorative value, on the other hand, focuses on not letting a moment identified at the time of the monument’s construction pass and keeping it alive and current in the minds of future generations. As the value with the highest demand for restoration, the intended commemorative value is the "mortal enemy" of age value. According to Riegl, the age value is based on extinction, while the historical value wishes to stop extinction. The intended commemorative value, on the other hand, "lays claim to immortality, an eternal present, and an uninterrupted becoming."&nbsp;Riegl exposes the contradictions of these three different categories of value and questions whether they can co7 exist. Although the historical value and the value of the intended commemorative value are almost diametrically opposed to the age value, he emphasizes that these values can be reconciled through individual examples, but that the age value should be prioritized.&nbsp;In this study, within the framework of Riegl’s values theory, it is analyzed which values come to the forefront and which conservation processes are realized in the re7functionalized seven prison buildings in Turkey. In the analyzed examples, it has been concluded that Riegl's commemorative value comes to the forefront, but other values, especially age value, should also be activated in the conservation process of a building. In the future conservation processes of the 378 abandoned prison buildings in Turkey, it is suggested to take into consideration the values theory, which will be important in terms of both the place of the buildings in collective memory and the continuity of their physical structures.

Alois Riegl’s Values Theory and Prison Buildings in Turkey

Safiye

The bag, which is made of different materials and used in the transportation process, is a garment complement that appears for a certain purpose. Bags that reflect the personality and taste of the user have been a symbol of power and wealth in the historical process. Furthermore they have been referred to with various forms and names throughout history. This is the first bag form seen in history. These pouches are attached to clothing in various forms or carried by hand, in the form of a bag containing personal items such as money and handkerchiefs.The ancient Egyptians carried bags made of linen and leather containing fragrances, cosmetics or coins, Roman soldiers carried decorated bronze9colored bags, and men and women belonging to the upper class in the Middle Ages used money bags similar to the reticule. European nations have used ‘pear9shaped’ pouches, which are popularly used in decorative arts 15. and 17. Between the centuries. These bags have evolved over the centuries to brand bags such as Hermès (1837) and Louis Vuitton (1851), and thus they have continued their development. Nowadays, they have become important complements of clothing collections. Pouches presented the rarest examples of which, like their European counterparts, have a very ancient history in traditional Turkish arts. According to information from archeological excavations, kurgans, reliefs, miniatures and wall paintings, the Central Asian Turks used pouches, which were attached to the pendulums of belt buckles.The tradition of tying the belt and belt continued during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods even after the Turks settled in Anatolia. These pouches, which have been seen in Anatolia since the early Turkish periods, have continued their existence to the present day as a continuation of an ancient tradition, although their use has decreased. The study aims to discuss the elements of bags and similar bags, to highlight and to Decipher the similar and different aspects of accessories belonging to two different cultures. They have undertaken important tasks about the periods in which he was and about the research that was done before him. The aim of the study is to decipher the place of bags and pouches in the historical process, the form, pattern, technical and material characteristics in the culture they belong to, the artistic and design influences they feed on, and the similar and different aspects between each other. The ethnographic research method, one of the qualitative research methods, was used in the study. The information of the collection related to the semi9structured interview technique as a data collection tool was obtained. Furthermore, thus, the cultural and social background of the periods to which the bags and bags belong, as well as the data sources, have been comprehensively evaluated.The study has been started with the special permissions obtained (ethics committee permission certificate and permission for the works to be used within the framework of publication). It has been seen in the field studies that have been examined, pouches that vary depending on the type and size of the item to be used in the region. In the research, paraboloid (half ellipse), triangular, square and rectangular forms were found in the region. Most of the pouches made as dowry items have small sizes. Most money pouches have been seen in the area. Few examples of these sacs have reached the present day.According to the information obtained in the field from the bags and pouches, they were fed from their own cultures. In this case, it has been influential in the period art movements. One of the important results of the study is that the bags represent the Art Nouveau art movement. The decorative elements used in the bags and the technical characteristics used in these elements also strengthen this knowledge. On the other hand, similar results have been obtained in the study of the ornamental properties of pouches. It is extremely normal that the pouches are influenced by traditional Turkish arts in terms of form and decoration. Because the Bayburt province has been the sanjak center of the Ottoman Empire for many years. On the other hand, Bayburt has been home to various civilizations in ancient times.Within the scope of the research, about 70 national and international sources through which bags and pouches belonging to two different cultures passed were examined. As a result of the examination, it was obtained that the bags and pouches belonging to two different cultures show great ethnographic artifact characteristics of historical importance in terms of form, weaving, ornament and motif characteristics, especially in the period and years of construction.The handbags that originated from European reticules and purses, which are key elements of material culture in Turkey, are significant for understanding the historical period. Their weaving, form, color, motif, decoration, embro9 idery, and sewing characteristics provide valuable insights for future research. Ethnographic research, a qualitative research method, was used in this study. The study data on the handbag and purse collection were collected through semi9structured interviews, while the cultural and social background of the periods of the handbags and purses, along with data sources, was established through a comprehensive and in9depth document review. Before the study, special approvals were obtained from the ethics committee and the collection owner. The absence of comprehensive studies on purses in the literature presented a significant challenge in the classification of the sources. In this study, a theoretical framework was first developed by examining handbags and purses from a historical perspective. The findings, which included the visual and design characteristics of the handbags and purses, were then analyzed.&nbsp;In this study, we used an ethnographic approach, a qualitative research method, to examine the historical and design characteristics of the Zurich handbags and Bayburt purses in the Emir collection. The study material included two Zurich handbags and three Bayburt purses. The history of Bayburt province in Turkey, home to the Emir collection, dates back to 3000 BC. This city is among the regions where the Turks first settled in Anatolia. Bayburt, which was a sanjak under Ottoman rule until 1878, was part of the Erzurum province until 1927. It then became a district of Gümüşhane province, and in 1989, it was established as a province. The Emir family is one of the longstanding families of Bayburt. The eldest member is Mustafa Efendi, known as Kitapsız Hoca. Selbin Emir, one of Mustafa Efendi’s grandchildren born in 1952, is the owner of the purses discussed in this study.&nbsp;It has also been seen that the design findings based on the results from historical findings indicate that the pouches dated to the 70s retain the form, weaving, motif, embroidery and sewing characteristics seen in previous periods. The situation is not different with bags. Nations keep alive the characteristics born of their cultural arts as a positive situation born of emulation and inspiration in art. The transmission of cultural elements stemming from the arts of various nations through imitation and inspiration is viewed as a beneficial result of cultural interaction. Situations involving artistic inspiration, influence, and the act of being influenced are common interactions among artists.On the other hand, while it is unlikely that the handbags were added to the collection before the purses, It can be inferred that the handbags may have inspired the purses. The sewing, decoration, and embroidery techniques support this. It should not be overlooked that the source of inspiration in design plays a crucial role in generating ideas.As a result, the study examined bags and conspecific pouches belonging to two different cultures of historical importance in the same study. Thus, it was possible to look at the historical and design characteristics of cultures at the same time, and it was concluded that it could be an effective study in terms of contributing to subsequent research based on the findings it obtained. Based on these analyses, the main findings on the Zurich handbags and Bayburt purses in the Emir Collection are presented in Tablo&nbsp;1.&nbsp;

Design Characteristics of the Zurich Handbags and Bayburt Purses in the Emir Collection

Melis

As humans began to understand their place in the world, their relationship with nature also started to take shape. At the beginning of human history, nature was viewed as a source of fear, filled with uncertainties. Natural events could devastate living spaces, wild animals could pose threats to life, and unexplored territories and unknowns could endanger their existence. However, with the cognitive revolution, humans began to see nature not just as a being to be feared, but as an area to be explored, understood, and ultimately mastered. This change marked a significant turning point that enabled humanity to manipulate its environment and develop strategies for survival.&nbsp;As knowledge and technology advanced, humans gradually shifted from a mindset of fear to curiosity and innovation. They learned to cultivate the land, harness natural resources, and create tools that transformed their surroundings. This evolving relationship laid the foundation for civilizations, as people increasingly sought to coexist with nature rather than simply conquer it. Ultimately, this journey from fear to understanding paved the way for a more complex and nuanced interaction with the natural world, influencing cultures and economies throughout history.The concept of nature, one of humanity’s most fundamental relationships, has gradually become one of the critical elements of art. Throughout history, artists have drawn inspiration from nature, reflecting its beauty, complexity, and chaos. In examining art history, we can observe a significant transformation toward the 20th century, following periods when nature was often treated superficially and depicted through a romantic lens. During this time, artists began to study nature not just as an object but as a complex system. Themes questioning the relationship between humans and nature began to emerge alongside the esthetic values of nature in artworks. In this context, nature shifted from being merely a backdrop or source of inspiration to occupying the center of artistic expression, prompting artists to develop new techniques and methods to explore the often-overlooked aspects of nature.&nbsp;The Industrial Revolution, as one of the significant turning points in human history, played a vital role in this artistic transformation. This led to a substantial increase in consumer culture and urban living. The technological advancements of this era changed the dynamics of human life, contributing to the growth of cities and the rise of industry. However, this rapid development came at a high cost, resulting in issues such as international economic crises and the irreversible destruction of natural habitats. Air pollution, the contamination of water resources, and various factors disrupting the natural balance forced people to confront environmental problems.&nbsp;By the mid-20th century, these factors led to a new awareness of ecological issues, fostering a tendency among people to advocate for and support ecological movements. Artists began to play a significant role in this transformation, creating works aimed at questioning the relationship between nature and humanity and raising awareness. Art evolved from merely reflecting society to becoming a form of activism, stimulating discussions about environmental degradation and the consequences of unchecked industrialization.In this context, the late 1960’s marked a period when many artists began to reclaim nature. A desire to address environmental issues and a critique of the art market and gallery spaces drove this transformation. Artists, adopting a perspective that criticized the destruction of nature and the gallery environment, started creating their works in natural settings. One of the first significant examples of this new approach emerged with the artist Robert Smithson, who created works using natural materials found in the environment.Following in Smithson’s footsteps, artists like Michael Heizer, Helen Mayer Harrison, Robert Morris, and Agnes Denes contributed to this movement through their installations featuring geometric forms in natural settings. However, the initial excitement surrounding the movement known as Land Art eventually became the focus of criticism. These critiques influenced some artist’s production processes, prompting them to shift from merely directing nature to aiming to heal it. They took steps to transform social awareness through large-scale environmental projects, leading to what began to be called Ecological Art.&nbsp;Sonfist’s “Time Landscape” project is one of the most significant examples of the ecological art movement. This project restores Manhattan, which was once covered by forests, by collaborating with local residents to return the area to its natural state. The project not only seeks to achieve an ecological transformation but also aims to revive collective memory and enhance environmental awareness. Today, this project has become a symbol of the efforts of both artists and communities to reconnect with nature. Artists’' ecological projects focus not only on the protection and restoration of nature but also on raising social awareness. For instance, Agnes Denes’s work “Wheatfield – A Confrontation” questions the importance of agriculture and nature during urban life, offering viewers a chance to reflect on environmental issues. Joseph Beuys used his art as a tool for social change, focusing on the preservation of nature and strengthening human relationships. Lynne Hull has developed respectful and sustainable projects, reexamining the relationship between art and ecosystems.These artists have highlighted the potential of art for ecological awareness and social change by focusing on sustainable art projects. Each has developed different approaches to nature conservation and human-nature interaction, successfully increasing viewer’s sensitivity to environmental issues.In addition to artists involved in large-scale ecological projects, there are also those who address ecological concerns through smaller works, relying on nature and using recycled materials. This research highlights Bilge Friedlaender, an exemplary artist who settled in the United States in the 1950s. Preferring materials derived from nature and handmade papers, she produces ecology-focused works that reflect her sensitivity to the environment. Friedlaender questions the surface of painting by using natural materials in her installation and printmaking practices, leading to artistic productions that reference her own life experiences.The artist, who conducts research on space, has focused on the concept of placelessness following a personal experience, producing works that explore themes such as horizon and gravity. Generally described as having a minimalist approach, she tends to use geometric forms in her art. Issues related to the production process on canvas have led her to create works on paper, where the texture, line, and tear of the paper -essentially every state of the paper- constitute the foundation of her pieces. Additionally, she is interested in mythological themes, with one of her significant series being the Epic of Gilgamesh. Through her Gilgamesh exhibition, she created her first installation work, adding depth to the relationship between nature and humanity in the context of the themes she addresses.The artist returned to Turkey in 1998 and began producing works in her homeland for a period. During this time, she held exhibitions under the guidance of Galeri Nev. The period when the Gilgamesh exhibition was created coincides with this phase of her work. She has also produced a print series using a technique called Chine Colle. By employing traditional printing techniques in innovative ways, she draws from handmade paper in her printmaking processes. This material, integrated into her art with ecological concerns, holds a significant place in her artistic practice.&nbsp;This research examines the emergence of ecological art and the works of artist Bilge Friedlaender, who adopted ecology-focused artistic practices. It has been observed that the artist adopts an artistic approach that embraces ecological thinking, taking a stand against the materialist world. Natural materials, such as handmade paper, guide her works, avoiding the occupation of space. Ecological art goes beyond being merely an esthetic form of expression, shedding light on profound social and environmental issues. In Friedlaender’s works, the depth of the relationship with nature provides the viewer with an opportunity to question the complex structure of nature and humanity’s place within it. This aspect highlights the impact of art on both individual and collective consciousness, allowing viewers to rethink their connections to nature through the artistic experience. In this way, the artist creates a societal transformation through her artistic practice.&nbsp;Ecological art has a significant potential to combine artistic expression with environmental sensitivity, offering viewers new ways of thinking. This art form encourages audiences to question their relationship with nature while also drawing attention to environmental issues. Artists like Friedlaender have become crucial tools for social transformation in this context. Their works are more than mere esthetic objects; they carry deep meanings and strive to foster social awareness. Their works transcend mere esthetic appeal; they embody profound meanings that resonate on multiple levels. By integrating natural materials and processes into their creations, these artists invite viewers to reflect on the intricate connections between humanity and the environment. Through this reflective process, ecological art aims not only to raise awareness but also to inspire action and advocacy for sustainable practices.In conclusion, the journey from viewing nature as something to be feared to embracing it as an integral part of our existence underscores the importance of ecological awareness in art. As artists continue to explore this dynamic relationship, they will not only enrich the cultural landscape but also inspire meaningful change toward the environment. The ongoing dialog between art and nature will undoubtedly evolve, offering new insights and opportunities to promote a more sustainable future for our planet.

Ecology-Oriented Narratives in the Works Of Artist Bilge Friedlaender

Assist. Prof.

Retracted Article: Music Preferences of the Faculty of Fine Arts Students

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Alper

Water is the source of life for all living things. Because of our need for water, mankind has always seen water as a sacred element throughout history. Water, over artifacts and monuments symbolized life, healing, fertility, strength, beauty and enjoyment. It was seen as sacred in Turkey and was believed to be the spirit of water. In addition, water was associated with fortune, life, soul, chance, fortune, conscience, and character. In Turkish culture and the Islamic faith, water and rain are considered as the source of life and abundance. In Turkish-Islamic architecture, waterspouts are called corten. Waterspouts protected mortar and masonry walls from corrosive effects by getting rid of rain and snow water away from the wall and foundation. In the Anatolian Seljuks and Dynasties periods, a large part of the cortens in architectural works was made simple and another was meant to be figurative. The pre-Islamic and Islamic beliefs of Turks determined their view of water. Cortens was produced positively in the context of these religious beliefs. It is known that the cortens, especially those with figures, are made with symbolic purposes such as fertility, abundance, happiness, and power. Therefore, the figures are in direct relation with these concepts. The usage of animal figures was avoided apart from these meanings. Although Islamic belief and Turks perceived water positively, the Christian faith and the Latins perceived water as positive in the spiritual direction and negative in the material direction. Sacred water was used for religious rituals. No doubt the most important of these rites is baptism, which is seen as a spiritual cleansing rather than a material one and early Christians emphasized the spiritual aspect. During the Middle Ages, the Western Christian world did not accept bathing as an innocent practice leaving out it in religious rituals. Many monks and saints believed St. Francis of Assisi’s idea that an unwashed body is a sign of piety! For this reason, Western society avoided water except for the occasional bath. In the 12-14th centuries, the works of Gothic architecture started in Europe. In this architectural understanding in which religious structures are predominant, buildings tend to rise vertically. In Gothic architecture, the waterspouts represented as figures that provide the evacuation of rain water are called gargoyles. The gargoyles have a terrifying psychological effect on the believer. These are mostly waterspouts with plastic properties made in the form of terrifying demonic creatures. In the medieval Christian world, the church taught religion to society through art. That is, art was made for the purpose of religious propaganda. In the Middle Ages, the Church even resorted to the most formidable forms of evil in order to spread its religious teachings. Some gargoyles served as a moral reminder to sinners, and because gargoyles were thought to represent the souls condemned for their sins, it was suggested that sinners were forbidden to enter the church. By reflecting the horrible appearance of hell, Satan, which is an unconventional image that does not conform to the church, reminds people that they will be safe in the sacred church. Although some gargoyles are quite simple in design, the&nbsp;majority of them are decorated in detail. These are decorative carvings representing grotesque animals, birds, dragons, satyrs, mermaids, snakes, and many other themes. They can also be in the form of fascinating hybrids and mythical creatures such as semi-human semi-animal figures. The functional purpose of the gargoyles is the waterspout. The symbolic aim is to ward off evil. The waterspouts in religious and secular buildings served the same purpose in different architectures throughout the 12-14th centuries. The figured waterspouts are shaped differently in proportion to the value judgments, beliefs, traditions, cultural and architectural heritage of societies. Due to the ban on animal and human figures in Islamic architecture, the figured ornament was rarely seen. The Turks have a moderate approach to figurative ornaments due to their old beliefs. In the Anatolian Seljuk architecture, almost all the building groups have symbolic, mythological, astrological, cosmological and talismanic figures. We usually see figured ornament around openings such as doors and windows, but it is rarely encountered in the waterspouts. Cortens have symbolized power, strength in relation to protection while symbolizing goodness, abundance and mercy in relation to rain. The cortens associated with guardianship of religion generally had been located on facades trough the roads where people can see easily. In the cortens, animal or human figures can be seen. Animal figures include depictions of lions, rams and bulls. Mythical creatures include depictions of dragons. The lion is the symbol of strength; the rams and bulls are symbols of abundance, and the dragon symbolizes both abundance and power. The Abbey Church of Saint Denis in France is accepted as the first Gothic structure. The eastern section of the church was designed by Abbot Suger. The Western world inherited the Greek, Hellenistic, Etruscan and Roman architectures and adapted these ancient styles to gothic architecture. The understanding of ornaments in Gothic architecture developed in the scholastic thinking of the church. All the decorations around the religious buildings were made parallel to the teachings of the church. Emphasis on the instructional use of visual imageries, resulted in the creation of many monsters. The animal figured waterspouts were used in the western world by Greeks and Etruscans who especially preferred those with lion heads. The gargoyles depict a wide variety of animals and imaginary creatures that we tend to associate with evil. It is not a coincidence that they often have cloven hooves, bat wings, goat beards and horns. Gargoyles were consciously depicted as demons and associated with evil. The use of these figures in waterspouts caused them to consider water as a symbol of disaster and trouble. Since Turkish-Islamic architecture has a limited number of cortens showing figures, we tried to include all the samples. The cortens are classified according to the&nbsp;figures they depict. As there is a large number of gargoyles in Gothic Architecture, we included only a few samples. Some examples of gargoyles in churches or monasteries in different parts of Europe were compared. Similarities between these gargoyles were found in different structures. Finally, similar and different characteristics of the figured waterspouts in two separate cultures are indicated.

A Comparison Experiment on the Figures of the Rainspout in Gothic Architecture and Turk-Islam Architecture in the 12th and 14th Centuries

Sevinç

Assoc. Prof.

Drawing attention with its decorations in addition to its architectural features, Double Minaret Madrasa has been the center of attention of many researchers and has been examined in many respects. Our aim is not to repeat the evaluations and studies related to the structure, but to present new suggestions for its ornaments. A large part of the decorations of the madrasa has been destroyed and only the entrance facade has survived. Unfortunately, in the recent restorations, the extent of this damage has increased. Within the scope of our research, new determinations have been made regarding the original status of some decorations in the structure. Built in 1271, the Double Minaret Madrasa was abandoned over time, and the stones of the building were used in the construction of other buildings. Excavations were carried out in the structure under the presidency of Prof. Dr. Haluk Karamağaralı between 1963-1965, and restorations were carried out in various periods. The ashlar facing of the structure ends in the upper part of the pointed arches of the openings that leads to ascend to the minaret inside. There is almost a square panel just above the opening which leads to ascend to the left (north) minaret. In this panel, which is made with Mâ’kılî writing style, an arrangement consisting of turquoise and eggplant purple colored glazed tiles and bricks is seen. In this writing style based on geometric basis, all the letters are angled. In the ornament, the word “Allah” is placed in four different directions. The missing tiles were renewed, the writing panel was completed, and the unglazed tiles were painted in the repairs carried out in 2007-2008. However, various errors in the writing and completions of the current panel are striking. This panel decorating the minaret base has a mathematical arrangement. Letters are placed in two rows; there are gaps between the leaning unglazed bricks. These areas are filled with (baklava) diamond-shaped and eggplant-purple glazed tiles. Thus, the name “Allah” has been made apparent with the eggplant purple tiles. The areas around the unglazed bricks and eggplant purple tiles are surrounded by turquoise glazed tiles. In the restoration, it is understood that the tips of letters on the left side of the panel are not completed and the “elif “ letter in the upper left corner is missing. Additionally, one arm of the swastika was left missing. A panel is located just above the opening leading to ascend to the right (south) minaret. In the panel, the original of which consisted of mâ’kılî style writing, there are geometrical looking irregular shapes instead of writing. It is understood that the work underwent a repair in an unauthentic way. It is seen in the panel that the names of “Muhammad”, “Ebubekir”, “Omar”, “Osman” and “Ali” are respectively written with Arabic letters in the mâ’kılî writing style. The current panel should be completely replaced and completed in accordance with the original. In the upper part of the bases, an arrangement of brick and tile is seen. In this ornament, square shaped turquoise tiles were placed between long rectangular unglazed bricks. The same ornament is repeated on the eastern and southern facades of the bases. However, in the restoration work, the same decoration which should be on the top of the left side minaret is left unpainted. On the outer sides of the both minaret bases (north and south), a large panel of tiles was placed. In the panels, which are understood to be formed with tile mosaic technique originally, two wide borders circle the big medallion in the middle. There is a palmette lotus frieze in the first row. Unglazed bricks and turquoise colored tiles were placed in skipping form in the second row. In the corners of the medallion, the plant ornamentation in from of palmette, rumi and curly branches is repeated. The border forming the frame is thick and its surface is decorated with a geometric decoration made of pentagons in two rows. There are 12 pointed arched niches in the polygonal section which enables the transition from the shoe cabinet section to the cylindrical body. It is understood from the traces that these niches with different widths were adorned with ornaments made with tile mosaic technique originally. It can be detected from the old traces that four of the pointed arched niches had plant decorations. In the plant ornamentation, there are palmettes at the ends of the interwoven hexagrams. Ornament made in accordance with the principle of infinity; the palmette ends of the stars are connected by concave curves and a hexagonal is formed. The palmettes decorate each corner of the hexagon. The decorations inside the other niches have almost disappeared. Minaret bodies are completely decorated with a beautiful harmony of bricks and tiles. Bricks shaped in different sizes, such as square and rectangle, are arranged in horizontal plane. Square shaped eggplant purple colored tiles are placed between the bricks. In the body ornament of the minarets, the name “Muhammed” which is written with eggplant purple glazed tiles in the mâ’kılî writing style is seen. Thin, rectangular turquoise colored tiles were mortared between both bricks and the joint gaps surrounding the eggplant purple glazed tiles. Turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles have been destroyed much faster because they have no organic bond with the structure and most of them have come off. One of the few examples, whose portal was crowned with double minaret, Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa is one of the most important works in terms of Turkish art. The double minaret integrates the portal with its decoration and adds color to the stone structure with its tiles. In the double minaret, in which turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles were used, mâ’kılî writing is seen as well as geometric and plant ornaments in parallel with the decoration features of the period. These decorations are important in terms of reflecting the characteristics of the period. The blanks between the letters and the gaps have the same widths in mâ’kılî writings with angled, plain, sharp, lines. The master followed these rules in the examples of the Double Minaret Madrasa, but also filled the inside of the lines that made up the letters, resulting in seemingly thicker letters. In Mâ’kılî writing, words having high religious meanings and in this writing style words like Allah, Muhammad, Ali, Ebubekir, Omar, Osman and Kalima Shahadah are often used. The masters showed not only manual skills but also mathematical and design proficiencies. It is no doubt that the tiles of the Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa, which has been destroyed for the most part presently, are among the most outstanding examples of Anatolian decorative arts and reflect the fancy and tastes of their periods. Therefore, urgent measures should be taken to prevent further damage to the building both in terms of architecture and decoration.

New Proposals for the Brick and Tile Decorations on the Minarets of Çifte Minareli Medrese (Double Minaret Madrasah) In Sivas

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İlkay Canan

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

Women as the Object and the Subject of Art in the 2nd Constitutional Period

Seda

First thirty years of the 18th century was a milestone for the Ottoman society, culture, and architecture because when the Treaty of Passarowitz was signed, a long period of peace started between the Ottoman and Western civilization. Besides, the superiority of Western societies was accepted by the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the first envoys were sent to Europe. Yirmisekiz (twenty-eight) Mehmet Çelebi is the first envoy sent to France. Mehmet Çelebi observed a lot of palaces, gardens, cities, military postures, press housings in France, and on his return to the homeland, he brought with him the plans of these structures in his travel guide. He even had the plans of some important French palaces and gardens. When Sultan Ahmed III and his Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha read this travel guide, they were impressed a lot. Therefore, they immediately commissioned public works in Istanbul. For this reason, new palaces, kiosks, pavilions, medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, and sebils (Sebil is a public donation, for the distribution of cold drinking water, sweet drinks or fruit juice to passers-by in cups) were started to be built. Instead of grand mosques and social complexes of the 16th and 17th century’s Ottoman architecture, in 1718-1730, the so-called Tulip Era, public structures were built. Until the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire’s economy was in good condition. However, in the 17th century, it entered a recession. Therefore, only medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, kiosks, and summer palaces could be built in the first thirty years of the 18th century. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex, built in 1722 or during the Tulip Era, was one of these buildings. Eminzade Haci Ahmed Aga, a chamberlain of the navy yard in the Ottoman Empire, commissioned Ahmediye Complex. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex consists of a mosque, primary school (Islamic monastery), madrasah, library, two fountains, WC, tomb, burial area reserved for special people, and a room to show azan times. These units are located around a court. The court has a small pond, as well. If we look at the location plan, we can see that the Uskudar Ahmediye Complex has an asymmetrical composition. Buildings of the complex are built according to specific geometrical shapes like square, octagon, and polygon. Almost all the buildings are covered by domes. In addition to this, vaults are used in some places, as well. Although Uskudar Ahmediye Complex generally shows classical Ottoman architecture features, some parts exhibit Western and Eastern styles. For instance, the sebil has a polygonal plan like Early Baroque style. Besides, Uskudar Ahmediye fountain and minbar of the mosque have some flower motifs from Eastern cultures. Also, the Ahmediye fountain and the sebils have multifoil arches coming from the Antiquity and Early East culture. We know that Uskudar Ahmediye Complex have neither entirely Western nor Eastern architecture features. It is a classical Ottoman architecture example but, in some parts of this complex, the reflections of the Eastern and Western architectures can be seen. Indeed, the first thirty years of the 18th century were a transition period for the Ottoman architecture. During the first thirty years of the 18th century, there was the Baroque and Rococo style in Europe. Notably, the Baroque style was the most prominent style in France during Louis IV’ time, which is famous for the palaces built. The exterior facades of these palaces are generally plain, but the interior design is more elaborate. In the decorations, which bears traces of the Baroque style, is seen botanical patterns like leaf Frisians, seashells, and flyaway figures. After the Baroque style, the Rococo style, which was a decorative art, emerged in Louis V’s period in France. The number of columns and pilasters, which had been used as exterior architecture, had decreased. The rococo style includes S and C crimped branches, toothed medallion, seashells, and acanthus leaves. Versailles Palace is the most notable example of Baroque and Rococo style in France. The baroque and rococo styles did not enter in the Ottoman Architecture until after the transition period called the Tulip Era, which began in 1718 and continued until 1730. Indeed, it could be said that the effects of this era can be seen in the Ottoman architecture until 1740. The Tulip Era brought some novelties (such as wide eaves and more decorations) to the Ottoman architecture. These new decorations were from Persian and especially Indian and Mughal cultures. Another novelty was polygonal buildings which were generally seen at the sebils of this period. This was coming from the West and called the Early Baroque style. Although some parts of Uskudar Ahmediye Complex reflects Eastern and Western architectures, the architectural elements and details of the buildings in the complex are traditional. In other words, the buildings in the complex generally have Classical Ottoman architecture features. Also, some details and decorative motifs of the complex are from the Eastern and Western architectures. In conclusion, Uskudar Ahmediye Complex is a building that displays the features of the transition period from the classical Ottoman architecture to the Baroque style.

Uskudar Ahmediye Complex & Its Place in the Architecture of the Tulip Period

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Art-Sanat is an international academic peer-reviewed electronic journal published twice a year (January and July).

Academic, scientific and original research articles in the fields of Archaeology, Art History, Architectural History, Restoration-Conservation, Museology, Fine Arts and Performing Arts are included.

Owner: Istanbul University Research Institute of Turkology (on behalf of Director of the Institution Prof. Dr. Ayşe Zişan Furat)

ResearchBib

Islamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)

Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)

International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)

Akademik Araştırmalar İndeksi (Acar Index)

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JournalTOCs

Türk Eğitim İndeksi

Scopus

Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)

EBSCO

ERIH PLUS

TR Dizin

DOAJ

SOBIAD

Gale Cengage

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Art-Sanat

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Editor in Chief

Co Editor in Chief

Ethics Editor

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Redaction

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AimThe aim of Art-Sanat Journal is to support, publish and develop academic, scientific and original studies related to Archaeology, Art History, Architectural History, Restoration-Conservation, Museology, Fine Arts and other art fields.ScopeAcademic, scientific and original research articles in the fields of Archaeology, Art History, Architectural History, Restoration-Conservation, Museology, Fine Arts and Performing Arts are included.Studies based on surveys, especially in education departments, technical studies such as building and construction technologies in Architecture, and studies in the field of cinema are excluded.Non-original articles or review articles are excluded.Translations, book reviews, exhibition presentations, interviews and news articles are excluded.

Aim & Scope

ScopusEmerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)EBSCO Art &amp; Architecture SourceTÜBİTAK-ULAKBİM TR IndexDOAJErih PlusIslamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)SOBIAD Sosyal Bilimler Atıf DiziniAkademik Araştırmalar Index (Acar index)ArastirmaxJournalTOCsResearchBibTürk Eğitim İndeksi (TEİ)<a href="https://go.gale.com/ps/dispAdvSearch.do?userGroupName=anon~84c5a0c7&amp;prodId=AONE" target="_blank">Gale Cengage</a>

Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. Plagiarism Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-Review After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

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The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank" style="background-color: transparent;">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank" style="background-color: transparent;">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a>) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a> and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.RetractionJournal follows <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/retraction-guidelines-cope.pdf" target="_blank">COPE’s Retraction Guidelines</a> in case of retraction. The editor has the right to retract an article if: <ul><li>There is clear evidence that the findings are unreliable; either as a result of a major error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error), or as a result of fabrication (e.g. of data) or falsification (e.g. image manipulation).</li><li>It contains plagiarised content. </li><li>It has been published elsewhere without proper attribution. </li><li>It contains material or data without authorisation for use.</li><li>There is copyright infringement or there is some other serious legal issue.</li><li>It reports unethical research. </li><li>There is evidence that the peer-review process is compromised or manipulated.</li><li>The author(s) failed to disclose a significant competing interest (also known as a conflict of interest) that, in the opinion of the editor, would have unduly influenced the interpretation of the work or the recommendations of the editors and peer reviewers.</li></ul>In case of retraction the following steps are followed:<ul><li>Retraction notice including article title is published in a subsequent issue of the journal. The retraction notice is paginated and listed in the table of contents. </li><li>A link is provided between the retraction notice and the original article in the electronic version. </li><li>The online article is preceded by a page containing the retraction notice; the reader can then proceed to the article itself.</li><li>The original article remains unchanged, except for a watermark on the .pdf on each page stating that it has been &#34;retracted”.</li></ul>Article Removal for Legal ReasonsIn the following circumstances, except the metadata (title and authors), the text of the article is removed and a page informing that the article has been removed for legal reasons replaces the article. <ul><li>The article is found to be defamatory or to infringe the legal rights of others, and retraction is not deemed to be an adequate solution.</li><li>The article has been, or is reasonably likely to be the subject of a court order.</li><li>There is a significant risk to public health. </li></ul>

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

Art-Sanat Journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

The journal adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation. Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.Short presentations that took place in scientific meetings can be referred if indicated in the article. The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors. Refused manuscripts and graphics are not returned to the author. The copyright of the published articles and pictures belong to the Journal.

Peer Review

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation. Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-in-chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts. The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by editor-in-chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Editor in chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review. - Does the manuscript contain new and significant information? - Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript? - Is the problem significant and concisely stated? - Are the methods described comprehensively? - Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results? - Is adequate references made to other Works in the field? - Is the language acceptable? Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side. A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process. The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

Writing RulesPublication Principles and Writing Rules of Art-Sanat JournalArt-Sanat Journal is an electronic journal with international academic referees which is published twice a year (January and July). In Art-Sanat Journal, published openly on DergiPark Open Journal Systems; only original, scientific and scholarly articles on Archeology, Art History, Architecture History, Conservation-Restoration, Museology and Performing Arts about Turks and communities related with Turks are accepted.To contact, our e-mail address is <a href="mailto:art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr</a>. (Direct messaging on DergiPark site is inactive. If you have any inquiries, please send an e-mail to the aforementioned address.)Our web pages are             <a href="https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr/en/journal/art-sanat/home" target="_blank">https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr/en/journal/art-sanat/home</a>                                               <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/iuarts" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/iuarts</a> The languages of Art-Sanat Journal are Turkish and English. The articles which are sent to the Journal are analyzed by the editor and the board of publishing, then forwarded to three academic referees and should at least two of them approve, they are then published. The writers of the articles are not disclosed to the referees.Copyright:All rights reserved by Art-Sanat Journal. The publication rights of the published articles belong to Art-Sanat Journal. The author has the legal and scientific responsibility for the contents of the articles. The visual materials (figures, photographs, pictures, drawings, plans, etc.) used in the articles should not be used without reference and the author has to obtain permission for the copyrighted material. The legal responsibility for these issues belongs to the authors. The sources for the visuals must certainly be openly stated and permission to use the copyrighted material must be obtained. In case a visual belong to the author, a statement in which the copyright belongs to the author is declared should be added under each visual.The articles submitted for publication in the Art-Sanat Journal should neither have been published elsewhere nor have been submitted to another journal. The IThenticate (Plagiarism Prevention Program) is used to ensure plagiarism control for each submission.If an article is based on an acheological excavation, the head of the excavation, the excavation team, the institution(s) that support the excavation and project code name/number or official permit date and number must be stated in the footnote section. If the article is written by someone else than the head of the excavation, the permit obtained from the head of the excavation must be uploaded to the system and also stated in the footnote section. If the article is about some artifacts that are displayed in a museum, the date and number of the official permit of the study obtained from the related museum directory must be stated in the footnote section. Any study about historical sites, such as ruins, requires an official permit from the public autorities and institutions involved. General Information:In case the article is generated using a master’s or doctorate thesis, an asterisk (*) should be added at the end of the article heading, then the details concerning the thesis’ author, name, in which university it was written, the names of the institution, department and the advisor must be stated in the footnote section. If the article is supported by any project including BAP and funded financially from any source, after the “Conclusion” part, there must be a “Financial Support” section with the information about type and the code of the project, stating that the study received financial support.As of 2020, “Permission from the Ethical Board” must be obtained and attached to the study if the article is written utilizing one or any combination of applications such as surveys, interviews, conversation, focus group study, observatios, experimenting etc.The articles submitted to Art-Sanat Journal must be in Microsoft Word format. Under the title of the article, the author's name and surname should be included. After the name of the author, the asterisk (*) should be used as a footnote sign and the job title, the institution and the e-mail address of the author and the submission date of the article should be specified at the bottom of the first page. ORCID number should also be written under the author’s name. Articles with multiple writers should include each author’s ORCID number. If you do not have an ORCID number please register: <a href="https://orcid.org/" target="_blank">https://orcid.org/</a>.Articles should have Turkish and English titles, abstracts (150-200 words) and 3-5 keywords.  After the English abstract, the Turkish articles should contain an English extended summary of 800-1000 words. The English articles should contain a Turkish extended summary of 800-1000 words.The articles should consist of “Introduction”, numbered subheadings, “Conclusion” (Evaluation and Conclusion are two separate sections) and “Bibliography/References”. The visuals should be placed in a suitable way between paragraphs (F.1).Each of the visual material must be in jpeg format with a resolution of at least 300 dpi (images with a poor image quality will not be used). For the visual materials used in the article, numbering should be done with the abbreviation bold F. (F.1., F.2., F.3., etc.). The description of the visual material should be specified below the material in parentheses. If visual material belongs to the author, it should be indicated.Article should be written in Times New Roman, 12 pt., 1.5 line spacing, before 6NK-after 6NK spacing and both side justified. Footnotes should be written in Times New Roman, 10 pt., 1 line spacing and both side justified. Words that need to emphasized should be written in italic. The Quotations less than five lines should be written in quotation marks in the same paragraph and the quotations longer than five lines should be written separately 1 cm inside from left and right sides of page, blocked and in 8 pts. The article should not exceed 10.000 words, the visuals used in the article should not be more than the number of text pages and also maximum 25 images are allowed. The visuals which are directly related to the subject should be preferred with reference to comparison images. Images should be numbered in the text and used in the relevant place.

Author Guidelines

Ensure that the following items are present:●    Cover letter to the editorü    The category of the manuscriptü    Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.ü    Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.ü    Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.ü    Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.ü    Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.ü    Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with CMOS 16.●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>●    Permission of previously published copyrighted material if used in the present manuscript●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/9A6C642AF6B244E3B07BD89275AFFD2B" target="_blank">Title page</a>ü    The category of the manuscriptü    The title of the manuscriptü    All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addressesü    Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax numberü    ORCIDs of all authors.●    Main Manuscript Documentü    The title of the manuscriptü    Abstract (150-200 words)ü    Key words: 3 to 5 wordsü    Extended Summary (800-1000 words) in Englishü    Main article sectionsü    Grant support (if exists)ü    Conflict of interest (if exists)ü    Acknowledgement (if exists)ü    Referencesü    All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)

<div><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/5B820430CF434608828BEA928A53D3BF" target="_blank">Title Page</a></div>

Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	İbrahim Çeşmelı̇

Art-Sanat

ISSUE 23, 2025

METRICS