İmren

Assist. Prof. Dr.

Erkan

The timely fulfilment of taxpayers’ and taxCresponsible duties is essential for the healthy functioning of the tax system. In this respect, since failure to fulfil or incomplete fulfilment of taxCrelated duties on time will cause many disruptions in the system, some misdemeanors and penalties are applied. According to the tax laws, the practice of whistleblower bonuses has been implemented in order to prevent unregistered transactions by identifying those who do not fulfil their taxCrelated duties on time and reporting this to the administration, and, giving bonuses.The purpose of this study is to reveal how the whistleblower bonus works in Turkey and the US using various data. In addition, considering the data on the whistleblower bonus scheme, various suggestions have been tried to be presented by expressing the deficiencies regarding this scheme implemented in our country. According to the results of the study, it is understood that the whistleblower bonus, which aims to reveal and pay hidden taxes, is not important enough in the tax system. In this respect, to minimise tax losses and evasions, which is a chronic problem of our tax system, and to ensure equality of competition, it is necessary to make arrangements to make the whistleblower bonus institution operational.&nbsp;Whistleblowing is defined as reporting, notification, or informing. In this respect, the institution of whistleblowing is considered within the scope of the “right to petition”, which is included as a right in the Constitution, and both the state and individuals have important responsibilities here. The whistleblowing bonus, which is important in terms of the realisation of the fiscal purpose of taxation to the extent necessary, is an important practice in tax systems as the notification of untaxed income by third parties to the relevant authorities. Since whistleblowing in tax law is defined as reporting taxpayers who do not fulfil their taxCrelated duties to the relevant units, the whistleblowing bonus, which is a reward payment to those who report undeclared and unrecorded income to the relevant units, appears as one of the methods of the state to combat informality.Since tax revenues being well below what they should be may cause significant problems in the financing of public expenditures, the whistleblower bonus is one of the many measures introduced to prevent informality. Law No. 1905 “Law on the Bonus to be given to Informers of Movable and Immovable Property and their Beneficial Rights and Permanent Taxes” envisages the realisation of reporting tax losses and evasions to the relevant units. In addition to the legal regulation, the Tax Communication Centre (VİMER) was established and continues to work actively in order to evaluate notices and complaints regarding tax liabilities. Within the framework of the cooperation established with citizens for the prevention of tax losses and evasion, notifications made to VIMER via the internet or telephone are received and forwarded to the relevant units.While the duty to pay taxes, which is one of the duties and responsibilities of individuals to the state, is stipulated in Article 73 of the Constitution, the Constitution does not stipulate any responsibility for whistleblowing. However, some legislative provisions stipulate that whistleblowing is required if a crime is detected by public officials. Article 359 of the Tax Procedure Law No. 213 (TPL) stipulates that those who commit the act of smuggling must be reported to the Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor by the tax inspection staff. The notifications duly made to the competent authorities are referred to the Tax Audit Board, which is the authorised institution for tax inspections. Because of the examinations, it is investigated whether there is a connection between the subject of the denunciation and the tax base difference. If there is a relationship between the subject of the whistleblowing and the tax base difference, an “Opinion and Recommendation Report” is issued for the whistleblowing bonus in addition to the tax inspection report.&nbsp;According to Law No. 1905, certain conditions must be met for the whistleblowing bonus to be paid to the whistleC blower. The conditions required by the law to pay the whistleblower bonus and to claim the bonus can be stated as follows;&nbsp;The whistleblowing must be made within the statute of limitations within the scope of Article 114 of the Tax Procedure Law No. 213. Otherwise, no action will be taken for the notifications regarding the taxes for which the statute of limitations has expired.When an informant reports that a taxpayer has evaded tax, the incident must be explained concretely based on evidence. There should be a causal relationship between the subject of the denunciation and the tax base differences determined at the end of the tax inspection. At this point, the notice should not be made with general and abstract concepts.The taxes that will be subject to the whistleblowing bonus should be continuous taxes and related tax loss penalties, as stated in Law No. 1905. The informant should request a whistleblowing bonus; that is, he/she should clearly state that he/she wants a whistleblowing bonus. The tax inspection should not have started before the whistleblowing, and the whistleblowing should not be abandoned at the end of the tax inspection.The whistleblower must include his/her name, surname, residence address, and signature in the notification petition and submit the information and documents related to the notification. For the whistleblowing to be subject to examination, the whistleblower must not conceal himself/herself. If the whistleblower is anonymous, the identity information of this person must be revealed until the end of the tax inspection. It should also be noted that in the case of verbal notifications made to the tax offices, only an examination is carried out and there is no bonus payment. Tax whistleblowers can also make a verbal report to be recorded in the minutes by applying to the authorised units.In the United States, a whistleblower or informant must fulfil several conditions to be eligible for the award. First, the whistleblower or whistleblower must be involved in a tax nonCcompliance matter involving tax, penalties, interest, additions to tax, and additional amounts in dispute over $2,000,000. Second, it must relate to a taxpayer and, in the case of an individual taxpayer, a taxpayer whose gross income exceeds $200,000 for at least one of the tax periods in question. Third and lastly, it must significantly contribute to the decision to take administrative or judicial action resulting in the collection of tax, penalties, interest, tax additions, and additional amounts.If the whistleblower significantly contributed to the decision of an administrative or judicial proceeding that met the conditions listed above and resulted in the collection of taxes, penalties, interest, additions to taxes, and additional amounts, the IRS will pay a reward of at least 15% and not more than 30% of the collected revenues resulting from administrative or judicial proceedings (including related proceedings) or any settlement in response to an administrative or judicial proceeding.In the US, a system has been developed exclusively for whistleblowing. All processes are managed by the whistleC blower office of the Internal Revenue Service, and the results are published by this office on a regular and detailed basis every year. The published reports show that the scope of the reports is continuously expanded. However, it is observed that there is no regular flow of data on whistleblowing in Turkey. For example, when we look at the distribution of whistleblowing notifications made to VIMER according to their subject matter, it is seen that the last data output was in 2016. In this context, the establishment of a unit dedicated solely to whistleblowing in Turkey and the centralised management of all operations and processes by this unit is important in terms of contributing to the systematic and holistic handling of processes and the effective operation of the whistleblowing institution and reporting the results every year.On the other hand, as in the US, a new legal arrangement should be made in Turkey to protect tax whistleblowers against retaliation by employers or whistleblowers and to ensure that they feel safe. In this way, tax whistleblowing will be incentivized. Considering the number of notifications made to the relevant units and the amount of whistleC blowing bonuses paid, it is obvious that the whistleblowing mechanism, which is an important practice, does not function effectively.The reason why the whistleblowing bonus is not sufficiently implemented may be because it is not properly and fully explained to individuals and awareness raising is not done on this issue. At this point, in our country where informality is widespread, it is essential to make this issue attractive by ensuring that all segments of the society are aware of the whistleblowing bonus institution and that whistleblowing is a citizenship duty within the scope of social responsibility.&nbsp;If the tax whistleblowing institution, which is directly related to tax audits, is made effective and functional, it can contribute as a mechanism that can complement tax audits where they are lacking. In this context, to increase the level of awareness of taxpayers in the fight against tax losses and evasion, as well as to ensure the active participation of the relevant segments of society in the fight against informality, it is necessary to explain the whistleblower organisation in every aspect and to take necessary actions to increase social awareness about the positive results of the whistleblower organisation.

Vergi Kabahatlerinde İhbar Müessesesi: Türkiye ve Amerika Uygulamalarına Genel Bir Bakış

Birol

The evolution of international trade and capital flows during the 20th century has prompted taxpayers to explore methods to circumvent or minimize their tax obligations, either within the gray areas of the law or outside its direct scope. Tax havens, characterized by their offshore location and offering numerous advantages, including low or no taxes, have emerged as prominent centers utilized by multinational corporations and highnet worth individuals to avoid or evade taxes. In the 21st century, the digital transformation of the global economy and tax havens has accelerated due to the confluence of rapid digitalization and globalization. While the concept of tax avoidance and evasion has remained constant, the scope of its application has expanded. Over the past two decades, the phenomenon of rapid globalization, accelerated by the advent of digitalization, has resulted in the interconnection of global markets. Concurrently, the convergence of national goods, services and capital markets has caused a growing discord between national tax systems worldwide. This discord has engendered an environment conducive to the proliferation of tax avoidance and evasion activities, thereby impeding the efficacy of national tax systems. Consequently, the elimination or reduction of such activities, which erode the share of national tax systems in the global economy, constitutes a pivotal area of international taxation. While the OECD is a leading international organization in this field, the European Union (EU) has sought to develop a protective mechanism against such acts at the Union level by fostering cooperation among the tax administrations of its member states. The efforts of the OECD, the G20, the Global Forum and the EU to enhance international cooperation and tax transparency to combat tax avoidance and evasion, which are fueled by the vulnerabilities of the global economy, are based on the exchange of information between the tax administrations of the countries or tax jurisdictions that are parties to such actions. In this regard, countries are expected to develop their respective tax measures in consideration of the information provided by other countries, adhering to recognized international standards. Tax havens and offshore financial centers have emerged as significant hubs that facilitate the establishment of the infrastructure necessary for foreign real and legal persons to engage in such illicit or quasi illegal activities. With the advent of digitalization, these centers have also adapted their structures to the digital economy. Consequently, tax havens, once primarily used by multinational corporations (MNCs) and affluent individuals to circumvent taxes prior to digitalization, have become digitally accessible to small and mediumsized enterprises, as well as highnet worth individuals who seek to minimize their tax liability. However, whether the tax haven or offshore financial center is traditional or digital does not change its negative impact on the national and international tax system, but rather increases its severity. Ultimately, these centers, whether digital or traditional, undermine national tax revenues as they are used for tax avoidance or evasion. In this respect, international cooperation and tax transparency have emerged as the most important means of combating such structures. Since the 2008 global financial crisis, while the number of billionaires worldwide has doubled and their wealth has increased by USD 2.5 billion per day, these ultra wealthy individuals and the companies they own use tax havens to reduce their tax burden in their countries of residence or to pay no tax at all. This situation deprives countries of tax revenues, which are the main source of financing public expenditure in almost all countries. Furthermore, tax havens have a considerable impact not only on tax revenues but also on the functioning of the global economy. According to an IMF study published in 2018, almost 40 per cent of global foreign direct investment (FDI) (approximately $12 trillion) is entirely artificial; in other words, it consists of financial investments passing through empty shell companies in tax havens where no real economic activity takes place. Consequently, an effective international effort to combat tax havens, which have become increasingly popular due to globalization and increased capital mobility and which are damaging economies worldwide, has become essential. In this context, the objective of the blacklists, realists or lists of noncooperative countries promulgated by international organizations such as the OECD, the FATF and the EU, as referenced in the preceding sections, is to exert &nbsp;pressure on noncooperative countries to adhere to international tax standards, particularly with regard to the exchange of information. The presence of countries on these lists is not only a matter of national reputation; it also carries serious economic and political ramifications. Consequently, any country aspiring to be removed from such lists must strive to adhere to international standards. In this regard, international cooperation endeavors by the OECD and the EU have focused on facilitating the exchange of data between countries or their overseas territories. This initiative enables the taxation of foreign investors in f inancial assets within their sovereign territory by the jurisdiction where they are domiciled. The conventional approach to the international exchange of information entails the provision of data on taxes on income via double taxation avoidance agreements or bilateral accords, facilitated by the exchange of information upon request. However, the Convention on the exchange of information in the field of taxation, based on a multilateral agreement with the joint efforts of the 171member Global Forum, established by the G20 in 2009 with the announcement that banking secrets would no longer exist, and the OECD, paved the way for the automatic international exchange of information according to the reciprocity principle. The automatic exchange of information mandated by the EU as a regional union for certain tax types and transactions among its members has officially become operational for the committing countries with the adoption of the Global Forum’s Common Reporting Standard (CRS) for automatic exchange of information in 2014 and the entry into force of the CRS Multilateral Competent Authority Agreement CRS MCAA in 2018. While the Global Forum conducts audits of countries participating in the CRS MCAA, assessing their legal infrastructure and data security and confidentiality through onsite audits, it should be noted that the compliance process varies between countries.As of 2023, according to OECD data, while 111 countries exchange data, the processing of these exchanged data and, if necessary, tax examinations or penalty assessments against the persons whose data are exchanged vary depending on the data processing capacity or willingness of the countries obtaining these data. Namely, although there is a data flow from developing countries to the tax administrations of developed countries within the scope of automatic information exchange of financial accounts in general, this situation is reciprocal. Indeed, each country or taxing jurisdiction has the will to receive information on its own residents investing in financial assets in a foreign country or taxing jurisdiction through encrypted systems within the scope of CRS, to compare these encrypted data with its own national data, and to request additional information and conduct tax examinations through the information exchange mechanism upon request when deemed necessary. Despite the absence of definitive evidence substantiating the hypothesis that the automatic exchange of financial information has been fully operational since the inaugural data exchange in 2018, or that it has resulted in a substantial decline in tax evasion from tax havens or offshore financial centers, it is evident that the automatic exchange of information has increased the pressure on tax authorities to identify individuals who transfer personal wealth to offshore financial centers or tax havens with the intention of evading or reducing their tax obligations. At the time of the entry into force of the Common Reporting Standard (CRS), approximately 120 sovereignty jurisdictions committed to exchange information under the CRS. Of these, 40% initiated their first information exchange in 2017, 40% in 2018, and the remainder committed to start between 2019 and 2024. According to OECD data from 2023, 111 countries, including Turkey, exchanged information with a range of sovereign jurisdictions. In contrast, the Global Tax Evasion 2024 report indicates that tax evasion through offshore tax havens has decreased almost threefold in less than a decade, largely due to the automatic exchange of financial account information under the FATCA and CRS. The report indicates that prior to 2013, the financial wealth of households in tax havens worldwide equaled 10 per cent of global GDP, with a significant proportion of this wealth not being declared to the tax authorities of the jurisdiction where the residents are domiciled. The report further states that, presently, there is still offshore household financial wealth equivalent to 10% of world GDP, but that only 25% of it escapes taxation as a result of the introduction of the OBD. This reduction indicates that, in the event of a robust political commitment to the OBD, significant progress can be achieved in the struggle against tax evasion. Notwithstanding this noteworthy advancement, tax evasion through offshore tax havens persists as a substantial issue, attributable to the noncompliance of financial institutions that are obligated to report under the CRS, the &nbsp;inadequacies in the automatic exchange of bank information, and the fact that the Automatic Exchange of Information does not encompass the exchange of information on all assets. Notwithstanding these deficiencies, data from the OECD indicate that information about over 123 million financial accounts, with total assets exceeding €12 trillion worldwide in 2022, was automatically exchanged. In 2023, the G20 Summit of Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors, organized by the OECD in India, reached a consensus to expand the scope of the CRS to encompass crypto assets and real estate. This decision was taken with a view to enhancing the effectiveness of the Automatic Exchange of Information and the international exchange of information in the field of taxation in general. In 2022, the scope of the CRS was expanded to provide for the automatic exchange of information on crypto assets, and the Crypto Assets Reporting Framework (CARF) was established. The CARF amended the CRS in terms of new f inancial assets, products and intermediaries. The implementation of bank secrecy rules and the existence of limited information exchange networks in offshore tax havens have resulted in tax administrations possessing limited information regarding taxpayers’ foreign assets and income. However, significant international tax policy developments in the last 15 years have led to a substantial reduction in the barriers to the international exchange of financial account information for tax purposes, while concurrently increasing transparency and international cooperation in this area.

Uluslararası Otomatik Bilgi Değişiminin Offshore Vergi  Cennetlerinin Etkinliğinin Azaltılmasındaki Olası Rolü

Andrew

Lecturer

Deescalating The Crises of Government Borrowing: Can Fiscal  Retrenchment Redress Public Debt Constraints in Nigeria?

Meltem

Res. Assist.

Digital Transformation in the Framework of Social Sciences: A  Bibliometric Evaluation of the Web of Science Database

@JOURNAL_BOX_EARLYVIEW

Suzan

Servet

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Tax is one of the most important economic events in modern economic relationships. On the one hand, tax constitutes the financing source of public services and the public sector; on the other hand, it affects income, wealth, and expenditures of economic actors. Tax and tax collection activities are determined by political decision-making processes and are closely related to the sociocultural structure of a society. As fiscal events, taxes are affected by political and economic developments and social and cultural developments. In this regard, taxation is a fiscal sociological phenomenon. A fiscal event has social, cultural, and religious aspects, and without considering these aspects, it is not possible to understand and explain social reality.Tax perceptions of individuals and societies, how they evaluate taxes, and their reactions to taxes can be explained by tax psychology. Analysing why individuals and taxpayers react to taxes is extremely important for achieving the goals and objectives expected from taxation and ensuring voluntary tax compliance. Tax awareness is the level of willingness to fulfil tax-related obligations of citizens who know the importance of tax in terms of the realization of public services. Social awareness of the necessity of taxation is crucial for establishing tax consciousness. Political powers should convince society that taxes they collect will be returned to society in an efficient and effective manner. How an individual perceives taxes and the tax awareness that follows are affected by many psychological and sociological factors. While tax audits and penalties increase tax awareness to a certain level, increasing tax awareness in society depends mostly on sociological and psychological factors.Individual factors affecting attitudes and behaviours towards tax are factors arising from the individual. These factors are subjective and vary from individual to individual. In this study, the factors that determine tax awareness and tax perception are demographic characteristics of the individual (gender, age, education, income level, etc.), tax morality, subjective tax burden, ability to pay taxes, political power, loyalty and trust in the state, perceived level of public expenditures, and taxpayers’ views on other taxpayers.The aim of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the tax awareness and perception of Akdeniz University students. There are many factors that affect individuals’ tax awareness and tax perception. In this framework, the subject of this study is whether there is a significant difference between the demographic characteristics, gender, faculties and departments, and education levels of Akdeniz University students in terms of tax awareness and tax perception. developing future tax policies considering the results of this research will help to reach tax capacity by increasing tax compliance, which will lead to an increase in tax revenues. This study is the second to investigate tax perception and tax awareness at the Akdeniz University scale and therefore contributes to the development of the existing literature. This study aims to determine how Akdeniz University students perceive taxes, their attitudes towards the Turkish Tax System, the impact of taxes on students’ voting preferences, their attitudes towards tax amnesty practises and evasion activities, and their level of tax awareness.Many studies have investigated higher education students’ tax perceptions and awareness in Turkey. These studies can be summarized at a few points in terms of sample scope. First, a significant number of studies have measured the tax perception and tax awareness of FEAS students (Ömürbek, et al., 2007; Sağlam, 2013; Serinkan and Erdoğan, 2017; Ayrangöl et al., 2017; Barlas and Güney, 2017; Başdağ, 2017; Karlılar and Kıral 2018; Tabakan and Orçun, 2018; Gürçam and Moç, 2019; Yanık and Doğan, 2022). The studies in the second part consisted of studies conducted at a single university as a whole or at different universities (Aydemir, 2013; Akkara and Gencel, 2016; Teyyare and&nbsp;Kumbaşlı, 2016; Çiçek and Bitlisli, 2017; Bulu, 2018; Karacan, 2019; Özdemir, 2021). The few studies in the last section cover two different departments such as finance-theology (Yeşilyurt, 2015; Kıral, 2018) and different faculties such as law-theology (Koban and Bulu, 2017).The research population is students studying at Akdeniz University in the 2021-2022 academic year. As of 2021, 66.209 students are studying at Akdeniz University. This figure was rounded up and taken as 66. 000. Because of the preliminary sampling, it was concluded that approximately 300 samples should be collected from the population. In this study, the sample size was decided to be 300 or more. A total of 656 surveys were administered to the students; 37 were not included in the analysis because some of the surveys were too damaged to be included in the analysis. The surveys were analysed with SPSS 27 package programme. In this study, a questionnaire was created using demographic information and statements obtained from studies on the subject in the literature. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part includes the demographic information of the students consisting of 21 questions, and the second part includes 38 statements prepared according to a 5-point Likert scale to determine the attitudes and behaviours of the students towards tax.The SPSS package programme used for statistical analysis in the field of social sciences was used to analyse the dataset. After the data were entered, they were checked. Incorrect data were corrected, and the data were made ready for analysis. Frequency analysis was used to determine the numerical distribution of the data (in terms of numbers). Descriptive statistics were used to determine variance, standard deviation, and percentage values related to the data obtained.&nbsp;In this study, the Independent Sample t-test or its nonparametric equivalent Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine whether there was a significant difference between two independent groups, and One-Way Analysis of Variance (One Way Anova) or its nonparametric equivalent Kruskal–Wallis tests were used to determine whether there was a significant difference between more than two independent groups. Tukey and Schfee tests from post-hoc tests were used to determine the differences between the groups. The results obtained were interpreted at the 95% confidence interval and P&lt;0.05 significance level. Normality and reliability analyses of the dataset were performed.Factors affecting the tax perception and awareness of Akdeniz University students include the view of political power, the structure of taxes, the views of taxpayers on other taxpayers, the perception of public expenditures, tax justice, tax amnesties, and the level of deterrence of audits and penalties. Most Akdeniz University students perceive taxation as a civic duty and can establish a financial link between taxes and public services. It has been determined that most students do not know which taxes they pay, at what rates, and how much of their monthly income they pay in taxes. A significant proportion of students believe that public services will be disrupted if taxes are not paid.The findings of this study show that Akdeniz University students have negative attitudes towards the Turkish Tax System. It has been determined that students do not have enough information about the Turkish Tax System, they think tax audits are not effective and sufficient, and they think that taxation is not fair. No significant difference was found between the 1st and 4th grades in the subdimensions of tax perception, tax awareness, the Turkish Tax System and tax-voter behaviour. However, statistically significant differences were found between 1st and 4th graders in attitudes towards tax amnesty-evasion, and 4th graders had a higher score. Similarly, the subdimensions of tax perception and tax-voter behaviour did not differ between associate and undergraduate students. In order to test whether there is a significant difference between the attitudes of students who take tax courses and those who do not take tax courses, the students of the department of finance and the faculty of theology were compared. According to the findings, it was determined that the tax perception scores of theology and finance department students were above average, and there was no difference between the two departments.It was observed that there was no significant difference between theology and finance students in the sub-dimension of tax-voter behaviour, while there were differences between departments in the sub-dimensions of tax awareness, the Turkish Tax System, and tax amnesty and evasion. Students establish a link between taxes and democracy at an average level and think that the taxes paid are not used correctly and that they do not receive their money’s worth. It has been determined that students want to learn the fiscal policies of the political party they support, that their voting preferences will not change even if the party they do not support reduces taxes, that the tax burden and tax rates are partially effective on students’ voting preferences, and that political views are more effective on voting preferences.&nbsp;Raising students’ awareness of taxation is also important for raising future generations. In this context, an elective course called "Budget Literacy" can be offered to university students regardless of their faculties and departments. At this point, the necessity and importance of taxation and the awareness that each citizen is responsible for the continuity of income needed by the public can be contributed.&nbsp;

An Empirical Research on Tax Perception and Tax Awareness: The Case of Akdeniz University

Rıdvan

&nbsp;In this study, the issue of the abolition of the Tithe, which is characterised as an important tax reform in the history of public finance, is discussed. First, the land regime and agricultural structure prevailing in the Ottoman Empire were analysed, and the problems arising in the implementation of the Tithe levied on agricultural production were included. Then, depending on these problems, the discussions on the abolition of the Tithe in both the Izmir Economic Congress and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and different views and opinions on the subject were put forward. Finally, the results and effects of the abolition of the Tithe are evaluated. As in all Turkish states established in history, the most important element of economic life in the Ottoman Empire was agriculture. The Ottoman Empire became such a powerful empire because of its territorial organisation. Thanks to the fief system, which is an important part of this land order, the state shaped economic life by keeping agricultural production under its control. The fief system, which formed the basis of the Ottoman land system, was modelled on the ita system implemented in the Seljuk period. The fief system is a system in which certain tax revenues to be collected from certain regions are left to state officials and in return they are obliged to perform certain services. In other words, it is the cultivation of state-owned lands by peasants under the control of state officials. Since the economy of the Ottoman Empire was based on agriculture and the important sources of income of the state were taxes levied on agriculture, the Ottoman Empire attached great importance to the fief system, which constituted the essence of the land order. Most Ottoman population made their living from agriculture. Although the territory of the Empire was spread over a large area, it is observed that arable land and agricultural production were not at a sufficient level. The most important reason for this is the low population density due to the long years of wars. The low level of agricultural production in relation to the population density caused the taxes levied on agricultural products to be lower than estimated. Since the Ottoman economywasbasedonagriculture, the most important source of income for the state was the Tithe levied on agricultural products. The Tithe literally means one-tenth. Tithe is a direct tax levied in kind on agricultural produce. In the Ottoman Empire, the practise of Ashar varied not only according to sharia law but also according to long-standing local customs and traditions as well as economic andfinancial conditions in various regions. For example, in the Ottoman Empire, the rate of this tax was determined by taking into account various criteria such as the fertility level of the land, irrigation facilities, type of agricultural product, local customs and traditions, etc. Another feature that differs from its application in Islamic law is that the tax is levied not only on Muslims but also on non-Muslims. After the 17th century, some disruptions occurred in the Ottoman territorial organisation, and accordingly, significant problems were experienced in the collection of the Tithe. To solve these problems, the state thought to remove the costs of tax collection by abolishing the fief system and instead introduced the tax farming system. In the tax farming system, people called taxman were authorised to collect taxes in return for a certain price. However, the expected results could not be obtained from this system either. Most of the peasants left their lands and became unemployed because of the pressure exerted by the taxmans, who wanted to collect more taxes from the peasants to increase their profits. It was not possible to cope with such problems arising in the territorial organisation, and these problems continued until the collapse of the state. The tax farming method was based on a contract between the state and the taxman who undertook to collect the highest amount of tax through a tender. However, from time to time, taxmans did not comply with the terms of this contract and tried to collect much more than the specified tax amount, leaving the peasants in a difficult situation. Since the state’s control mechanisms did not work effectively, it was not possible to protect the peasants from the oppression and cruelty of the taxmans. In the first years of the Republic, one of the fiscal issues that occupied the new administration the most was the Tithe. Since the peasants constituted the majority of the population, the government pursued pro-peasant policies and abolished the Tithe in 1925 in order to encourage agricultural production and alleviate the tax burden on rural areas. As a result of the abolition of Tithe on the one hand and the provision of credit facilities to farmers and the allocation of funds from the state budget for the purchase of ploughs and seeds for farmers in need on the other, cultivated agricultural areas expanded and significant increases in agricultural production were achieved during this period. In the 1920s, the Republic of Turkey had an economic structure dominated by agriculture, and 80% of the population lived in rural areas. Likewise, the agricultural sector accounted for a large part of the national income and almost all of the exports were agricultural products. In the post-war period, efforts to rebuild the country’s devastation were largely focused on agriculture. The years 1923-1929 were a period of rapid increase in agricultural output in Turkey. In a short period of time, the pre-war production volume was reached in the main agricultural products, which had been reduced by half due to the War of Independence. In particular, the return of men returning from the front to their own lands after the war was the &nbsp;most important factor determining the increase in agricultural production, while legal regulations on prices and taxes also helped to create resources in favour of the agricultural sector. The abolition of the Tithe led to significant developments in the agricultural sector, but on the other hand, it also deprived the state of an important source of income. This situation caused the state to lose an important source of f inancing. Although some new taxes were introduced to fill the gap in the state budget caused by the abolition of the Tithe, it was not easy to compensate for the loss of revenue. In this period, although the rates of existing taxes were increased or new taxes were introduced, the power of the tax system to tax agricultural production decreased considerably and the tax burden shifted from rural to urban areas. After this year, the agricultural sector in Turkey was not taxed in real terms, and the tax burden remained mainly on the commercial and industrial sectors.Moreover, with the abolition of Ashar, the fiscal burden on the peasants as taxpayers decreased. With the abolition of Ashar, the share of taxes levied on agriculture in total tax revenues decreased from 33% to 10%, and thus an important decision was taken to increase the welfare level of the rural population. The abolition of the Tithe, described by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as ‘the most ruthless scourge of the Middle Ages’, was the most pressing financial issue for the new government in the early years of the Republic. Reducing the tax burden on the agricultural sector, which is the most important component of the economic structure and the main source of livelihood of the Turkish people, has been among the main priorities of the government. Considering that the government had taxable resources in a newly established country after the long years of the liberation struggle, the abolition of the Tithe, which constituted the most important revenue item of the state budget in this period, is considered an extraordinary decision.Another reason for the abolition of the Tithe was to create a modern tax system. There was a need to reorganise the taxes inherited from the Ottoman Empire or to abolish them completely. The abolition of the Tithe, which was a direct tax, and the new taxes introduced afterwards changed the tax structure significantly. While the weight of direct taxes decreased in the tax system, the share of indirect taxes, which do not take into account the ability of taxpayers to pay, increased. In conclusion, it can be stated that the abolition of the Tithe was a difficult test for the government in the first years of the Republic. Nevertheless, the government took the risk, regardless of the economic and financial consequences, and took the bold decision to abolish the tithe in order to reduce the tax burden on the peasants. Therefore, while this decision of the government gained the support of the rural population, it is not possible to say that it was equally accepted by all segments of the society. In particular, industrial and commercial workers opposed the abolition of the Tithe, considering that the new taxes to be introduced to compensate for the loss of income due to the abolition of the Tithe would be partially reflected on them.

A Tax Reform to Support Agricultural Policies in the Early Republic Period:  Abolition of Tithe

M. fatih

Prof. Dr.

Bilal

Miyase

&nbsp;The prevalence of informal economic activities represents a significant challenge for economies, as they tend to impede both the efficiency and equality objectives. The term “informal economy” refers to economic activities that are conducted legally or illegally outside the knowledge or control of government administrations. An increase in the informal economy can result in a number of adverse consequences, including the formulation of misguided political decisions based on inaccurate economic data, a deterioration in the competitive environment, ineffectiveness in the distribution of resources, damage to the sustainability of the social security system, budget deficits and an increase in borrowing duetoareductionintaxrevenues.Oneoftheeconomicreasonsfortheprevalenceofinformalactivities is the high tax burden. An examination of the effects of different taxes reveals that excessive taxation has a suppressive effect on the initiative of decision-making economic actors, restrains the expansion of the legal economy, and ultimately gives rise to tax hiding and the informal economy (Giriunien˙e, 2012, p. 823). The impact of the tax burden on informality is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of tax rates, the capacity to guarantee tax fairness, the frequency of tax amnesties and tax competition, which are among the defining characteristics of the tax system. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of the tax burden,which is a crucial factor in economic decision-making, on the informal economy. The main hypotheses of the study are that the relationship between these two variables is non-linear and that the level of tax burden and the level of development are the determining factors in this relation. The primary focus of empirical studies is the examination of the tax burden as a significant factor influencing the prevalence of the informal economy. In these studies, the effect of the total tax burden is analysed (Macias, 2008; Enste, 2010; Manolas et al., 2013; Nagac, 2015, among others), as well as specific tax types, including social security contributions and the direct-indirect tax burden (Stankevičius and Vasiliauskait˙e, 2014; Kutbay, 2020; Yurdakul, 2008). However, in contrast with the findings indicating a positive relationship, Elgin (2015) discovered that the tax burden increases in tandem with political stability and that there is a negative correlation between taxes and the informal sector. In studies that investigated the non-linear relationship, for example, Giles and Johnson (2002) concluded that the sensitivity of informality to the tax burden decreases when the effective tax rate falls below 25%. Dell’Anno and Adu (2020) demonstrated that there is no statistically significant correlation between government expenditure and the informal economy, and that this is attributable to the relatively low tax burden. The study conducted by Ünal (2021) revealed that the relationship between the tax burden and the informal economy varies according to the level of development of the countries that were the subject of the study. This study investigates the relationship between the tax burden and the informal economy using a panel threshold regression model that covers the period from 1998 to 2020 for 10 BRICS-T countries. The sample group comprises the BRICS countries, which are regarded as rising powers, and whose number of members has increased to nine with the participation of Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran and the United Arab Emirates in the expansion in 2023, and Turkey, which applied for membership in 2024. The panel threshold regression model, as proposed by Hansen (1999), is based on the traditional least squares estimation method and is designed to investigate instances of a leap or structural break in the relationship between variables. Two models were constructed to determine the potential for a non-linear relationship, with the threshold effects of tax burden and development level investigated in each model. The ratio of the informal economy to GDP was employed as the dependent variable in the models, while the total tax burden was used as the explanatory variable. Additionally, real GDP per capita, the regulation index, and the inflation rate were incorporated as control variables. To avoid the issue of spurious regression in the estimations, it is essential that the variables employed in the model are stationary. In the initial stages of the analysis, the stationarity of the variables was examined using the Fisher type ADF (Choi, 2001) and PP (Phillips and Perron, 1988) tests. Subsequently, the linear fixed-effects model and the Hansen (1999) panel threshold procedure were applied. The unit root test results indicated that the series were stationary at the levels, thereby satisfying the requirement for the panel threshold regression analysis. The results of the threshold effect test show that the first threshold value is statistically significant in both models, whereas the second threshold effect is not. In the subsequent phase of the analysis, the threshold values for the tax burden and per capita income were estimated. To estimate the coefficients, the traditional linear least squares method was initially employed. The estimations were made on the basis of the fixed effect model, in accordance with the results of the Hausman test. The results of the analysis demonstrate that the tax burden exerts a positive and statistically significant influence on the informal economy, with a statistical significance level of 1%. The panel threshold regression analyses indicated that the impact of the tax burden on the informal economy decreased with the increase in the per capita income level, as evidenced by Model I. In other words, the sensitivity of informality to the tax burden decreases when the income level of countries rises above the determined threshold value. The results of Model II indicate that while the tax burden does not aﬀect the informal economy when the tax burden to GDP ratio is below the threshold value of 15.3 percent, it increases informality when the tax burden exceeds the threshold value. This implies that the tax burden exerts a non-linear distorting inﬂuence on the informal economy. The results of the control variables conﬁrm that the level of per capita income has a statistically signiﬁcant negative eﬀect on the size of the informal economy. Conversely, the inﬂation rate and the level of regulation have a positive eﬀect, which is consistent with the results of the ﬁxed-eﬀects model in both models.The analysis results show that the tax burden has a significant positive effect on informality, that this effect is not linear, and the effect occurs above a certain threshold value of the tax burden (15.3 percent). Therefore, the effect of the tax burden on informality differs in countries with a tax burden well above 15 percent, such as Brazil, Russia, South Africa, and Turkey, and in countries with a tax burden below 15 percent, such as Ethiopia and Iran. On the other hand, the effect of the tax burden on the informal economy is affected by the level of real GDP per capita, and the negative effect of the tax burden decreases at income levels above the threshold value. In other words, it is understood that taxpayers are less willing to evade taxes at income levels above the threshold value, and the negative effect on the informal economy is greater when the per capita income level is low. As a result, a high tax burden and a low per capita income level increase the sensitivity of taxpayers to the tax burden. The findings also offer insights into the optimal taxation strategy. The non-linearity of taxpayers’ responses to the tax burden demonstrates the existence of a vicious circle regarding tax revenues in developing countries. Attempts to expand public revenue through increased taxation prompt taxpayers to shift their activities to informal areas, thereby preventing the anticipated revenue growth. A comparable phenomenon can be observed with regard to the national income level. The contractionary effect of a high tax burden results in low per capita income and a high prevalence of informal economic activities. The policy recommendations that can be made in line with the findings are as follows: (i) the design of tax policies should prioritise the determination of the optimal tax burden, the avoidance of the existing burden on a particular group and the spread of taxation across the tax base. The results indicate that this issue is necessary for economic efficiency as well as tax justice. (ii) It is important that the tax incentive system is designed in such a way that it does not distort the distribution of the tax burden, but encourages entrepreneurship and the registration of small enterprises. (iii) Increasing the efficiency of the bureaucratic process rather than increasing regulations as a whole will reduce the attractiveness of informality (iv) By ensuring the adaptation of tax audits to digital transformation, the effect of new technologies that facilitate the registration of economic activities should be highlighted rather than increasing informality for decision-makers. In this way, by ensuring the voluntary compliance of taxpayers based on tax fairness and creating competitive markets for producers, welfare gains can be achieved for all groups in society.

The Impact of Tax Burden on the Informal Economy: A Panel Threshold Analysis On  BRICS-T Countries

Savaş

Roles of the Government Bond Yield and the Exchange Rate in the  Monetary Conditions of Türkiye

Ebru

The stability of fiscal policies is of great importance in achieving macroeconomic targets. The stability of fiscal policies brings the concept of fiscal sustainability to the forefront. Sustainability is the use of existing resources in an economy without excessive destruction, considering the welfare of future generations. The notion of sustainability, which dates back to 1713, was first used in areas such as forestry and agriculture and emerged as a concept that includes the concern for protecting natural resources for the future. In the following period, sustainability became a concept applied in almost every field. This concept has become an area of interest, especially with respect to sustainable development, which was brought to the agenda in the Our Common Future Report published by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. Sustainability has three separate dimensions: economic, social and environmental. In economic terms, sustainability provides the highest continuity of social welfare for an extended period, even an indefinite period. The concept of sustainability in the fiscal field has been reflected in fiscal sustainability. The main objectives of countries’ fiscal policies include increasing growth and development. However, especially in developing countries, fiscal policy can positively or negatively affect future generations depending on how public revenue is collected and spent. For such reasons, the concept of fiscal sustainability is gaining importance. Fiscal sustainability, which can be defined in many ways, often expresses the level at which a state’s fiscal policies are sustainable. Fiscal sustainability is closely related to the state’s solvency in a country. The state’s solvency is related to its budget deficits and debt burden. Accordingly, the state’s ability to finance public expenditures with public revenues and the sustainability of public debts are a country’s most important fiscal sustainability indicators. The existence of f iscal sustainability in a country can be investigated using two different methods. The first is the accounting approach, in which fiscal sustainability is analysed with economic indicators, as pioneered by Buiter (1985). This approach analyzes fiscal sustainability by considering a country’s economic indicators. The second is the budget constraint approach, in which fiscal sustainability is measured through econometric methods pioneered by Hamilton and Flavin (1986). The existence of fiscal sustainability is investigated using several econometric analyses, such as the unit root test or co-integration test. With these approaches, determining whether current policies are sustainable is essential for policymakers. Determining this later reveals that there are policies that need to be corrected. The increase in the public debt burden in almost every country, along with the global economic crisis that emerged in 2008, has made the concept of fiscal sustainability gain importance. In addition, the importance given to fiscal discipline by international organisations has made countries must implement more stable fiscal policies. Countries have simultaneously implemented monetary and fiscal policies to reduce both the public debt burden and budget deficits. In Türkiye, a country with budget deficits and debt problems for many years, its relations with the IMF, the World Bank, and the EU membership process have brought the concept of fiscal sustainability to the forefront. In particular, the economic crises experienced in 2001 and 2008, the exchange rate crisis that started in 2018 and the COVID-19 outbreak in 2019havecausedthebudgetdeficitstoincreaseinTürkiye. Theincreaseinbudgetdeficitshasalsoincreased the need for borrowing. Thesustainability of both budget deficits and debts has been negatively affected. In this context, the study determines fiscal sustainability in Türkiye between 2020 and 2023, and the NARDL method has been used. The study investigated the determination of fiscal sustainability based on the literature studies and two separate models. When the literature on fiscal sustainability was examined, it was observed that fiscal sustainability in a country was investigated through budget deficits or public debt stock. In the first model established based on these studies, public revenues were considered the dependent variable, public expenditures were the independent variable, and fiscal sustainability was investigated based on budget deficits. In the second model, the budget balance was considered the dependent variable, public debt stock was the independent variable, and fiscal sustainability was investigated based on the debt burden. The NARDLmethodusedin the study considers the asymmetric effects of the variables. Asymmetric information that mayarise in the market affect the public revenues and expenditures. In addition, this method allows fiscal sustainability in Türkiye to be investigated by considering the negative and positive effects of the variables. Thus, the negative and positive impact of the independent variables on the dependent variable can also be evaluated separately. In addition, the NARDL method also allows the measurement of the co-integration relationship between stationary variables at different levels. Due to such advantages, this method was preferred in the study, and it is expected that the study will differ from the studies in the literature and contribute to the relevant field.In the study, whether there is a co-integration relationship between the variables between the years 2000-2023 was investigated with the NARDL co-integration test. The co-integration relationship between the variables is interpreted as the existence of fiscal sustainability. The values of the coefficients of the variables show the degree of fiscal sustainability. However, in time series analyses, it is important to test the stationarity of the variables before applying the co-integration analysis. The stationarity of the variables is tested with unit root tests. Through these tests, it is determined whether the time series are stationary or not or whether they are stationary at the level of their differences.&nbsp;In models with non-stationary series, the residuals are not stationary unless the variables are co-integrated. Classical estimation methods give errors in this case, and a spurious regression problem occurs. The stationarity of the variables in the study wasdeterminedwithADFandPPunitroottests.Accordingly,itwasconcludedthatpublicexpendituresand the public debt stock series are stationary at their level values. Still, public revenues and budget balance are stationary by taking their first-degree differences. After determining the stationarity of the variables, the models were passed to the estimation phase, and the most appropriate lag period was automatically determined according to the Schwarz information criteria. Because of the NARDL co-integration test, it was determined that there was a co-integration relationship in both models. Therefore, it was found that Türkiye had fiscal sustainability for the period examined in both models. However, when the coefficients of the independent variables in both models were examined, it was seen that fiscal sustainability was weak for Türkiye in the period studied. Because the coefficients of the independent variables are between 0 and 1. When the NARDL long-term estimation results were discussed, negative decreases in public expenditures increased public revenues, while decreases in public debt stock increased the budget balance. No statistically significant effect of positive changes in public spending on public revenues was found. Similarly, no statistically significant impact of positive changes in the public debt stock on the budget balance was found. In addition, when the asymmetric effects of the variables in the short and long term were determined, it was found that increases or decreases in public expenditures in the short and long term had asymmetric effects on public revenues in model 1. In Model 2, it was determined that the public debt stock has a symmetric impact on the primary balance in both the short and long term. Finally, several model accuracy tests were applied to test the validity of the models. According to the results of these tests, it was concluded that there was no autocorrelation, heteroscedasticity, or model construction error in the models. In addition, it was determined that the coefficients obtained in the models with the CUSUM and CUSUMQtests were stable, and the interpretations made based on these coefficients were meaningful. Based on the results obtained in the study, it is seen that Türkiye has fiscal sustainability in terms of both models, but it is realised at a weak level. However, it has been determined that asymmetric effects regarding budget deficits are effective on fiscal sustainability. Reducing budget deficits in Türkiye, making public expenditures effective and efficient, and collecting public revenues in a timely and complete manner are important. The borrowing requirement is expected to decrease if budget expenditures are met budget revenues. Thus, the level of sustainability in Türkiye can also be increased. In this context, it is expected that public debts will be sustainable in budget deficits where fiscal policies that also consider asymmetric effects are implemented. Because asymmetric information is a market failure, taking these effects into account when implementing the necessary policy implementations ensures that the expected impact of the policies is more realistic. In addition, the implementation of medium-term plans and programmes that are useful in ensuring the stability of fiscal policies in a way that will reach their targets can also be effective in ensuring fiscal sustainability. If fiscal sustainability exists, the state can provide social needs effectively and efficiently today and in the future with existing resources and maximise social welfare. At the same time, disciplining fiscal policies by ensuring f iscal sustainability is important in facilitating the implementation of monetary policies to achieve the expected targets. Undoubtedly, the findings are important for policymakers to determine and implement appropriate policies.

Analysis of Fiscal Sustainability in Türkiye: NARDL Method

Ulvi

İnci

&nbsp;Since the existence of people, their economic relations with each other have always maintained their existence at certain levels. These relationships have been in constant change depending on the social life. As a matter of fact, there are social, cultural, economic, financial, administrative, political, etc. factors that determine social life. These factors have also affected the existing economic understanding and relations. While it is argued that the private sector’s share in the economy should be superior in certain periods, it is argued that the state should be superior in the total economy in other periods. While one of the main justifications of economic ideas that argue that the state should be in a dominant position in the economy is market failure, the most important reason of those who argue that the private sector should be in a dominant position is the failure of the public economy. With the failure of the public economy, it is advocated that the state should take as little part as possible in the total economy, and it is thought that the state should leave the economy completely to the market, except for some basic areas that the market cannot fulfil. Fiscal illusion is one of the main areas that economic movements that claim the failure of the public economy see as unsuccessful. Fiscal illusion occurs whentaxpayers are unaware of certain taxes or when some public services are financed through borrowing. With this fiscal illusion, taxpayers may unknowingly or mistakenly demand more public expenditure, leading to a further increase in their tax burden. Fiscal illusions that arise due to reasons such as progressive tax rates, the complexity of the tax system, and the preference for borrowing or printing money instead of taxation should be minimised as much as possible in the eyes of taxpayers. As a matter of fact, in societies where financial illusions are not seen or are at the minimum level as possible, both individuals and the public will make effective and efficient choices, will be able to see and question the results of their choices transparently, and this will contribute to the legitimacy of public activities based on rational preferences and the participation of individuals in management. As a result, the main goal of increasing social welfare will be achieved. For this reason, eliminating or eliminating financial deception in order to achieve objectives such as ensuring public expenditures are effective and efficient, saving public resources correctly and where necessary, spending resources in line with the needs of individuals, ensuring financial transparency and accountability in the public sector, and reducing tax burdens of individuals should be reduced to a minimum. For this purpose, it is necessary to determine the level of financial deception that currently exists in society and to determine the areas of action according to this result. For this purpose, the level of financial deception was investigated using the survey method in the study. The existence of theoretical studies on the financial illusion hypothesis has been ongoing for a long time. Since the hypothesis in question has significant effects on both the public and the individuals, the subject has been discussed on a broad theoretical basis and has been constantly renewed according to the conditions of the day. Many effects of financial illusion on the individual and the public have led to the practical aspects of the subject being studied from time to time, as well as its theoretical aspects. However, the continuous updating of empirical studies on fiscal illusion, which has the power to directly affect many basic fiscal concepts such as fiscal transparency, transparency, tax compliance, budget balance, accountability and tax awareness, and is seen as a state failure, makes it possible for the theoretical aspect of the concept in question to be more accurate. It is important to address this problem and offer solutions to it. In order to contribute to the field in question, a literature review was included in the research to compare previous studies in the literature along with this empirical study conducted specifically in Turkey. There are many empirical and theoretical studies on financial deception, which is when individuals fall into deception and demand more public services as a result of their failure to fully understand the costs and prices of public services for various reasons such as f inancial ignorance, financial anaesthesia, incomplete information, personal interest, financing of goods and services in different ways. has been made. The basis of these studies is to minimise as much as possible the financial deception that causes the public sector to grow more than necessary, individuals to bear a higher tax burden, leaves the door open to waste and extravagance in the public sector, and deteriorates the public financial structure, especially fiscal transparency and accountability. As a matter of fact, in societies where financial deception is low, individuals’ rights to have a say in, control and object to financial decisions will be strengthened. This will contribute to the effective and efficient functioning of the public sector by leading to more effective public decisions. For this reason, the level of f inancial illusion in societies and the course of this level are essential. The aim of this study, which focuses on financial illusion, is to measure society’s perception of financial illusion in the Aegean region.The main population of the study consisted of individuals residing in the Aegean Region (İzmir, Manisa, Denizli, Aydın, Muğla, Afyonkarahisar, Uşak and Kütahya). Considering the population and geographical size of the main mass, the survey was conducted in a total of 6 provinces, excluding Izmir, which is the province with the best representation in the region in terms of social, economic and population, and 2 provinces were randomly excluded from the other &nbsp;7 provinces. Because of random selection, the provinces where the survey was conducted were determined as İzmir, Aydın, Manisa, Denizli, Muğla andKütahya.Inaddition, an additional geographical limitation was made and the survey was conducted in the centres of these provinces. Another limitation is the age demographic variable. Accordingly, in general, individuals aged 20 and over have social, economic, political, cultural, etc. Since their situation is clearer and their tax liabilities generally become clearer after this age, a limitation has also been placed on the age demographic variable. Stratified sampling was chosen as the sample type in the study due to limited resources and difficulty in reaching the entire population. A survey was applied to 608 taxpayers residing in the Aegean Region (İzmir, Manisa, Aydın, Muğla, Denizli and Kütahya). The financial illusion perception of the taxpayers who participated in the survey wasdetermined to be 3.2790. Since the scale used in the study is a 5-point Likert scale, the value 3 is set as the midpoint (50%). According to this value, the financial deception levels of the participants were found to be above average. As a result of the analysis made according to age, it was found that the level of perception increases as age increases; As a result of the analysis made according to the type of education, it was found that as the level of education increases, the level of perception decreases. As a result of the analysis made according to gender, the level of financial illusion is highest in men, as a result of the analysis made according to marital status, the level of financial delusion is highest in single people and lowest in divorced/widowed people, and as a result of the analysis made according to income level, individuals’ income levels and financial illusion levels move in the same direction. According to the frequency results of the province of residence, the province with the highest level of financial illusion is Aydın, followed by Denizli, third Manisa, fourth Kütahya, fifth Muğla, and İzmir is in the last place. In the analysis of differences between groups based on profession, no statistically significant relationship was found. Because of the study, it is revealed that taxpayers’ f inancial illusion levels are above average and this is an issue that needs tobeaddressedandresolvedurgently. According to this; it is necessary to ensure that the tax system is structured in a way that allows taxpayers to understand the taxes and tax burdens for which they are responsible more easily and comfortably, to increase financial literacy, and to ensure f inancial transparency and accountability, thus ensuring that taxpayers are aware that they are responsible for financing the public expenditures they demand. In this way, the level of financial illusion existing in society will decrease. In a situation where fiscal illusions do not exist or are minimised, both individuals and the public will make effective and efficient choices, will be able to see and question the results of their choices transparently, and this will contribute to the legitimacy of public activities and the participation of individuals in management based on rational preferences. At the same time, the effectiveness and efficiency of public expenditures will increase and the waste of public resources will be prevented. As a result, the main goal, which is to increase social welfare, will be achieved.

Fiscal Illussion As Public Economy Failure: A Study on the Aegean Region

&nbsp;The statute of limitations is governed by two distinct procedural laws in public law. In contrast to the statute of limitations in private law, the statute of limitations in public law also encompasses a prescription period. The fact that the statute of limitations, which the public authorities are obliged to consider ex officio, has a prescriptive feature is in the public interest. In this manner, the state relinquishes its own rights and receivables at the conclusion of a specified limitation period in favour of the debtor taxpayer. Consequently, the statute of limitations on a receivable results in the state relinquishing a portion of its budgetary revenues, thereby leading to a loss of revenue. Therefore, while the statute of limitations is advantageous to the debtor, the public authority, which occupies the creditor position, experiences a disadvantage. Conversely, Article 114 of the Tax Procedure Law No. 213 (TPL No. 213) establishes the statute of limitations for tax assessment in cases of conditional tax exemptions and exceptions. In such instances, the statute of limitations is set at five years from the beginning of the calendar year following the date of the violation of the condition. One of the most illustrative examples of conditional tax exemptions and exceptions is that pertaining to the tax exemptions and exceptions provided for project-based grants under the Instrument of Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) Framework Agreements signed between the European Union (EU) and Turkey. These exemptions and exceptions, which are subject to both general and special conditions in terms of implementation, are utilised solely by the Union Contractors during the activity period. Conversely, only the grant beneficiaries benefit in terms of their results during the monitoring period, which continues for five years after the activity. In the event of contract termination or a partial repurchase decision being made, whether during the activity period or the post-activity monitoring period, the statute of limitations for the exemptions and exceptions utilised will commence on the date of the violation. Accordingly, a proper understanding of what the date of infringement means for the calculation of the limitation period for project-based EU grants benefiting from tax exemptions and derogations under the IPA is important to highlight the tax problems that Union contractors or beneficiaries will face in the event of an infringement. The statute of limitations represents a practise that constrains the tax collection power of the state within the constitutional limits that favour the taxpayer. This is done with the aim of ensuring the public interest. This is because the public authority relinquishes public revenue in favour of the citizen. Furthermore, the statute of limitations for assessment, which must be taken into consideration by tax administrations in the TPL, is determined as five years from the beginning of the calendar year following the year in which the event giving rise to the tax occurred. As the statute of limitations is a forfeiture period, it must be considered ex officio by the administration. Consequently, any assessment, notification, accrual or collection transactions made after these periods have passed will be invalid by law. However, the regulation set forth in Article 114 of the Tax Procedure Law concerning the statute of limitations for conditional exemptions and exceptions is designed to facilitate the collection of the tax receivable that has not been collected due to the aforementioned rights in the event that the conditions under which these exemptions and exceptions are applied cease to exist or become invalid. In other words, it is a security measure that extends the normal limitation period for levying taxes within the period that will ensure the permanence of the conditions in order to prevent the state from losing tax revenue.The pre-accession assistance instrument agreements signed between Turkey and the EU Commission, specifically the IPA Framework Agreements, are international agreements that have been duly entered into force. These agreements stipulate the applicationofnumeroustaxexemptionsandexceptionsregardingexpenditures,purchases,andconstruction works to be made within the scope of EU projects carried out with IPA funds in Turkey. The aforementioned tax exemptions and exceptions are implemented through the issuance of General Communiqués by the Revenue Administration. These General Communiqués regulate the procedures for the implementation and cancellation of these privileges in accordance with the Framework Agreement. The distribution of financial assistance to candidate and potential candidate countries under IPA is based on the rationale that it should be project-based. In accordance with the value of the procurement, services and works to be carried out under these grants, the EU procurement rules shall apply. In other words, organisations in Turkey that benefit from project-based financial assistance and are designated as grant beneficiaries are precluded from undertaking procurement, service and construction works within the scope of these projects themselves. In this instance, a contractor from the European Union is selected through a competitive bidding process, operating as a third-party entity distinct from the grant beneficiary. Conversely, there are certain types of projects in which the roles of the Grant Beneficiary and the Union Contractor can be combined. The rationale for this is that the Union Contractor implementing a project funded with EU financial assistance in an IPA beneficiary country, including Turkey, is prevented from paying local taxes with respect to the EU funds used. This is in accordance with the articles of the Framework Agreements signed by the IPA beneficiary countries regulating tax &nbsp;exemption, which state that “Taxes, customs and import duties and charges and/or taxes with equivalent effect shall not be financed from financial assistance.” The tax exemptions and exceptions established under the IPA Framework Agreements are conditional exemptions, subject to several conditions, one of which is fundamental. The fundamental prerequisite is the existence of a valid Union Agreement. The remaining conditions pertain to the application of each tax exemption and are necessary for its continued validity. In the event of a breach of any of these conditions, the exemption in question is cancelled only for that specific tax type. Consequently, in the event of the termination of the agreement, all tax exemptions and exceptions utilised within the scope of that agreement will be revoked, and the statute of limitations will commence for the total tax loss and penalties. Conversely, in the case of a breach of the terms of the agreement regarding a specific expenditure, the statute of limitations will only commence for the assessment to be made in terms of the amount of tax exemption and exemption utilised for that expenditure. The most significant issue is that taxpayers, who already possess limited knowledge of tax legislation, are unaware that the tax exemptions and exceptions they benefit from as a result of project-based EU grants are of a conditional nature. To determine the most appropriate statute of limitations to be applied to the exemptions and exceptions provided under the IPA, it is necessary to consider three different situations. The first scenario pertains to the termination of the Union Contract within the designated activity period. The second scenario encompasses the ineligible expenditure and the subsequent termination of the Union Contract in the post-implementation phase, starting at the conclusion of the activity period. The third scenario involves the transfer of depreciable economic assets (ATİK) purchased without VAT and SCT under the Union Contract to the Grant Beneficiary or the ultimate Grant Beneficiary. In light of the fact that the five-year statute of limitations for tax assessment, as set forth in Article 114 of TPL, commences on the date when the conditions for exemption and exemption for EU projects cease to exist, it is evident that the Union Contractor, the executor of these projects, and the in the event of the termination of the contract for any reason or partial repurchase during the five-year monitoring period, which commences at the conclusion of the contract period, the Grant Beneficiary, whether a natural or legal person, may be subject to significant tax penalty assessments. It is therefore crucial to guarantee that the Union Contractor and the Grant Beneficiary possess a comprehensive understanding of the potential implications of the tax exemptions and exceptions outlined in the IPA Framework Agreements, particularly in the context of EU grant support. Therefore, this study will examine the general nature of the statute of limitations and the application of the statute of limitations for assessment and conditional exemptions and exceptions. In addition, it will investigate the circumstances in which the statute of limitations starts to run in cases of termination of Union Contracts benefiting from conditional tax exemptions and exceptions under the IPA, partial buy-back and transfer of depreciable economic assets to the grant beneficiary/final grant beneficiary. This study aims to address a gap in the existing literature on this topic by providing valuable insights into the statutes of limitations and taxation principles relevant to Contracting Authorities, Union Contractors, and Grant Beneficiaries operating in this field. The study is primarily based on an analysis of tax laws and the provisions of the IPA Framework Agreement and its General Communiqué,whichregulate tax exemptions. Additionally, the study draws upon insights from other academic studies to expand the scope of its analysis.

Limitation Period for Conditional Tax Exemptions Granted Under European Union  Grants

Esra

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

The global economy emerging in the process of digitalisation and globalisation and the integrated work of multinational enterprises with international organisations have made cross-border transactions inevitable. The increasing income needs of states after the 2008 economic crisis also accelerated the work of the OECD. The BEPS project was brought to the agenda as a result of efforts to find solutions to these challenges in response to increasing public and political concerns about the tax losses caused by multinational enterprises. BEPS action planswere developed in September 2013 with the joint work of the OECD and G20 countries. The BEPS is a joint international effort to prevent tax losses. The objective is to establish international standards for tax risks. The plan consists of 15 action plans to prevent tax practises that erode countries’ tax bases and reduce tax revenues.Turkey’s first step towards BEPS Action plan 13 is the Presidential Decree on Amendments to Decree No. 2151 on Disguised Profit Distribution through Transfer Pricing, dated February 25, 2020. The Revenue Administration General Communiqué No. 4 on Disguised Profit Distribution Through Transfer Pricing, published on September 1, 2020. Turkish Legislation currently includes a master file, annual transfer pricing report, transfer pricing form, controlled foreign companies, thin capital, and country-based reporting (CbCR). Multinational corporate groups whose ultimate parent or proxy parent is located in Turkey submitted the CbCR on March 31, 2021, and those not located in Turkey submitted the CbCR on June 30, 2021.Transfer pricing, the pricing of cross-border intra-company transactions between related parties, was once a term known only to a few international tax experts, but today it is the most important international tax issue faced by multinational companies worldwide. Transfer pricing is extremely important within the current international tax system because of its role in the distribution of profits between regions and its impact on multinational companies’ overall tax liabilities. Transfer pricing is an important factor that determines the profitability of the parties involved in transactions between related parties and the tax share that countries receive from such profits. Although transactions between intra-group companies located in the same country are only related to the tax revenues of the country where the transaction takes place, transactions made between different countries affect the tax revenues of more than one country, and the issue gains an international dimension, especially with globalisation. For this reason, the fight against transfer pricing must be fought on an international scale.Action plan 13, “Transfer Pricing Documentation and Country-by-Country Reporting,” requires high-revenue multinational enterprises to report earnings, tax burden, number of employees, and retained earnings in the countries in which they do business, using standardised templates. This reporting process consists of three stages: main file, local file, and country-based reporting (CbCR). The master dossier provides an overview of the multinational business group’s global business and economic activities, including revenue distribution and transfer pricing policies. The local file provides specific information regarding transactions within a multinational business group. CbCR is an important and final stage of the action plan. This analysis reveals the branch, geographical location, income, and tax distribution of multinational enterprises.CbCR, a key component of the BEPS project’s transparency pillar, is the obligation of all major multinational business groups with consolidated group revenues above the agreed revenue threshold to submit country-by-country reporting. CbCR, together with the other stages of the action plan—main file and local filing—completes the documentation obligations and ensures that risks related to transfer pricing and the BEPS are effectively analysed. The CbCR application reduces tax losses and evasion caused by multinational enterprises. It provides relevant countries with the necessary information flow to evaluate the contribution of multinational business groups to national welfare through tax payments. In addition, CbCR allows tax administrations to access previously inaccessible data on the local and international activities of multinational business groups, which is important in terms of increasing tax compliance and accountability.Because of the action plan, tax administrations around theworld receive information about large foreign companies. By heading multinational business groups where no previous business existed, she improved her understanding of a group’s business structure and risk assessment capacity. In general, the ultimate parent entity (UPE) of many multinational business groups prepares and submits the CbCR to the tax administration of the country in which it is a taxpayer. This tax authority will automatically share it with CbCR tax authorities. This sharing will be carried out within the scope of the Multilateral Agreement on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters (MAAC), Double Taxation Treaty (DTC), Automatic Exchange of Information (AEOI), and Tax Information Exchange Agreement (TIEA). A Qualified Competent Authority Agreement (QCAA) establishing the operational details of the exchange of CbCR is also necessary.In this study, Turkey’s adaptation process and development towards Action Plan 13 were examined, considering OECD reports and current regulations. First, the concept of transfer pricing is defined, and the general framework of transfer pricing documents and CbCR are explained within the scope of Action Plan 13. Then, the development of transfer pricing documents in Turkey was examined. Finally, Turkey’s CbCR harmonisation process was examined, and the current situation was evaluated. At this point, the CbCR application has reached an advanced level. More than 110 territories now require relevant multinational business groups to submit a CbCR within their local legal framework. OECD’s publication "Country-by-Country Reporting - Compilation of 2023 Peer Review Reports" is the sixth review report prepared for the minimum standard of Action Plan 13. It covers 136 regions providing legislation and/or information on CbCR implementation. This review covers the local legal and administrative framework of each jurisdiction, the information exchange framework and the measures implemented to ensure CbCR confidentiality and appropriate use. Accordingly, a local legal framework for CbCR has been established in more than 110 regions and countries. Multilateral or bilateral competent authority agreements have been made in 89 regions/countries. 91 regions/countries were assessed by the Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes assessed 91 regions/countries regarding their privacy and tax protections. A further 73 regions/countries have provided detailed information, providing sufficient assurance that measures are being taken to ensure appropriate CbCR use.In accordance with the methodology determined in these reports, developments in the adaptation process were examined from three perspectives. These are: National legal and administrative frameworks, information exchange, and appropriate use. Reporting in Turkey started in 2019. Legal legislation for the implementation of the minimum action plan standard has been published as of 2020. Agreements for the automatic exchange of tax information have entered into force as of 2021. Information is provided explaining how to ensure appropriate use conditions for 2022. In 2023, it was confirmed that the rules did not change and continued to be implemented effectively, and additional information was provided to ensure that information exchange was carried out in a manner consistent with the job description. As a result, according to the 2022 and 2023 reports, Türkiye has fulfilled its minimum obligations within the scope of the action plan. Various recommendations are made to countries based on the deficiencies identified in as a result of the evaluations.Various recommendations were also made in the reports. Since the necessary steps could not be taken in Turkey in 2018 and 2019, it was recommended that the national and legal administrative framework should be completed, steps should be taken to change local conditions, and bilateral agreements should be reached. As some initiatives were taken to ensure harmonisation in 2020, suggestions were made for improvements. Since the minimum conditions for ensuring national and legal administration and appropriate use were met in 2021 and 2022, no recommendation is required, but a recommendation has been given to eliminate deficiencies in information exchange. Since the rules were effectively implemented in 2023, no recommendations have been made. Turkish legislation on the CbCR clearly provides certainty and predictability by providing taxpayers with various facilities and technical equipment. In some cases, regulations may need to be expanded to strengthen principles such as legality and predictability. On the other hand, Turkey has a long way to go in terms of information exchange, as studies on international tax exchange agreements are insufficient and the agreement network needs to be expanded. Although the exchange of information on tax matters existed before Action Plan 13, it was not used as effectively as it is now. Information exchange agreements play an important role in ensuring transparency in the international arena. Therefore, by increasing international information exchange agreements, transparency will be ensured and possible tax losses will be prevented.Although Turkey generally includes the minimum standards of the action plan in i digitalisation is legislation, there are differences in practise at a few points. These differences mainly relate to definitions, timeliness, and the legal basis for the use of CbCR information. As a result, Türkiye has largely complied with the action plan. However, more efforts are needed to expand international information exchange agreements and bring them closer to global standards. In addition, it would be beneficial for CbCR to be addressed in more detail in domestic legislation and to increase the scope of its work to increase international information exchange.

The Process of Adaptation to Country by Contry Reporting (CbCR): An Evaluation  on Turkey

Yücel

Mehmet

Participatory budgeting is a democratic budgeting process in which citizens are directly involved in the allocation of public resources. First introduced in 1989 in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil, this model distributes public resources moreequitably andincludecitizens in decision-making processes. Unlike traditional budgeting approaches, this process assigns citizens an active role in the allocation of public resources. With citizens’ participation in the budgeting process, democracy is strengthened, transparency is increased, and accountability is ensured. Therefore, this budgeting model allows citizens not only to have a say in resource distribution but also in public administration. In the roughly quarter-century since participatory budgeting was first introduced, this method has been implemented in various cities and enriched by experience. During this time, certain practical limitations that prevent citizens from participating havebeenidentified.Particularly,factorsliketimeandtransportationcostsrestrictparticipation,weakening the effectiveness of participatory budgeting. Over time, different approaches have been developed to overcome these challenges, with technology playing a key role in this process. Specifically, the e-participatory budgeting model was developed to enhance participation and reach a broader audience by using information and communication technologies (ICT). This model makes it easier for citizens to engage in the process with the help of digital technologies. Thus, through technology, citizens can play an active role in the budgeting process and participate in decision-making processes. The purpose of this study was to examine the concept of e-participatory budgeting, its differences from traditional participatory budgeting, and examples of municipal applications in Türkiye. Traditional participatory budgeting processes allow citizens to have a direct say in decisions regarding the allocation of public resources. However, e-participatory budgeting opens this process to a broader audience by using digital tools. This process, which began in Porto Alegre, initially distributed public resources more equitably, especially in poor and marginalised neighbourhoods. Over time, this process has expanded to a broader framework and is now implemented byvarious local governments in manycountries. Compared to traditional budgeting methods, participatory budgeting is more democratic because decisions are not made solely by bureaucrats and politicians; citizens also play an active role in this process. This allows local governments to develop solutions that are more in line with the real needs of citizens when distributing resources. However, several limitations in the implementation of participatory budgeting have been identified. To overcome these limitations, the model has evolved into a more innovative model called e-participatory budgeting. E-participatory budgeting integrates information and communication technologies into participatory budgeting processes, bringing them onto digital platforms. It was first implemented in 2006 in the city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil, and the positive results obtained here have led to the rapid spread of e-participatory budgeting to other countries. This has largely overcome the limitations such as time and transportation costs encountered in the participatory budgeting process. Particularly intermsofcreatingalargeparticipantbase,theeffectivenessofe-participatorybudgetingprocesses is noteworthy. In e-participatory budgeting processes, there are three main user profiles: the organisation structuring the budgeting process (municipality, etc.), the technical managers running the process, and the citizens. In the processes initiated by the relevant organisations, technical managers make the necessary technical arrangements facilitate citizens’ access to projects and increase participation. This allows citizens to obtain information about projects online, vote on them,andprovidefeedback.Thesedigitalprocessesenableamuchlargeraudiencetobereachedcomparedtotraditional participatory budgeting methods. Unlike traditional participatory budgeting, e-participatory budgeting facilitates the more effective use of digital tools. These digital tools provide participants with the following five main functions: E-voting: Citizens can vote online among the projects presented by the city administration. In some examples, a hybrid voting model is applied, allowing citizens to vote both online and in person. E-consultation and e-voting: Citizens can submit project proposals and vote online or in person. In this process, proposals are subjected to a technical review, after which suitable projects are uploaded to the platform for voting by citizens.E-consultation, e-deliberation, and e-voting: Citizens can submit project proposals, discuss them online, and eventually vote. This model is more comprehensive than the others but is applied in a limited number of municipalities. E-mobilisation and e-monitoring: In this model, deliberations are held in person, while digital tools are used to track the progress of projects and engage citizens in the process. E-consultation and e-deliberation: Citizens discuss project proposals on online platforms, but final decisions are made by local authorities. This model allows for citizen participation while maintaining the administration’s decision-making authority. E-participatory budgeting offers many advantages compared to the traditional participatory budgeting model. The use of information and communication technologies makes it possible to reach a wider participant base. In particular, the elimination of limitations such as time and transportation costs has made it unnecessary for citizens to attend &nbsp;meetings in person, allowing participation through online platforms. Additionally, these digital processes facilitate access to information. Citizens can quickly and thoroughly learn about projects and make informed decisions. Another advantage of the e-participatory budgeting process is that it increases transparency. Since the processes of project voting, implementation, and monitoring are conducted entirely through digital platforms, citizens can closely follow these stages. This strengthens trust between citizens and local governments and contributes to making budgeting processes more democratic. Furthermore, e-participatory budgeting increases participation opportunities, especially for disadvantaged groups. In traditional participatory budgeting processes, elderly people, people with disabilities, or citizens living in rural areas may struggle to participate, but e-participatory budgeting allows these groups to engage more easily in the process. Although e-participatory budgeting in Türkiye are still in their early stages, some municipalities have successfully implemented this model. The most notable examples in Türkiye include İstanbul and İzmir Metropolitan Municipalities and the Antalya Muratpaşa Municipality. İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM) is a municipalities in Türkiye that applies the e-participatory budgeting model most comprehensively. IMM conducts this process through the İstanbul City Council and the İstanbul Planning Agency. Citizens can submit project proposals through online platforms and vote on these projects. In this process, project proposals are analysed according to technical evaluation criteria, and those deemed feasible are submitted for citizen voting. With this digital participation model, the IMM strengthens local democracy, ensure the efficient use of public resources, and increase citizen participation in decision-making processes. Additionally, this process allows citizens of İstanbul to have more say in the city’s management. Although İzmir Metropolitan Municipality has not yet fully implemented e-participatory budgeting, it has taken significant steps in this direction. The municipality has created the "Bizİzmir" digital platform to enable citizens to participate more in local government decision-making processes. Through the section called "Söz Sende," citizens will be able to contribute to budget processes and propose projects. İzmir Metropolitan Municipality aims to encourage more citizen participation in city management and the direct submission of project proposals through this platform. The Antalya Muratpaşa Municipality is noteworthy as the first municipality in Türkiye to implement a digital democracy platform. Muratpaşa Municipality conducts e-participatory budgeting processes through the "Komşu Meclisi" platform. This platform effectively uses digital tools to ensure citizens’ direct participation in budget processes. Through this platform, citizens can submit their projects and make suggestions within the specified budget framework. Additionally, the Antalya Muratpaşa Municipality conducts the processes of evaluating projects and voting through an online voting platform. Citizens can discuss projects online and be informed before the voting process. Thus, Muratpaşa Municipality’s digital participation model allows citizens to participate more effectively in budgeting processes. Althoughe-participatory budgeting has not yet gained widespread popularity in Türkiye, it holds significant potential. The widespread use of information and communication technologies enables local governments to communicate more effectively withcitizensandreachlargeraudiencesintheseprocesses.Inparticular,onlinecitizenparticipationinbudget processes can strengthen democratic processes. This model also helps local governments become more transparent and accountable. Moreover, the inclusion of citizens’ voices in the budgeting process contributes to the efficient allocation of resources based on actual needs. However, there are some issues in current in Türkiye. One of these is access to digital platforms. Internet access and digital literacy levels across Türkiye are still low in some regions. This situation may limit participation in e-participatory budgeting processes. Improving the necessary infrastructure is essential, particularly to enable citizens living in rural areas to engage in these processes. Additionally, the lack of sufficient transparency in the project evaluation processes in some municipalities can weaken citizens’ trust in the process. In this context, clearly and openly presenting how projects are evaluated in terms of technical and financial feasibility will help make participation processes more democratic. E-participatory budgeting presents a significant opportunity for the local governments in Türkiye. The effective use of information and communication technologies will enable more citizens to participate in budgeting processes while also contributing to the more efficient use of resources. As e-participatory budgeting become more widespread in Türkiye, it is anticipated that citizen participation will increase, and thus democracy will be further strengthened. For this to happen, local governments must provide more opportunities to citizens through digital platforms. Organising digital literacy programmes and increasing internet access will contribute to making e-participatory budgeting more inclusive. Additionally, making the process more transparent and accountable will enhance citizens’ trust in these budget processes and expand participation to a broader audience. In conclusion, e-participatory budgeting is an essential tool that strengthens transparency and accountability in the use of public resources by local governments while enabling citizens to participate more effectively in decision-making processes. Taking this process further by local governments in Türkiye is crucial for developing democracy. As &nbsp;e-participatory budgeting becomes more widespread in Türkiye, citizens’ active participation in local government decision-making processes will increase, and public resources will be used more effectively and equitably.

E-Participatory Budgeting as an Innovative Approach

@JOURNAL_BOX_CURRENT

Whistleblowing Procedure in Tax Misdemeanors: An Overview of Turkey and the United States Practices

Possible Role of International Automatic Information Exchange in Reducing the  Effectiveness of Offshore Tax Havens

Zafer

Assist. Prof.

TÜRKİYE’DE KAMU ÖZEL ORTAKLIĞI YÖNTEMİNİN HUKUKÎ ALTYAPISI

@JOURNAL_BOX_FEATURED

Işıl

Naci

Prof.

Obezite Vergisi Üzerine Teorik İnceleme

@JOURNAL_BOX_MOSTREAD

Journal of Public Finance Studies - Maliye Çalışmaları Dergisi, which is the official publication of Istanbul University Faculty of Economics, Finance Research Center is an open access, peer-reviewed and scholarly journal published two times a year in May and November. It was founded in 1955. The journal’s title was changed as Journal of Public Finance Studies - Maliye Çalışmaları Dergisi in 2020. Previous title of the journal was Maliye Araştırma Merkezi Konferansları (1SSN: 1304-0251).

Manuscripts submitted for publication should be in Turkish or English.

The journal targets national and international audiences, has both national and international members in the editorial board, and aims to enhance international author contributions.

Public finance, public economics, public policy, fiscal policy, public budgeting, behavioral finance, taxation and related subjects constitute the scope of the journal. 

The target group of the journal consists of academicians, researchers, professionals, students, related professional and academic bodies and institutions.

There are no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles. All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University.

As of 2024, the print version has been stopped. The journal has become an online-only publication.

ProQuest

EBSCO

DOAJ

SOBIAD

Cabells Journalytics

Gale Cengage

@METRIC_VOLUMES

@METRIC_ISSUES

@METRIC_ARTICLES

@METRIC_OPENACCESS

Journal of Public Finance Studies

@INFO_TAB_ABOUT

Editor in Chief

Co Editor in Chief

Section Editor

Publicity Manager

Editorial Board Member

@INFO_TAB_BOARDS

Journal of Public Finance Studies - Maliye Çalışmaları Dergisi, which is the official publication of Istanbul University Faculty of Economics, Finance Research Center is an open access, peer-reviewed and scholarly journal.Journal of Public Finance Studies aims to publish theoretical and applied studies on financial science; finance, public economics and public sector, and aims to provide a platform that contribute to the scientific knowledge.The journal targets national and international audiences, has both national and international members in the editorial board, and aims to enhance international author contributions.Public finance, public economics, public policy, fiscal policy, public budgeting, behavioral finance, taxation and related subjects constitute the scope of the journal.

Aim and Scope

<a href="https://doaj.org/toc/2757-6728?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22filtered%22%3A%7B%22filter%22%3A%7B%22bool%22%3A%7B%22must%22%3A%5B%7B%22terms%22%3A%7B%22index.issn.exact%22%3A%5B%222757-6728%22%5D%7D%7D%5D%7D%7D%2C%22query%22%3A%7B%22match_all%22%3A%7B%7D%7D%7D%7D%2C%22size%22%3A100%2C%22sort%22%3A%5B%7B%22created_date%22%3A%7B%22order%22%3A%22desc%22%7D%7D%5D%2C%22_source%22%3A%7B%7D%7D" target="_blank">DOAJ</a>ProQuest CentralEBSCO Central &amp; Eastern European Academic SourceCabells Journalytics Sobiad Gale Cengage

Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. Plagiarism Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-Review After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Policies

The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a>) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a> and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.RetractionJournal follows <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/retraction-guidelines-cope.pdf" target="_blank">COPE’s Retraction Guidelines</a> in case of retraction. The editor has the right to retract an article if: <ul><li>There is clear evidence that the findings are unreliable; either as a result of a major error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error), or as a result of fabrication (e.g. of data) or falsification (e.g. image manipulation).</li><li>It contains plagiarised content. </li><li>It has been published elsewhere without proper attribution. </li><li>It contains material or data without authorisation for use.</li><li>There is copyright infringement or there is some other serious legal issue.</li><li>It reports unethical research. </li><li>There is evidence that the peer-review process is compromised or manipulated.</li><li>The author(s) failed to disclose a significant competing interest (also known as a conflict of interest) that, in the opinion of the editor, would have unduly influenced the interpretation of the work or the recommendations of the editors and peer reviewers.</li></ul>In case of retraction the following steps are followed:<ul><li>Retraction notice including article title is published in a subsequent issue of the journal. The retraction notice is paginated and listed in the table of contents. </li><li>A link is provided between the retraction notice and the original article in the electronic version. </li><li>The online article is preceded by a page containing the retraction notice; the reader can then proceed to the article itself.</li><li>The original article remains unchanged, except for a watermark on the .pdf on each page stating that it has been &#34;retracted”.</li></ul>Article Removal for Legal ReasonsIn the following circumstances, except the metadata (title and authors), the text of the article is removed and a page informing that the article has been removed for legal reasons replaces the article. <ul><li>The article is found to be defamatory or to infringe the legal rights of others, and retraction is not deemed to be an adequate solution.</li><li>The article has been, or is reasonably likely to be the subject of a court order.</li><li>There is a significant risk to public health. </li></ul>

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

The Artificial Intelligence Policy, prepared in light of developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and practices in scholarly publishing, sets out the editorial and ethical principles that authors, reviewers, and editors should follow when using such technologies. The following sources have been considered in the preparation of the AI policy:Committee on Publication Ethics <a href="https://publicationethics.org/guidance/cope-position/authorship-and-ai-tools" target="_blank">(COPE) - Authorship and AI tools</a>; International Committee of Medical Journal Editors <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#four" target="_blank">(ICMJE) - Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Assisted Technology; World Association of Medical Editors  (WAME) Chatbots, Generative AI, and Scholarly Manuscripts</a><a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#four"></a>AI-assisted technologies (such as large language models [LLMs], chatbots, or image generators) can develop and produce a wide variety of content, including text, images, audio, and synthetic data. When used ethically and safely, these capabilities can increase productivity and foster innovation, but when used without human guidance, they pose risks such as inaccurate and biased results, omissions and errors in citations, deficiencies in protecting privacy and intellectual property rights, and potential violations of authors' and publishers' rights. IUPress adopts the following core principles to avoid these risks in the use of AI:  <ul><li>Details of any AI used in the production of content (including but not limited to text, figures, images, and code) must be declared and clearly explained in the appropriate section of the paper (as an acknowledgement and/or in the methods section). </li><li>No AI tool may be listed as an author in any scientific paper. </li><li>Authors are responsible for the accuracy, completeness, and originality of their work, even if AI is used in any way; they are responsible for the proper referencing and attribution of others' ideas, data, words, or other materials. </li><li>Reviewers and editors must not upload submitted work, in whole or in part, to any generative AI application.</li></ul>In the editorial processes of IUPress publications, tools are available to assist editors in identifying AI-generated content. On the other hand, it is common to use AI tools that provide suggestions for improving and enhancing readability, language, and grammar, and such AI tools can be used in IUPress publications under the supervision of editors and authors.

Artificial Intelligence Policy

<ul><li>Authors are required to declare if they have used AI-assisted technologies (such as large language models [LLMs], chatbots, or image generators) in the creation of their submitted work. </li><li>Authors should explain, both in the cover letter and in the appropriate section of the submitted paper (as a footnote and/or in the methods section), which AI tool and which version of it they have used and for what purpose. </li><li>Authors should also indicate how they used the AI tool and how they assessed the validity of the results obtained using this technology, and what aspects of the paper, manuscript content, data or supporting files were influenced by the use of the AI tool or were generated by AI.</li><li>It is the authors' responsibility to ensure the accuracy, validity and appropriateness of content and citations generated by AI-assisted technologies and to eliminate potential errors, inconsistencies and biased results. </li><li>Authors should always check the original sources to eliminate possible plagiarism, recognising that there is a potential for plagiarism in texts produced with AI-assisted technologies. They should confirm that they have checked and that the sources are original.  </li><li>AI-assisted tools (such as ChatGPT) cannot be listed as authors because they cannot be responsible for the accuracy, integrity, and originality of the work, and these responsibilities are essential to authorship. Therefore, authors are responsible for all material involving the use of AI-assisted technologies. Authors should ensure that all statements in the article that state the hypotheses, interpretations, conclusions, limitations, and implications of the study represent their own opinions.  </li><li>Studies created by authors using AI tools in the following ways, which substitute for the basic researcher's and author's responsibilities, violate the principles of scientific publishing and publication ethics, and such studies are not eligible for inclusion in publications: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>&#65279;Generation of text or code without rigorous review, </li><li>Generation of synthetic data to replace missing data without a robust methodology, </li><li>Creation of any inaccurate, synthetic content, including abstracts or supplementary materials, </li><li>Creation and manipulation of images and figures (pictures, graphs, data tables, medical images, image snippets, computer codes and formulae) or original research data (enhancing, hiding, moving, removing or adding a particular feature within an image or figure) using AI.&#65279;</li></ul></ul>

It is essential to maintain confidentiality in the peer review process and not to share or use the reviewed work in this process. <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/ethical-guidelines-peer-reviewers-cope.pdf" target="_blank">(COPE – Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers</a>)<ul><li>Reviewers should not upload a manuscript or part of a manuscript submitted to them for review to generative AI tools or large language models to assist in the review, evaluation or decision-making process, as uploading content to such AI tools by reviewers violates the authors' privacy and property rights.  </li><li>Reviewing a scientific paper is a responsibility that can only be undertaken by human beings. The critical thinking and original evaluation required for peer review is beyond the scope of this technology, and there is a risk that the technology will produce inaccurate, incomplete or biased conclusions about the paper. The peer review report and decision letters should reflect the personal assessment of the reviewers and editors of the submitted content. The reviewer is responsible and accountable for the content of his/her report. </li><li>AI tools may be used in a limited way to improve the quality of the language of the peer review report (for translation or language editing) in the context of peer review. If such use is made, the reviewer must declare the use when submitting the report. </li><li>Reviewers who suspect inappropriate or undisclosed use of generative AI in a submission should report their concerns to the editor.</li></ul>

Editors are obliged to ensure that the confidentiality of the manuscripts submitted to the journal is maintained during the evaluation process, and it is essential that the peer-reviewed work is not shared or used outside the parties involved in that process. (COPE - Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors) <a href="https://publicationethics.org/files/Code_of_conduct_for_journal_editors_Mar11.pdf" target="_blank">(COPE – Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors)</a>.<ul><li>Editors should not upload a submitted article, or any part of it, to generative Artificial Intelligence tools or Big Language Models to assist in the review, evaluation or decision-making process, as this may violate authors' privacy and property rights. </li><li>Managing the editorial review of a scientific article implies responsibilities that can only be attributed to humans. Generative AI or AI-assisted technologies should not be used by editors to assist in the evaluation or decision-making process of an article, as the critical thinking and original evaluation required for this task is beyond the scope of this technology and there is a risk that the technology will produce inaccurate, incomplete or biased conclusions about the article. The editor is responsible and accountable for the editorial process, the final decision and its communication to the authors.</li><li>Editors should not use generative AI tools to compose decision letters or abstracts of unpublished research. </li><li>Editors may use generative AI tools to help find appropriate reviewers.</li><li>If editors suspect the use of generative AI in a submitted manuscript or a submitted referee report, they should conduct an editorial review of the matter and consider the policy.</li></ul>

Journal of Public Finance Studies - Maliye Çalışmaları Dergisi is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

The journal adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.<ul><li>Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.</li><li>The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.</li><li>The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.</li><li>Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.</li><li>Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.</li><li>The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.</li><li>In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.</li><li>If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.</li><li>In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.</li></ul>

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/F16951B1CAA341C9BAF486B84D6E2783" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form.</a> The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Peer Review

• Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.• Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software.• After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. • Editor-in-chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.• The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation.• Publication decision is given by editor-in-chief  upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.• Editor in chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.• Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.-    Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?-    Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?-    Is the problem significant and concisely stated?-    Are the methods described comprehensively?-    Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?-    Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?-    Is the language acceptable?• Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.• A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.• The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction.• The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons.• The anonymity of the referees must be ensured meticulously.

LanguageArticles in Turkish, English are published. Submitted manuscript must include an abstract both in the article language and in English, and an extended abstract in English as well. However extended abstract in English is not required for articles in English.Manuscript Organization and SubmissionAll correspondence will be sent to the first-named author unless otherwise specified. Manuscpript is to be submitted online via <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/journal/3360/submission/step/manuscript/new" target="_blank">http://dergipark.gov.tr/login</a> that can be accessed at <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jpfs" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jpfs</a> and it must be accompanied by a <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/7B10DE709C4F469C98FB22F32955A3BB" target="_blank">Title Page</a> specifying the article category (i.e. research article, review etc.) and including information about the manuscript (see the Submission Checklist). Manuscripts should be prepared in Microsoft Word 2003 and upper versions. In addition, <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/F16951B1CAA341C9BAF486B84D6E2783" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a> that has to be signed by all authors must be submitted.1. The manuscripts should be in A4 paper standards: having 2.5 cm margins from right, left, bottom and top, Times New Roman font style in 10 font size and line spacing of 1.5. Due to double blind peer review, the main manuscript document must not include any author information.2. A <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/7B10DE709C4F469C98FB22F32955A3BB" target="_blank">title page</a> including author information must be submitted together with the manuscript. The title page is to include fully descriptive title of the manuscript and, affiliation, title, e-mail address, postal address and phone number of the author(s) (see The Submission Checklist).3. Before the introduction part, there should be an abstract between 180 and 200 words in Turkish and English and an extended abstract only in English between 1500-2000 words, summarizing the scope, the purpose, the results of the study and the methodology used. Underneath the abstracts, five keywords that inform the reader about the content of the study should be specified in Turkish and in English. Extended abstract in English is required only for non-English manuscripts.4. The manuscripts should contain mainly these components: title, abstract and keywords; extended abstract in English, sections, end notes and references.5. Research article sections are ordered as follows: “INTRODUCTION”, “AIM AND METHODOLOGY”, “FINDINGS”, “DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION”, “ENDNOTES” and “REFERENCES” and “TABLES AND FIGURES”. For review and commentary articles, the article should start with the “INTRODUCTION” section where the purpose and the method is mentioned, go on with the other sections; and it should be finished with “DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION” section followed by “ENDNOTES”, “REFERENCES” and “TABLES AND FIGURES”.6. Introduction section at the beginning of the manuscript must be indicated as “1. Introduction”. All sections and sub-sections where the research question is described and importance of the study is explained must be numbered. The numbering format must be as 1,2,3, 4 for the main sections, and 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2 and 1.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.2.2 for the sub-sections. 7. Tables, graphs and figures can be given with a number and a defining title.8. References should be in accordance with <a href="https://apastyle.apa.org/" target="_blank">American Psychological Association (APA) style 7th Edition</a>.9. Authors are responsible for all statements made in their work submitted to the Journal for publication.

Author Guidelines

Journal of Public Finance Studies complies with APA (American Psychological Association) style 7th Edition for referencing and quoting. For more information:- American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.- <a href="http://www.apastyle.org" target="_blank">http://www.apastyle.org</a>Accuracy of citation is the author’s responsibility. All references should be cited in text. Reference list must be in alphabetical order. Type references in the style shown below.Citations in the TextCitations must be indicated with the author surname and publication year within the parenthesis. If more than one citation is made within the same paranthesis, separate them with (;).Samples: More than one citation;(Esin et al., 2002; Karasar, 1995)Citation with one author;(Akyolcu, 2007)Citation with two authors;(Sayıner &amp; Demirci, 2007)Citation with three, four, five authors;In references with three or more authors, valid for the first use; (Ailen et al., 2000)Citations in the ReferenceAll the citations done in the text should be listed in the References section in alphabetical order of author surname without numbering. Below given examples should be considered in citing the references.Basic Reference TypesBooka) Turkish BookKarasar, N. (1995). Araştırmalarda rapor hazırlama (8th ed.) [Preparing research reports]. 3A Eğitim Danışmanlık Ltd.b) Book Translated into TurkishMucchielli, A. (1991). Zihniyetler [Mindsets] (A. Kotil, Trans.). İletişim Yayınları. (Original work was published in 1990, 7th Edition.)c) Edited BookÖren, T., Üney, T., &amp; Çölkesen, R. (Eds.). (2006). Türkiye bilişim ansiklopedisi [Turkish Encyclopedia of Informatics]. Papatya Yayıncılık.d) Turkish Book with Multiple AuthorsTonta, Y., Bitirim, Y., &amp; Sever, H. (2002). Türkçe arama motorlarında performans değerlendirme [Performance evaluation in Turkish search engines]. Total Bilişim.e) Book in EnglishKamien R., &amp; Kamien A. (2014). Music: An appreciation.  McGraw-Hill Education.f) Chapter in an Edited BookBassett, C. (2006). Cultural studies and new media. In G. Hall &amp; C. Birchall (Eds.), New cultural studies: Adventures in theory (pp. 220–237). Edinburgh University Press.g) Chapter in an Edited Book in TurkishErkmen, T. (2012). Örgüt kültürü: Fonksiyonları, öğeleri, işletme yönetimi ve liderlikteki önemi [Organization culture: Its functions, elements and importance in leadership and business management]. In M. Zencirkıran (Ed.), Örgüt sosyolojisi [Organization sociology] (pp. 233–263). Dora Basım Yayın.h) Book with the same organization as author and publisherAmerican Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed.). Author.Articlea) Turkish ArticleMutlu, B., &amp; Savaşer, S. (2007). Çocuğu ameliyat sonrası yoğun bakımda olan ebeveynlerde stres nedenleri ve azaltma girişimleri [Source and intervention reduction of stress for parents whose children are in intensive care unit after surgery]. Istanbul University Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 15(60), 179–182.b) English Articlede Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., &amp; Wodak, R. (1999). The discursive construction of national identity. Discourse and Society, 10(2), 149–173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957926599010002002c) Journal Article with DOI and More Than Twenty AuthorsKalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G., Woollen, J., Zhu, Y., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo, K. C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Leetmaa, A., . . . Joseph, D. (1996). The NCEP/NCAR 40- year reanalysis project. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77(3), 437–471. <a href="http://doi.org/fg6rf9" target="_blank">http://doi.org/fg6rf9</a>d) Journal Article from Web, without DOISidani, S. (2003). Enhancing the evaluation of nursing care effectiveness. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 35(3), 26-38. Retrieved from http://cjnr.mcgill.cae) Journal Article wih DOITurner, S. J. (2010). Website statistics 2.0: Using Google Analytics to measure library website effectiveness. Technical Services Quarterly, 27, 261–278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07317131003765910f) Advance Online PublicationSmith, J. A. (2010). Citing advance online publication: A review. Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a45d7867g) Article in a MagazineHenry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today’s schools. Time, 135, 28–31.Doctoral Dissertation, Master’s Thesis, Presentation, Proceedinga) Dissertation/Thesis from a Commercial DatabaseSarı, E. (2008). Cultural identity and politics: Interculturalism in Mardin. (Unpublished PhD Thesis). Ankara University.b) Dissertation/Thesis from an Institutional DatabaseVan Brunt, D. (1997). Networked consumer health information systems (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9943436)c) Dissertation/Thesis from WebYaylalı-Yıldız, B. (2014). University campuses as places of potential publicness: Exploring the politicals, social and cultural practices in Ege University (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Retrieved from: http://library.iyte.edu.tr/tr/hizli-erisim/iyte-tez-portalid) Dissertation/Thesis abstracted in Dissertations Abstracts InternationalTonta, Y. A. (1992). An analysis of search failures in online library catalogs (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley). http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~tonta/yayinlar /phd/ickapak.htmle) Master's/PhD Thesis in Dissertations Abstracts InternationalAppelbaum, L. G. (2005). Three studies of human information processing: Texture amplifica&#173;tion, motion representation, and figure-ground segregation. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B. Sciences and Engineering, 65(10), 5428.f) Symposium ContributionKrinsky-McHale, S. J., Zigman, W. B., &amp; Silverman, W. (2012, August). Are neuropsychiatric symptoms markers of prodromal Alzheimer’s disease in adults with Down syndrome? In W. B. Zigman (Chair), Predictors of mild cognitive impairment, dementia, and mortality in adults with Down syndrome. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.g) Conference Paper Abstract Retrieved OnlineLiu, S. (2005, May). Defending against business crises with the help of intelligent agent based early warning solutions. Paper presented at the Seventh International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems, Miami, FL. Abstract retrieved from http://www.iceis.org/iceis2005/abstracts_2005.htmh) Conference Paper - In Regularly Published Proceedings and Retrieved OnlineHerculano-Houzel, S., Collins, C. E., Wong, P., Kaas, J. H., &amp; Lent, R. (2008). The basic nonuniformity of the cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 12593–12598. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805417105i) Proceeding in Book FormSchneider, R. (2013). Research data literacy. S. Kurbanoğlu ve ark. (Ed.), Communications in Computer and Information Science: Vol. 397. Worldwide Communalities and Challenges in Information Literacy Research and Practice in (s. 134–140). Cham, İsviçre: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-03919-0j) Paper PresentationNguyen, C. A. (2012, August). Humor and deception in advertising: When laughter may not be the best medicine. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.Other Sourcesa) Newspaper ArticleBrowne, R. (2010, March 21). This brainless patient is no dummy. Sydney Morning Herald, 45.b) Newspaper Article with no AuthorNew drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure.(1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12.c) Web Page/Blog PostBordwell, D. (2013, June 18). David Koepp: Making the world movie-sized [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/page/27/d) Online Encyclopedia/DictionaryIgnition. (1989). In Oxford English online dictionary (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://dictionary.oed.comMarcoux, A. (2008). Business ethics. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-business/e) PodcastDunning, B. (Producer). (2011, January 12). inFact: Conspiracy theories [Audio podcast].  http://itunes.apple.com/f) Single Episode in a Television SeriesEgan, D. (Writer), &amp; Alexander, J. (Director). (2005). Failure to communicate. [Television series episode]. In D. Shore (Executive producer), House; New York, NY: Fox Broadcasting.g) MusicFuchs, G. (2004). Light the menorah. On Eight nights of Hanukkah [CD]. Brick, NJ: Kid Kosher.

Ensure that the following items are present:<ul type="disc"> <li>Confirm that the category of the manuscript is specifed.</li> <li>Confirm that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li>Confirm that disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement is provided.</li> <li>Confirm that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li>Confirm that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li>Confirm that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in with APA 7th.</li> </ul>● <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/F16951B1CAA341C9BAF486B84D6E2783" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>● Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript● <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/0D592642D4CD492387A3974A42062A9D" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, and phone number</li> <li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li> <li>Grant support (if exists)</li> <li>Conflict of interest (if exists)</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exists)</li> </ul>● Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <li>Important: Please avoid mentioning the the author (s) names in the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>Abstract (180-200 words)</li> <li>Key words: 5 words</li> <li>Extended abstract in English: 1500-2000 words (for non-English articles)</li> <li>Body text sections</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, explanation, captions)</li> <li>Correct numbering of titles</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/F16951B1CAA341C9BAF486B84D6E2783" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a></li><li><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/10F201A45693467B8C9DB07715EF84CF" target="_blank">Title page</a></li><li><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/886B44234ED04822805A4343007892DB" target="_blank">Author Form</a></li></ul>

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