“Underdevelopment” has been suggested as an explanation of the difference between Western societies (most importantly, because of the Industrial Revolution). Simply stated, underdeveloped societies missed out on this process. With recent socioeconomic and technological changes, the concept of an industrial revolution has changed over time. In this context, underdevelopment has been examined as a “material” and a “spiritual-cultural” problem, which some believe has been caused by human factors.

On the other hand, when considering the literature that addresses this problem, the “human” factor has not been examined. Specifically, material and spiritual reasons were not taken into consideration sufficiently. Due to this exclusion, this paper aims to identify reasons behind economic underdevelopment in Ottoman-Turkish society. Our results are based on the research of the economists and philosophers, Sabri F. Ülgener and İdris Küçükömer. We investigate how to make Turkey’s socio-economic development sustainable, considering the impact of human factors. In this context, while Ülgener adopts a Weberian method to analyze spiritual-cultural factors relating to underdevelopment, Küçükömer uses a Marxist approach.

Key concepts used in Ülgener’s analysis of economic underdevelopment are “economic ethics, economic mentality, medievalism, social stratification, artisan, political capitalism, contemplative-mysticism, inner-worldly asceticism, Batıni (esoteric) sufism, Malamatieh, and distance consciousness.” These concepts, which are important for understanding Ülgener’s approach, complement each other in explaining the problem of economic underdevelopment (Dinçaslan, 2017, p. 48).

In Ülgener’s analysis, the difference between economic ethics and economic mentality are key concepts at the center of his analysis. Economic ethics expresses norms and rules that are required to be obeyed (Ülgener, 2006a, p. 17). Economic mentality explains behavioral norms adopted by economic decision-making units]. Economic mentality incorporates a sincere attitude about the world and world relations (Ülgener, 2006c, p. 14). Ülgener’s bilateral distinction provides a reasonable discussion by addressing Islamic values, which became the focal criticism of Orientalists regarding underdevelopment. This is distinct from Muslims’ beliefs, who represented Islam in the relevant time and place. Although Ülgener mentioned many material and spiritual factors that affect the economy, his approach mostly draws on Batıni Sufism. Those who allege that underdevelopment derives from Islamic principles might need to reconsider this thesis.

Due to this Batıni sufism influence, Ülgener emphasized that citizens’ approach to the economy has eroded concepts such as “working, gains, austerity, production, trust in God, and will and destiny.” This caused the need for gains and wealth in society to be channeled in abnormal, irrational ways, such as the development of “political capitalism” and a “consumption-based economic regime.” After all, emerging type of human; led up to a static-passive economic mentality by exhibiting a “distant” attitude as material, environment, and time dimensions.

Key concepts used in Küçükömer’s analysis of economic underdevelopment are “production, base-superstructure, determination, contradiction, bureaucracy, Asiatic Mode of Production (AMP), civil society, biological-genetic inheritance, and democratic pact.” These concepts, which complement each other to explain the problem of economic underdevelopment, are important for understanding Küçükömer’s approach. (Dinçaslan, 2017, p. 129). In analyzing economic underdevelopment in Ottoman-Turkish society, while Ülgener focuses on spiritual-cultural factors, Küçükömer focuses on material ones. In this context, he has discussed “relationships of production” in Ottoman society, from a Marxist point of view. While noting that an economy has a determinant role, he emphasizes that determinants in pre-capitalist societies are also “political and ideological structures.”

Küçükömer also mentions “contradictions” that originate from one gaining surplus values in society. In this respect, historic political-bureaucratic heritage is taken as a subordinate contradiction, and imperialism as a major contradiction. Küçükömer identifies the social classes that would fight relevant contradictions. He believes that “bureaucratic structures” prevent the formation of classes. On the other hand, it is articulated with “imperialism” by befitting of internal and external conditions with each other. He tries to detect and explain the bureaucratic structure that prevents class formation in Ottoman-Turkish society by AMP analysis. Küçükömer expresses that in addition to the failure of class formation, “civil society” fails because those in power do not care about class divisions and separations. He further states that a central governing power (revealed by AMP analysis) and bureaucracy is constantly reproduced in society. 

Deepening his research, Küçükömer considers “biologic-genetic” factors that make individuals responsible citizens, which led to a theoretical platform. First, he suggests a “democratic pact” to alleviate Turkey from its contradictions and crises, submitting new ideas for a civil constitution. He suggests demolishing the bureaucracy and the historical-political heritage of the state, insisting that this is important for the formation of civil society and a constitution (Küçükömer, 2013b, p. 56).

Ülgener overcame the problem of economic underdevelopment for a rational, economic individual type who looks for irrational market gains. For Küçükömer, responsible participation is preceded by individuals adapting to a civil society in Turkey. On the other hand, in contrast to the expected characteristics of the human factor, especially concerning the relationship between human-material and humanstate, this kind of human cannot go beyond theory rather than practice. The causes of this situation are the spiritual-cultural arguments underlying Ülgener’s economic underdevelopment theory and the Küçükömer’s arguments about materialism. As a result, individualism has been subsumed by the power of the society and the state.

In conclusion, both Ülgener and Küçükömer’s economic underdevelopment analyses show that material, spiritual, and cultural traditions have survived throughout Turkey’s history. Clarification of these traditions confirms that human capital is the most important, dynamic, human resource, needed to make Turkey’s socio-economic more sustainable.