Arif Barış

Assoc. Prof.

Absolute rights that grant limited control over properties by allowing the rights to use or to benefit (or both of these rights) to the right holder are called easement rights. A parcel of land may be encumbered in favour of another property such that the servient landowner must permit the owner of the dominant property to exercise certain rights over it or refrain from exercising certain rights attached to his or her property for the benefit of the owner of the dominant property. As a rule, this relationship between the servient landowner and the beneficiary of the easement shall continue in accordance with the conditions agreed in the easement agreement until the easement ends. However, some situations that arise during this relationship may make it unbearably difficult for the servient landowner to fulfill these obligations against the beneficiary of the easement. In the event of such circumstances, the relationship between the parties may need to be rearranged in order to restore the balance deteriorated against the owner. The fact that the place used by the beneficiary of the easement gained significant meaning and significant value in terms of the servient landowner from the moment of establishment of the easement, is considered a situation which aggravates the obligations undertaken by the landowner against the beneficiary. That is why the legislator felt the need to introduce a special regulation in Article 791 of the Turkish Civil Code. According to this regulation if only part of a property is affected by the exercise of an easement, the servient owner is entitled to request that the right be transferred to another location which is no less suitable for the beneficiary, provided that he or she can show a legitimate interest and bears the cost,. He or she is entitled to do so even if the easement is recorded in the land register as being in a specific location. It should be acknowledged that this provision constitutes a special application of article 786 of Turkish Civil Code. According to this article, the beneficiary is entitled to take all measures necessary to preserve and exercise the easement. However, he or she is obliged to exercise his or her rights in as benign a way as possible. In this respect, it would not be wrong to say that article 791 of the Turkish Civil Code is an extension of the basic principle that the beneficiary of the easement should not act in contradiction to the interests of the owner while exercising his right. Indeed, especially in cases where article 791 of the Turkish Civil Code has found its application, that is, it has been decided that the easement is to be used only in a certain place, the existence of the easement does not completely eliminate the interests of the landowner in making use of the immovable property as efficiently and effectively as possible. The existence of the easement prevents him only from exercising some of his authorities provided by the right to property. Therefore, the&nbsp;legislator has accepted that if the needs of the real estate change after the establishment of the easement, the landowner may request under certain conditions to change the place where the easement is used. In this way, the landowner could be able to keep an important authority to operate his property in an efficient manner even this property is charged with an easement. This study, aims to examine the conditions of realization of change of place where the easement is used and to present general principles and legal consequences of the relocation.

Relocation of the Encumbrance

Ayşe

Assist. Prof.

One of the principles that Civil Procedure Law based on is the “dispositional control of the parties principle”. Under this principle, parties’ have the right solve private law disputes according to their dispositions. Under the principle, dispute parties are free to decide choose or not to choose litigation as way of resolution. Principle also covers to end the dispute by an settlement (in principle). One of the dispute ending options under the principle is the parties settlement agreement. Settlement agreement, generally, is an agreement in which parties agree to ending the dispute with mutual compromise. In other words, it can be also defined as an agreement in which parties completely or partially ending the dispute mutually. Settlement agreement, regulated as an stand alone regulation for the first time in the Article 313/1 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CCP) numbered 6100. Under the Article, settlement agreement means that the parties agreement on to ending the dispute completely or partially in an outstanding case. This definition only covers the in-judicial settlement. Because the definition requires a settlement in front of the court. Out of judicial/court settlement is not regulated under the CCP. Because, this kind of settlement fall in the area of the Turkish Code of Obligations. Out of judicial settlement is an agreement out of the court in which the parties agreed to end the dispute completely or partially at mutual interest point they considered. There is no necessity of an outstanding ongoing case process at this point. Additionally, an ongoing trial process would not affect the out of judicial settlement. It is needed a transformation of the out of judicial settlement to an in-judicial settlement to affect an ongoing trial at the same dispute. Out of judicial settlement is an substantive law agreement. This agreement is fall in the provisions (General Provisions) of the Turkish Code of Obligations. Out of judicial settlement agreement is not be need to be made in written because of the “freedom as to form” principle of the Turkish Code of Obligations. If the out of judicial settlement transformed to an in-judicial settlement it could affect an ongoing trial at the same dispute. Parties convey the out of judicial settlement to the court and then court get in record the agreement. After that moment, out of judicial settlement is evaluated as an in-judicial settlement. It is not needed that the whole provisions of the out of judicial settlement to get in recorded in the trial documents. Article 315/1 of the CCP regulates the provisions on effects and solutions of settlement agreements. Under this provisions when the out of judicial settlement transformed to an in-judicial settlement it would has the same legal power and&nbsp;solutions of it. The first solution of this transformation is the ending of existing dispute, in other words ending of the existing court trial. The second important outcome of the in-judicial settlement agreement is that it would have the same legal effect of final court decision. In-judicial settlement has an important another legal effect that it would has the power of the final court decisions under the Enforcement and Bankruptcy Code Article 38. If the out of judicial settlement transformed to an in-judicial settlement it would has the same affect as well.

Out of Judicial Settlement and Its Effect on Trial

Res. Assist.

Involvement of persons with disabilities in business life is extremely important – just as much as in their access to education and health services - and in their enjoyment of social protection because unemployment makes individuals becoming unemployed feel like they are useless. Involvement of persons with disabilities in business life, and pursuing the same eliminates the social effects caused by the risk of unemployment. In addition, working persons with disabilities benefit from social insurance protection based on their work, and thus a decrease occurs in the expenses made for persons with disabilities from the social security budget. While the policies relevant to persons with disabilities started with passive policies such as protecting persons with disabilities, today they have transformed into active policies such as ensuring the complete participation of persons with disabilities in employment. In Turkey, the number of persons with disabilities recorded on the National Database on Persons with Disabilities is 2.461.828 for the first half of the year 2019. And the rate of participation of persons with disabilities in employment is 22.1 percent. When compared with the data for the EU and OECD, this number is very low. Thus, increasing the participation in employment of persons with disabilities is also among the objectives relevant to business life. When the legal regulations in Turkey are examined, it can be observed that rules relevant to the protection of persons with disabilities have taken place in Constitutional Law for the first time. According to Article 17 of Constitutional Law, everyone has the right to live, and to preserve and improve their material and moral presence. And, according to Article 49 of Constitutional Law, working is everyone’s right and obligation. The government takes the required measures to increase the standard of living of employees, protect the unemployed, and support working. The government’s actualization of this obligation is especially important in terms of persons with disabilities who are experiencing many difficulties in involvement in business life. For this reason, it is required that the government should take special measures for persons with disabilities, and to provide the work environment for them. Hence, in Article 50 of Constitutional Law, it has been emphasized that no one could be employed in works not conforming to their strength, and the rule of “the ones having physical and psychological insufficiency are distinctively protected in terms of working conditions” has been established. And the most basic law regarding persons with disabilities is the Law on Persons with Disabilities no 5378. This law intends that persons with disabilities should benefit from fundamental rights and freedoms, and to ensure their participation in social life under equal conditions with other individuals. Article 30 of Labour Law no 4857 regulates the details relevant to the liability of employers to employ persons&nbsp;with disabilities. Article 30 was regulated again in 2008, and new principles were established regarding the employment of persons with disabilities. In accordance with this, employers employing fifty or more employees in the workplace have to employ a specific number of persons with disabilities. When Article 30 of Labour Law is examined, it is observed that the straightforward quota method has been adopted regarding the employment of persons with disabilities. The quota determined within this scope is three percent for workplaces in the private sector, and four percent for workplaces in the public sector. It is required that the following conditions are present for liability of the employer to employ persons with disabilities to arise : i) The workplace’s inclusion in the scope of Labour Law, or Maritime Labour Law, ii) Employment of fifty or more employees in the workplace. In case of the presence of these conditions, the employers are required to employ persons with disabilities whose rate of disability is at least 40 percent. Persons with disabilities should be employed through the Turkish Employment Agency. But the employer may also employ a person with disabilities through his own means. In this case, it is required to inform the Turkish Employment Agency, and to have the person with disabilities recorded at the Agency. An administrative fine is imposed on the employer acting against the liability of employing persons with disabilities. Another method regarding the employment of persons with disabilities is the concept of sheltered employment. Briefly, this method is ensuring the employment of persons with disabilities – for whom it is difficult to bring them in business life - within the frame of special conditions. In this system, there are sheltered workplaces where the working environment is specifically arranged in order to ensure the employment of persons with disabilities. In Turkish Law, the principles of this subject have been regulated in the Law on Persons with Disabilities, and in a certain regulation issued on this subject. That Regulation first came into force in 2006, and it was renewed in 2013. Persons with disabilities who will be employed at sheltered workplaces, are not only persons with physical disabilities but persons with mental and psychological disabilities. In terms of acquiring the status of a sheltered workplace, some conditions have been sought by the Regulation. Above all, it is required that the workplace is one which holds the qualifications determined by the Regulation, and where at least eight persons with disabilities are employed. In addition, the ratio of the number of persons with disabilities who will be employed at a sheltered workplace to the number of total employees shouldn’t be less than seventy five percent. In the Regulation, the physical conditions and equipment that the sheltered workplace has to have (safety, traffic safety, fire protection etc.) were also specified. A specific part of the remunerations&nbsp;of the persons with disabilities being employed at sheltered workplaces is paid by the government. In Turkish law, amendments made in time in Article 30 of Labour Law being the basis of the liability of employing persons with disabilities, and especially the increase in incentives for the employers in private sector are deemed as proper regulations. Again, allowing the employers to find workers who will be employed by their own means is also among those steps which would facilitate employment. Certainly, considering the measures ensuring employment as incentives rather than a quota and fine method would be a more constructive approach.

The Liability of the Employer to Employ Disabled Employee

Night work has been the subject of many discussions due to its contradictory nature to the biological structure of the human body. This attribute of night work requires that night work and day work should not be handled in the same way in the legal order. The developments in the field of Occupational Health and Safety Law, and the researches regarding the effects of night work on the human health, constantly demand the review and improvement of the regulations regarding night work. In this regard, the most important protective provision regarding the workers working at night could be the limit on the night working time. In accordance with the Article 69 (I) of the Labour Law No. 4857, “night” is defined as the period starting at the latest at 20.00 in the evening, and lasting at the earliest until 06.00 in the morning, which in any case lasts maximum eleven hours. Furthermore, in accordance with Article 69 (III), night work shall not exceed seven and a half hours. However, significant exceptions have been recently adopted to this rule. The amendment, enacted in 2015, allows employers in some sectors (private security, tourism and jobs related to healthcare) to demand night work in excess of seven and a half hours by obtaining written approval from the worker. It should be noted that the regulations concerning night work are particularly important regarding the work carried out by shift work. Taking into consideration the need for governing special procedures and principles on this subject, a regulation specifically on shift work has been issued, and exceptions to the rule on the limit of the night working time are also included in this regulation. In my opinion, the propriety of this change amendment is highly debatable. It can be argued that the service should continue uninterruptedly in the sectors mentioned in the Article (private security, tourism and jobs related to healthcare). However, the employment of the workers for longer periods is not the only way to ensure the continuity of the service. Although written approval of the worker enabling the night work in excess of seven and a half hours is stipulated, the worker-protective approach of the Labour Law which protects the workers even from themselves, especially on the issues regarding occupational health and safety should not be disregarded. It should also be noted that the Regulation on shift work also includes a statement which is not included in the text of the Labour Law. In the Regulation; it is prescribed that the workers employed by the subcontractor in the workplaces, where private security, tourism and health services are carried out, also fall under this scope. If the letter of the statement is followed; it could be concluded that all workers employed by the subcontractor in the health, tourism and private security sectors may be employed at night for more than seven and a half hours. However, it is clear that such an interpretation would be incompatible with the exception regulated in the Labour&nbsp;Law. The provision of the regulation should be interpreted in a manner to cover subcontractor workers who are employed in the sectors referred to in the Labour Law, specifically in cases where subcontracted work is carried out with respect to these sectors. It has been concluded that the recent changes in the field of night work constitute a reversal in terms of workers’ rights. It is clear that the continuity of the services without disruption can be also maintained by increasing the number of shifts. Furthermore, I would like to draw attention to the fact that the regulations regarding night work are quite disorganized. In this regard, it may be suggested that all the rules regarding night work should fall into a single regulation. As a result, it may be stated that there is a need for the review of the regulations on night work in our legislation.

Night Work and The Evaluation of the Amendments Regarding the Limit of Night Work Period

Cemile

This article deals with multi-tier dispute resolution clauses incorporating both mediation and arbitration together under Turkish Law. I use the terminology of “med-arb” not only for the situation where the mediator acts as an arbitrator, but rather in a general meaning covering all instances where the arbitration is commenced following an unsuccessful mediation. The purpose of this article is to discuss the validity of the med-arb agreements, the consequences of starting arbitration before the mediation fails, the effects of the mediation proceedings and of the mediator acting as an arbitrator on the arbitration that follows the mediation as well as the admissibility of the documents and factual evidence exchanged at the mediation. For the purpose of this article, the comparative laws, international ethics rules, international guidelines on the conflict of interest and admissibility of evidence are reviewed along with Turkish law. Turkish Code on Mediation in Civil Law Disputes stipulates some provisions related to the med-arb. These provisions shall apply equally to both domestic and international arbitrations where the place of arbitration is Turkey. Following the jurisprudence of the Turkish Supreme Court, a med-arb agreement is valid only if it reflects, without doubt, both parties’ consents to the arbitration following the failure of the mediation proceedings. Therefore, a multi-tier dispute resolution clause subject to Turkish law needs to be drawn carefully. In this respect IBA Guidelines for Drafting International Arbitration Clauses are of assistance. In cases where one of the parties commences arbitration without a recourse to mediation first, the arbitral tribunal should make a decision on the admissibility of the claim. There is no direct provision related to the question of admissibility under Turkish law. Under Turkish law, in parallel with the practice of international arbitration, the tribunal has to interpret the med-arb agreement to make a decision on the question of whether the recourse to mediation is a pre-condition of the arbitration. If the mediation is a pre-condition, then the tribunal should suspend the arbitral&nbsp;proceedings and direct the parties to the mediation. However, in the case that the mediation fails, the tribunal may resume the arbitral proceedings. There is nothing under Turkish law suggesting that a precondition of arbitration is a jurisdictional issue rather than an admissibility issue. The advantages of the med-arb are subject to heated debates among people holding different perspectives. Such advantages are controversial since when a dispute arises and the arbitration starts without a recourse to mediation, the respondent may object to the jurisdiction of the tribunal or to the admissibility of the claim relying on the fact that the pre-condition to try mediation first is not met. Such an objection may cause arbitration to be delayed and/or the costs of arbitration to increase. Therefore, before opting for a med-arb agreement the parties should evaluate the possibility of settling their dispute at the Med-arb. The parties who are able to consider their commercial interests do not need a med-arb agreement as they are able to settle the disputes without the assistance of a mediator. They first try to settle the dispute, in some cases for years, and to avoid adjudication by an arbitral tribunal. They only start arbitration when there is no possibility of settlement of their dispute and of saving their commercial alliance. In such cases, med-arb agreements become a tool to delay the proceedings and increase the costs for the claimant to force him or her to give up his or her claim. Having said that, for the parties who are unable to consider their commercial interest and unable to avoid adjudication, med-arb agreement may be the right dispute resolution clause. In a med-arb agreement, the parties may wish the mediator to act as their arbitrator if the mediation fails. Neither the Turkish Code of Mediation in Civil Disputes nor the Turkish International Arbitration Code prevents a mediator to act as an arbitrator. Turkish Ethics Rules for Mediators stipulate that a mediator may act as an arbitrator only if the parties have agreement in writing. Therefore, any mediator to act as arbitrator needs to have the parties’ written consent. In international mediation and arbitration practices, the scholars and practitioners widely accept that having an arbitrator who previously acted as a mediator generates a number of serious risks and concerns. First of all, the mediator-arbitrator may not protect his or her impartiality in the arbitration because of the facts that she or he became aware of during the mediation. Secondly, the mediator-arbitrator may rely on the confidential information exchanged in caucus while making the award. Thirdly, the mediator may be too willing to act as an arbitrator and as a result the mediation may prematurely fail. Finally, the mediator may abuse his or her powers and force the parties to settle their disputes as the mediator suggests. The parties may feel that if they are not able to settle their dispute and proceed to the arbitration, the mediator-arbitrator would make an arbitral award in parallel of the recommendations at the mediation phase. Considering the severity of the consequences, if the parties agree to have an arbitrator&nbsp;who previously acted as their mediator, they need to be aware of such consequences and they need to make an informed decision accordingly . The Turkish Code of Mediation in Civil Law Disputes restrains the ability of the mediator-arbitrator to rely on the documents produced during the mediation for the purpose of settlement and defines which documents are in this category. In the case where the mediator-arbitrator relies on these documents while making the award, depending on the extent the document or information has a bearing on the award, the arbitral award may be cancelled, or its enforcement may be refused. In November 2019, Istanbul Arbitration Center (ISTAC) introduced its Medarb Rules. ISTAC Med-arb Rules are the first published institutional Med-arb rules. ISTAC Med-arb Rules reflect the best practices in international mediation – arbitration. I believe that ISTAC Med-arb Rules will be welcomed in the field of international dispute resolution.

Multi-Tier Dispute Resolution Clauses Incorporating Both Mediation and Arbitration Together Under Turkish Law

Davut

All debtors are liable for all of the obligations in joint indebtedness. Also, the creditor has the right to claim this from one, some or all of the debtors. Joint indebtedness can arise from the regulations or wills of the parties. The coming together of joint debtors in a contractual framework also can arise from both the regulations and wills of the parties. In all these cases, if joint debtors do not perform on time, then default of joint debtors is mentioned. Obligations of joint debtors are relatively independent from each other. As a result of this, principally action of a joint debtor has effect only on that joint debtor. Accordingly, default of a joint debtor has only effect only on this debtor who is in default. But exceptionally, it is possible that the parties can agree that responsibility of all joint debtors from the results of default of a particular joint debtor. Obligations of joint debtors can fall due on different dates, and accordingly, default dates can differ when performance times of joint debtors are different from each other. If one of the joint debtors has a right to avoid performance, this prevents this debtor from debtor’s default. Notice principally causes the default of the debtor who has received notice. But a contra agreement regarding this is also possible. If there is a situation which makes notice unnecessary for a joint debtor, this debtor falls into default without a notice. The performance of the obligation must be possible for the occurrence of the default. If the object of the performance is impossible in terms of all debtors, all debtors get out of their debts. If the object of performance becomes impossible with a fault of a joint debtor, all joint debtors must be responsible de lege ferenda. If one of the joint debtors puts a creditor to creditor’s default, other joint debtors also benefit from this situation. Compensation of delay, which is a general result of debtor’s default, can only be demanded from the joint debtor who is in default. If more than one joint debtor falls in default because of their fault, these are jointly responsible for the compensation of delay. Even if one joint debtor who does not fall in default, distinguishes obligation with performance, compensation of delay can still be demanded from the joint debtor who falls in default. If a force majeure or fortuitous events occur during the period of default of one joint debtor, this joint debtor is responsible for this situation. If the same situation occurs during the period of default of more than one joint debtor, these are jointly responsible. If one of the joint debtors of a pecuniary obligation falls into default, this debtor is obliged to pay interest for the default. If more than one joint debtor falls into default, these are jointly responsible. But at this point, default dates, interest rates and the capital debt have importance. Because according to these elements, the amount of interest for default can differ. Therefore, a distinction must be made during the&nbsp;consideration of the jointly responsible parts of the debt. If the creditor still has a damage which does not compensate with the interest for default, it can be claimed from the joint debtor who falls into default with fault. In bilateral contracts the creditor, who wants extra rights to benefit, should give an extra period of time to the joint debtor who falls into default. This time periods must be reasonable for each joint debtor. It can be situations in which the creditor should give an extra period of time to some joint debtors while it is not necessary to give to the others, according to TCO Art. 123. When the creditor makes choice, this has only effect for the joint debtor which this right turns to. Compensation for damage for non-performance can only be demanded from the joint debtor who falls into default with fault. If other join debtors who do not fall into default, distinguish the obligation, this compensation cannot be demanded from the debtor who is in default. If more than one joint debtor falls into default with fault, these joint debtors are responsible for the compensation for damage for nonperformance of obligation. Withdrawal from the contract is possible when all joint debtors incur in default. The creditor must declare his withdrawal will to all joint debtors.&nbsp;

Debtor’s Default in Joint Indebtedness which Occurs within A Contractual Framework

Derya

Preliminary provisions of Turkish Civil Code provide both general principles of law, which are the basis for judicial system and guidance to the judges that are rule of law practitioners. Article 5 of the Civil Code, which does not stand out at first, is in fact a versatile and crucial rule of law that often fills specific legal gaps and general legislative regulation gaps, and that offers a pathway to the judge to resolve the issue without having to enforce the Civil Code’s second clause of Article 1. Turkish Civil Code Article 5 which reads as follows: “This Code and the general provisions of the Code of Obligations shall apply as applicable to all private law transactions”, shows on one hand that the divergence between two Laws are only in form, and on the other hand that it is a critical rule of law applicable in all private law relations. As will be discussed below in detail, when the historical development of the Code is examined, it is understood that the lawmaker formed the unity between these two Laws consciously and voluntarily. In relation to the Article 1 of Turkish Civil Code specifying the applicability of the law according to its wording or interpretation to all legal questions for which it contains a provision, and guiding the judge in case of legal gaps which may arise, it is vital to clarify the importance and function of Article 5 of the Code. As a matter of fact, this is a starting point in terms of discussions on whether this clause is necessary, and of determining the scope, function, area of implementation and methodology. In this context, within the scope of the study, the article’s history was reviewed with regard to Turkish and Swiss Laws, particularly in a systematic way. Subsequently, the interpretation of the article in correlation with Article 1 of Civil Code was approached along with the main debates. Lastly, the article was evaluated according to some examples limited to Family Law by objectifying the clause in a narrower scope, since its area of implementation is considerably wide and comprehensive. As it is understood from the examples given on Family Law, debates on “whether this clause is necessary” are in fact about whether the judge performs a direct or a comparative implementation, or whether he/she performs a practice to cover both while implementing the general clauses of Civil Code and Code of Obligations. Likewise, Article 1 of Civil Code draws a roadmap for the potential legal gaps while empowering the judge to apply the law according to its wording or interpretation. At this point, without a doubt, it is the judge who is to decide whether the application should be direct or comparative. Considering the increasing amount of needs in the developing and self-renewing social life and the new legal regulations, the article fairly transforms the general provisions in Code of Obligations and Civil Code into the general provisions of&nbsp;Private Law. The article is also a general reference that strengthens the bond between the two Codes, the relationship between them being emphasized by the legislator. Since reference provisions come in sight when the judge is led by the legislator during a legal regulation to be implemented in a legal issue, Article 5 of Civil Code stands as a general reference provision giving instructions to the judge on comparative implementation. Without doubt, if this provision did not exist the judge would fill out the existing gaps and would find a solution by comparison. However, the fact that the legislator has placed the article in Preliminary Provisions of Civil Code section with general statements, allow a systematic consistency in rulings, in addition to guiding the judge. For this reason, the provision carries importance for the whole Private Law area, rather than being a simple general legal law. Because it permits the judge to control and implement before its execution (if necessary) a rule of law which is not directly connected to the issue at hand. In this case, the judge will take into consideration the general provisions foreseen by Civil Code and Law of Obligations and by pursuing the guidance of Civil Code Article 5 where necessary, will be able to implement the rule of law on a concrete case. For that matter, it will not be wrong to state that as a general reference provision, Article 5 of Civil Code imposes an obligation for comparative implementation before proceeding with second paragraph of the article number 1 of Law.

Principle of Integrity of Private Law and the Application of the 5th Article of the Civil Code in the Family Law

Direnç

To ensure a stable or firm composition of a shareholder group in a joint stock company, the Turkish Commercial Code includes rules on restricted transferability. The restriction possibility of transferability of shares in a joint stock company is limited. Because of this, shareholders of these companies make contracts, which are so called “shareholders’ agreements”. In these agreements the right of preemption of parties is a dominant feature. With a contractual right of preemption of parties, it is possible to protect the composition of a shareholder group. The contractual right of preemption is basically a problem of the law of obligations, but it has effects on the side of law of companies. It can be used as an alternative to statutory restriction of transferability of shares. The study focused especially on the issue of which rules are applicable for the cases that include the right of preemption. Thus, the rules of the Turkish Code of Obligations on preemptive rights, which are provided for immovables are investigated. Another area dealt with in this article is the extent to which these articles are applicable for the rules of shareholders’ agreements, which include the right of preemption. Contractual right of preemption, which occurs in a shareholders’ agreement, is generally not subject to any form. But there could be exemptions. The agreement must be considered as a whole, if a right of preemption is created depending on the death of one of the parties. In order to solve the problem about the form of this agreement, the legal quality of the shareholders’ agreement must be established. Some shareholders’ agreements are qualified as a partnership under the Turkish Code of Obligations. If the right of preemption is described as a qualified successorship clause (in the partnership under the Turkish Code of Obligations), this agreement must be in the form of a disposition mortis causa. If the right of preemption is described as a simple successorship clause (in the partnership under the Turkish Code of Obligations) or if the legal quality of the shareholders’ agreement isn’t a partnership under the Turkish Code of Obligations, there is no need to make this contract in the form of a disposition mortis causa. The right of preemption can be divided into two categories. One type is called the real right of preemption and basically this type of right is the theme of this article. Real right of preemption cannot be an article or a rule of a joint stock company’s statute. If&nbsp;a statute of a joint stock company contains the right of preemption for shareholders, who remain in the company and against the shareholder, who wants to sell his/her shares to a third party, it must be accepted as void from the beginning. This study shares the idea that rules of statutes which include the right of preemption cannot at the same time be handled as a contractual agreement under the law of obligations between shareholders. This can be accepted under very exemptional circumstances. The essential contents of the shareholders’ agreements which contain the right of preemption are the parties of the agreement and the subject of the contract. The price of the subject is not one of them because Art 241/III in the Turkish Code of Obligations is applicable for contracts which do not include a price rule. This means that if there is a lack of rule about the price of the share in a shareholders’ agreement, the price is determined according to the sales contract between the shareholder, who wants to sell his/her share and the third party, who wants to buy this share. If there is a price rule in the agreement, that creates the right of preemption, and this right of preemption is called a limited right of preemption; otherwise it is called an unlimited right of preemption. The condition which makes the use of the right of preemption possible is called a preemptional event. The preemptional event is generally a share sales contract between one party of the shareholders’ agreement and a third party. Art 240/I in the Turkish Code of Obligations about preemptional events is also applicable to the shareholders’ agreements, which create contractual right of preemption between shareholders. The seller party of the share sales agreement is also obliged to give this information to the parties of the shareholders’ agreements. In this study we maintain that Art 241 in the Turkish Code of Obligations is not fully applicable to the shareholders’ agreements that include the right of preemption. That is why we suggest that only the seller has the obligation to give information to the parties of the shareholders’ agreement, but not the buyer. Preventing the occurrence of preemptional event is also evaluated in the study, and in addition to the other legal probabilities, we suggest that the Art 175 in the Turkish Code of Obligations is also applicable for these situations. By making use of the right of preemption, the subject of the right cannot be divided, if the shareholders’ agreement has no other rules. Usually the subject of the right and the subject of the share sales agreement are the same. In the light of our study Art 242 in the Turkish Code of Obligations is partly applicable for the contractual right of preemption on shares. That means the owner of the right must make use of his/her right within three months at most. We think that a maximum duration of two years, which is also regulated in Art 242, is not applicable to the contractual right of preemption on shares. In our opinion it is a special duration for the right of preemption on immovables. Making use of the right of preemption typically has an effect between the parties of the shareholders’ agreements and it does not come up with such a result as a takeover of company shares. Because of this, an act of a party, which violates the shareholders agreement (also their right of preemption), may give a compensation right to the other parties for their damages. The right of preemption principally has no effect on the third parties, like the party of the share sales agreement. Some exemptional situations are also evaluated in the study.

Agreements between Shareholders of Joint Stock Companies, Which Include Right of Preemption

Feyza

The protection of minors is very significant from a social and legal perspective and concerns everyone in society. However, the protection of minors is relatively a new topic since the professional training of coaches in this regard started during the mid 90’s. On the other hand, the increase in cross-border movements due to economic, political, social and environmental reasons has revealed the vulnerability of children who are affected by this fact more than anyone else. The children and their families who have not been able to find sufficient education, care, health services and social opportunities in their own or host countries consider sport, and especially football, as a means of breaking away. As the commercial value of football and competition among the clubs has increased in Europe, scouting and transferring young talents from the countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia with low cost and less effort has become more profitable for the European clubs. There has been a growing concern linked to the transfer of minors that larger football clubs are attracting young overseas talents to their academies and this is undermining the efforts of many smaller clubs to invest in the education and training of such talents. Realising the graveness of the situation, the European Union (EU) took the initiative to raise awareness for more effective protection of minors in sport. The 2000 Nice Declaration on Sport expressed “concern about commercial transactions targeting minors in sport, including those from third countries, inasmuch as they do not comply with existing labour legislation or endanger the health, and welfare of young sportsmen and women.” By the same token, in 2007, the European Commission issued a White Paper on Sport which states that “whilst the movement of minors in sport across frontiers may fall short of the legal definition of trafficking,&nbsp;the exploitation of young players continues to be a problem in the EU.” In this White Paper, the Commission refers to the reports that an international network managed by agents takes very young players to Europe especially from Africa and Latin America and the children who are not selected by the clubs are then abandoned in those foreign countries all alone, subject to further exploitation. The European Parliament also shared similar concerns through the Belet and Mavrommatis Reports. The EU institutions’ approach was supported by the political commitment of the EU Member States, which culminated in the drafting of Article 165 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, which grants a supporting competence in the field of sport. The wording of Article 165 (2) is as follows: “The Union shall contribute to the promotion of European sporting issues, while taking account of the specific nature of sport, its structures based on voluntary activity and its social and educational function.” In 2010, the European Sports Forum held in Madrid discussed a number of issues related to the use of young people in sport including overtraining and exploitation, missed education opportunities, the use of doping substances, and sexual abuse and harassment. Although the UN Convention on Rights of the Child does not have any provisions directly related to sport, many provisions of this Convention may still be considered as the legal basis of the protection of minors in sport. The Convention’s ultimate objective is to guarantee the sound development and progressive empowerment of children and adolescents, and it provides a wide range of safeguards to ensure their protection from all forms of abuse, neglect, violence and exploitation. These safeguards are directly relevant to minors in sport. Under the Convention, the States are responsible for taking all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child. Having realised the intense movement of minors across borders to play football in foreign counties endangering their health and welfare, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) started to establish basic principles to protect them in 1990. In 2001, FIFA developed a regulatory framework composed of a set of provisions within its Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Players (RSTP) which govern the international transfer of minors. This framework went through modifications in 2005, 2009, and 2015 to expand its scope and to improve the protection provided to minor players. The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) is an integral part of this regulatory regime as a supreme arbitral authority, which clarifies its practical operation through its jurisprudence by examining and interpreting its specific provisions. In this respect, the Midjylland Case, the Elmir Muhic Case, the Vada I and Vada II Cases, Barcelona,&nbsp;Real Madrid and Atletico Madrid Cases are main cornerstones in the implementation of the substantive and procedural rules of the RSTP. Article 19 of the FIFA RSTP provides that international transfers of players are only permitted if the player is over the age of 18. Three exceptions to this rule apply. First, if the player’s parents move to the country in which the new club is located for reasons not linked to football. Second, the transfer takes place within the territory of the EU or EEA and the player is aged between 16 and 18, subject to the new club fulfilling a number of minimum obligations including the provision of education, training and accommodation. Third, the player lives no further than 50 km from a national border and the club which the player wishes to be registered in the neighbouring association is also within 50 km of that border. The rule takes effect only if there is a maximum distance between the player’s domicile and the club’s headquarters and the minor must continue to live at home. FIFA has accepted two further exceptions with regard to unaccompanied refugee players, and exchange students. The prohibition on the transfer of minors also extends to first registrations of non-national minors. Besides the substantive provisions laid out in Article 19 and 19bis, a key procedural requirement for any international transfer is the issuance of the International Transfer Certificate (ITC) by the player’s former association within whose territory his/her new club is based. The FIFA Players’ Status Committee (PSC) is authorised to inspect and approve every international transfer and every first registration of minors in football. National associations are required to submit an application to the Sub-Committee appointed by the PSC to seek an approval before registering any minor. In addition, FIFA has also developed a Transfer Matching System (TMS), the web-based information processing system for international transfers. The system has been proven very successful so far and the CAS decisions in Barcelona, Real Madrid and Atletico Madrid Cases, with the Chealsea decision on its way, shed further light on the effective implementation of the system despite certain contradictions.

The Protection of Child Rights Under the FIFA Transfer System

Mehmet Emin

Prof.

Rauf

Abdullah

Hakan

The registration procedure of trade names shall have the necessary features to protect the interests of the merchant, other relevant persons and the public. The registration procedure should have the characteristic of being not only quick and economic but also protective against any violation to the interest of right owners. In this regard, we recommend the following issues be taken into consideration in order to make the registration process and protection of trade names more qualified in Turkish law: 1. Once the principles and exemptions regarding signs and words that are prohibited or available with authorization should be legislated in TCC number of 6102. Thereafter, Administrative regulation should specify this issue by taking into consideration the principles and exemptions in TCC because there are a number of trade names in practise which use signs and words having natural, cultural or religious values. The commercialization of these words or their use in trade names may cause floccinaucinihilipilification of their worth. Therefore, the words and signs that express national, cultural or religious value need to be determined by regulation and their use in trade names should be prohibited. 2. The usable words only with authorization in trade names should be more detailed. Otherwise, the uncertainties in the current regulations should be clarified. To illustrate, it is unclear whether the translated versions of the words specified in TCC art. 46/3 are exempted from authorization or not. Another example is that the Trade Name Regulation (Official Gazette 14.02.2014, S. 28913.) art. 4/4 exempts some merchants from taking authorization, who should use the words subject to authorization because his/his shareholder name is supposed to be used. However, associations of ship owners are not stated in this exemption while the shareholder’s name is required in the trade name of association of ship owners. 3. Art. 4/6 of the Trade Name Regulation states that country names could be used in trade names on condition of the related country’s permission. Likewise, the names of geographical places are freely usable. We supposed that these statements be legislated in TCC or TCC state that this issue is regulated by secondary administrative acts. Besides, when country names are also used as a product name, a phrase or a&nbsp;geographical place name, it is needed to clarify under such circumstance that the permission of that country is required. 4. The practice as to registrar’s making changes on registered trade names should be regulated. Similarly, if court decisions regarding changing a trade name may not be applicable because of the character of MERSIS (Central Registration System), the application process of the court decision should be regulated. 5. The qualification for identity and similarity assessment between registered names and trade name application are far from providing adequate protection for trade names. Hence, art. 5 of the Trade Names Regulation which differentiates the evaluation for identity and similarity should be revised by taking into consideration the principles of TCC. The trade name query system in MERSİS and TTSG (Turkey Commercial Registry Gazette) should have a qualification to show registered trade names which are too similar. By the time a system automatically assesses similarity and identity rate is arranged, it is necessary to envisage a detailed regulation regarding similarity assessment in order to ensure uniformity and legal certainty. In this regard, considering the regulation in England may be useful. In addition, to provide qualified protection for registered trade names, two issues shall be regulated. Firstly, the right owners of registered trade names should have a right to object to an application of registration. Secondly, the registrar should have an authorization to make a change to trade names. In this regard, registrars should have a “too similarity assessment” authority and any similarity objection should be evaluated by a conflict resolution centre. 6. The provision in art. 6/6 of SMK (Industrial Property Act) number of 6769 should be accepted for trade names by considering the registration procedure of trade names. In this regard, right owners on other commercial names may object to the registration of trade names to the same conflict resolution centre that the registered trade name owners object as well. 7. Competent authorities for trade names and TÜRKPATENT do not cooperate in the evaluation of registry application as to whether the application violates registered trademarks, trade names and business names or vice versa. Additionally, there is no registry for business names. It could be useful to improve cooperation among competent registration authorities of trade names and intellectual property rights.

Problems in the Registration of Trade Names and Proposals for These Problems

Nejat

Wardship is regulated under the title of “wardship” in the Third Part of the Second Book of Turkish Civil Code titled Family Law. In articles 396-494 of the Civil Code, regulations on restricting the persons in need of protection, which are called narrow tutelage, are included. The purpose of our study is to examine some of the current problems related to the temporary protection measures given by the court during the restriction and wardship process within the scope of these regulations and the custody measure comment which is often applied by the courts to express all such measures. However, these measures are sometimes applied to even after the appointment of a guardian, and similar problems are encountered in the measures taken with or after the restriction decision. Therefore, other measures related to wardship law are mentioned in our study as appropriate. Essentially, the interim measures provided for in TCC Art. 420, which are examined in detail below, are intended to provide temporary legal protection within the period until the relevant decision is taken and a guardian is appointed. For this reason, in cases of necessity in the interim period, judges and temporary legal protections are decided upon for the works and transactions that the guardian will perform at the time or in the future. The law does not define a custody/wardship measure between temporary legal protections. TCC art. 420/1 sets out in general terms that the guardianship authority may take interim measures required by guardianship duties before the appointment of a guardian. An example of temporary measures in the regulation is the temporary abolition of the capacity of the restricted candidate and the appointment of a representative. Accordingly, the wardship authority shall take the necessary measures ex officio before the appointment of the guardian, if wardship affairs are required; in particular, he may temporarily remove the person’s capacity to act and appoint a representative to him/her. It is understood from the phrase especially in the provision that the measures that can be taken by the court are not limited to these, and other measures may be taken due to the nature of the issue. Besides, according to the TCC art. 420, the person who has avoided wardship or who has objected to the appointment of guardian is obliged to carry out the duties of the guardian until another person is appointed. As discussed in detail below, the intention is to ensure as far as possible the well-being of people who are in a limited sense of custody in certain situations of weakness, and to protect them from the effects of these situations. The law is based on the assumption that necessary protection will be provided by the appointment of a guardian to the person who is in such situations of weakness and the custody provisions become effective from this moment on. This is because the final protection of the court will be ensured. Indeed, TCC m 419/1 regulates that wardship authority is obliged to appoint a guardian without delay. The purpose of the provision is to ensure&nbsp;the protection of the person concerned as soon as possible. However, in any case, there will be a short or long trial process until the guardian is appointed. In cases where a restriction decision is required to appoint a guardian, due to the nature of the work, the restriction decision will have to wait. Naturally, it will take time to find a suitable guardian. During this period, it may be necessary to decide on certain tasks such as having the limited candidate undergo emergency surgery, placement in an institution or following up a case or collecting the receivable for health reasons and monitoring the works required by the decision. The temporary legal protections provided for by this article (TCC art. 420) allow the necessary actions to be taken to protect the person concerned during this interim period. Because of this, in the period before the abolition of the wardship institution in Switzerland, the abolition of the capacity to act as a temporary legal protection measure and the appointment of a representative was called a temporary restriction in practice. This legal protection measure, which aims to ensure the protection of the restricted by the restriction decision and the use of the restricted candidate within the period from the appointment of a guardian, should not be called a temporary restriction.

Provisional Legal Protection in Protection Law and Surveillance Measure Application

Rıfat Murat

Işık

State of necessity is a legal concept, which is of importance for both criminal and civil liability. It relieves the perpetrator of an act from criminal liability and deems the act lawful in the context of civil liability. Nonetheless the scope of the concept is not uniform for criminal and civil law: An act may be considered one of necessity within the context of criminal law, whereas not within the context of civil law. This discrepancy is acceptable, albeit not ideal, in light of the principle of unity of the legal order, as it is not uncommon for the same term to mean different things in different branches of law. The interaction between civil and criminal law within the context of necessity’s legal nature is however more problematic. Due to the principle of unity of the legal order, an act is either lawful or wrongful in the eyes of the whole legal order. This means that deeming an act lawful in one branch of law would lead to consequences for another. An inquiry on the legal nature of state of necessity therefore requires a holistic approach. This article deals with the problem of necessity’s legal nature with that in focus and explores the interaction between civil law and criminal law within this context. State of necessity constitutes a ground for justification under civil law (Turkish Code of Obligations Art. 63, para. 2). A state of necessity in civil law exists if a person deliberately inflicts damage on another person’s assets in order to avert an imminent danger directed to a considerably higher interest, which could not have been avoided otherwise. Such a lawful act may nevertheless trigger an obligation to compensate the damage (Turkish Code of Obligations Art. 64, para. 2) for the person who has benefited from the intervention by evading the danger. In cases of dispute, it is up to the court to decide whether and to what extent the damage must be compensated. Under § 4, the regulation and legal nature of necessity under Turkish Penal Code (TPC) is discussed. At the time of the previous Penal Code, necessity was very widely regarded as a justification. The entry into force of the new Penal Code (Law no. 5237) caused great debate around the nature of the new provision embodied in TPC Art. 25 (2). The wording of the provision and a systematic method of interpretation do not lead to a definitive result. As a consequence, two main views emerged. The seemingly&nbsp;(narrowly) prevailing view argues that necessity does not constitute a justification, but either an excuse or a ground precluding culpability. In both cases, Art. 223 (3) (b) of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CCP) would apply since this provision does not distinguish between excuses and grounds precluding culpability. On the other hand, numerous writers still argue that necessity constitutes a justification. We are of the opinion that Art. 25 (2) TPC lays down a ground precluding culpability. This is confirmed by the official reasoning of the provision, and the caselaw of the Court of Cassation. Whereas neither the reasoning nor the case-law is binding, we base our view on the clear wording of Art 223 (3) (b) which provides that in case of necessity no punishment shall be imposed on the defendant due to a lack of culpability. In cases where a justification enters into play, Art. 223 (2) (d) shall apply, and the defendant shall be acquitted. Surely, it can be (and has been) argued that a provision of the PPC is not the place where the legal qualification of a provision of the TPC shall be made. Yet, that is what the lawmaker has done. Therefore, even when a perpetrator acts under a state of necessity, his or her act is still criminal, but - in the words of CPP Art. 223 (3) (b) - ‘there is no need to inflict punishment’. The reason for a lack of punishment is the abnormality in the formation of the perpetator’s motive in the face of a grave and imminent danger, which creates a difference in the value judgment to be passed over culpability, and leads to the conclusion that he or is she does not deserve punishment. On the other hand, it cannot be argued that it is impossible to qualify TPC Art. 25 (2) as a justification by virtue of Turkish Code of Obligations Art. 64 (2): whereas it is argued that by reserving the right to demand damages Art. 64 (2) implicitly accepts the unlawful nature of the act, this is not true! That provision is based on equity, and not on the unlawful nature of the act. We conclude that the state of necessity does not constitute a justification in criminal law, and therefore, where Art. 25 (2) TPC applies, the judgment to be rendered is not an acquittal, but a decision that infliction of punishment is not required. Nonetheless in cases where the act qualifies as one performed in a state of necessity from a civil law perspective, the act shall also be deemed lawful in terms of criminal law and the court shall decide for acquittal.

The Legal Nature of State of Necessity in Light of the Principle of Unity of the Legal Order

Sıtkı Anlam

Problems Related to the Commencement Date of the Obligation to Use in the Action for Revocation due to the Non-use of a Trademark and Solution Proposals

Zeynep

In the aftermath of the June 26th 2016 referendum, the United Kingdom (UK) has invoked article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union’s (EU) withdrawal process relying on the act of parliament of March 16th 2017. This act has triggered a unique process as no other EU has member state has officially invoked article 50 before. EU member states, starting from their candidacy period must harmonise and align their national legislation with EU law. The UK, as a member state, has accepted, transposed and implemented EU law for more than forty-five years. Hence the process that started with the invocation of article 50 is one that may lead to significant changes and loopholes in the British legal order as the UK has been subject to EU acquis during its membership. Competition law is one the most complete and harmonised areas of EU law. According to article 3 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), competition falls under the exclusive competence of the Union. Furthermore, until the adoption of Regulation 1/2003, only EU institutions could implement EU competition law, leaving only national competition law to the competence of national authorities and courts. This framework, combined with the principle of harmonious interpretation, accorded EU institutions and courts a central role in the enforcement and development of competition policy. This article examines the consequences of the UK’s withdrawal from the EU with regard to competition law and enforcement. The first part of the article discusses the possible consequences of UK’s withdrawal with an economic or trade deal with the EU for competition law. The EU has developed several levels of economic integration with neighbouring and nonneighbouring countries such as customs union agreements, free trade agreements or cooperation agreements. The first part of the article examines these different bilateral and mixed agreements and displays their implications for competition law and policy. Furthermore, the article discusses whether these agreements, in general or in terms of their specific aspects, could be a model for future economic relations between the UK and the EU. The latest Withdrawal Agreement which was rejected in October 2019 and its implications for economic cooperation are also briefly analysed in this first part. This analysis leads to the conclusion that the economic cooperation foreseen in this Agreement presents a combination of several different elements found in various bilateral agreements entered into by the EU and aims to apply differentiated levels of integration in different geographies, especially in Northern Ireland which may have interesting implications for enforcement of competition law. The second part of the article stresses the necessity of transitional arrangements for an orderly and healthy withdrawal in terms of competition law. This part focuses mostly on ongoing proceedings and the possibility of applying EU competition law in the UK throughout the transition period. This discussion also underlines the importance of determining the conditions under which EU competition law may be applied, most importantly as part of the competence of the EU Commission and Courts, to behaviours of&nbsp;undertakings that have taken place within the membership period or the transition period but have been discovered after the membership has ended. Finally, the article examines the problems and predicaments of a no deal exit with regard to substantive competition law, the exemption system, private enforcement of competition law, the control of mergers and acquisitions, state aids and the administrative structure. A no deal exit will lead to significant uncertainties with regard to enforcement and interpretation of competition law which will mostly be observed in the internal UK legal order. The article discusses the measures that may be taken by the UK legislator and authorities in order avert legal uncertainty. Some of the suggestions put forward in this part rely on the examples of economic cooperation discussed in the first part of the article. The article also refers to and discusses elements contained in those withdrawal agreements that have been rejected by the UK Parliament that may be relevant to the effect of EU law generally and EU competition law specifically in the UK after Brexit.

The Consequences and Predicaments for Competititon Law and Enforcement of United Kingdom’s Withdrawal from European Union Membership

Berk Hasan

Examination of the Overlapping Claims of Turkey and the Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus on the Maritime Areas to the West of the Island of Cyprus

Levent Emre

In this paper, the crime of “Failure by Medical Professionals to Report an Offence” in Article 280 of the Turkish Criminal Code numbered 5237, is evaluated through the examination of its protected legal value, its objective and subjective elements, the legal justifications and excuses applicable to the crime, the issues of attempt, aggregation, participation and the adjudication procedure of the crime. The crime aims to protect the effectiveness of judicial functions, with the purposes of providing an effective investigation of crimes, realizing the purposes of criminal law, and protecting public order. Pursuant to Art. 280, only a person who is a medical professional may commit the crime. The definition of the term “medical professional” is to be solved in light of the relevant legislation, especially the Codes numbered 657 and 1219. This paper argues that medical professionals in both public and private sectors may be perpetrators, even though the prevailing opinion is that only medical professionals who are not public officials may commit Art. 280. There are no limitations as to which types of offences the medical professionals must encounter for the obligation to report to be born, except the case of effective remorse in the crime found in Article 191. The patient of the medical professional may be the perpetrator, the victim or a mere witness. However, the encountered offence must constitute a crime, therefore misdemeanors or torts do not create the obligation to report. The medical professional must encounter an indication pointing towards the commission of an offence. The term “indication” used in the original letter of the law points towards material evidence, which caused the Turkish literature on the crime to argue that only encountering material and circumstantial evidence would cause the obligation to report, but statements or documents pointing to the offence do not. However, this paper is in the view that such a distinction was not the aim of the legislator and would lead to erroneous consequences. After encountering an indication in the course of duty as a medical professional, the failure to notify or delay in doing so constitutes the crime in Article 280. The meaning of authorities shall be interpreted in accordance with Art. 158 of the Criminal Procedure Code. There is a delay when significant obstacles in the investigation occur because of the failure to report. The crime may be committed with direct or probable intent. In any case, the intent must extend to all objective elements of the crime. The right to be silent may be exercised with regards to crimes committed by individuals covered by the right. However, in light of Art. 23 of the Regulation on&nbsp;Patient Rights, the patient-doctor privilege may not be asserted when a legal obligation in conflict exists. While medical doctors are required to report the indication they have encountered, they may be excused from testifying pursuant to Art. 46 of the Criminal Procedure Code. Lastly, the will of the individual from whom the crime is learnt is insignificant, even when that individual is the victim and the investigation of the crime is bound to legal complaint. Rules of attempt may not be applied to Art. 280 because of the crime’s nature. Additionally, the crime may only be perpetrated by medical professionals, but other individuals who do not hold this title may participate in the commission of the crime by aiding to or instigating the commission. A discussion exists whether Arts. 278, 279 and 280 have the relationship of general and specific norms. The view presented in this paper is that Art. 278 is a general norm to both 279 and 280, but such a relationship may not be established between the latter two. The issue of aggregation of these two types of crimes is to be solved through the application of the rules of conceptual aggregation. Other possible crimes to be aggregated with Art. 280 are Art. 257 (misconduct of duty by a public official), Art. 252 (bribery) and Art. 210 (falsification of an official document). The punishment prescribed in Art. 280 is imprisonment to one year. As this is a short-term prison sentence, it may be converted to alternative sanctions pursuant to Art. 50 of the TCC. Additionally, the announcement of the sentence may be deferred in line with the rules provided in Art. 231 of the Criminal Procedure Code, or the execution of the sentence may be deferred pursuant to Art. 51 of the TCC.

The Crime of Failure by Medical Professionals to Report an Offence (TCC Art. 280)

Harun

Administrative law, a branch of law that regulates the decision-making and rulemaking activities of administrative authorities, typically deals with the structures, duties and powers of administrative units on a large scale, as well as the methods and procedures that these units follow in the course of their activities, and their supervision. As for the function of administrative law, two main approaches are emphasized in the doctrine, namely, protecting the rights and interests of individuals and contributing to the effective provision of public services. In the doctrine, British public lawyers Carol Harlow and Richard Rawlings developed “the traffic-light metaphor” as an approach to the function of administrative law. In their traffic- light metaphor, while Harlow and Rawlings acknowledge the existence of “amber-light theory”, in terms of the function of administrative law, they basically put forth two theories, which are “red-light theory” and “green-light theory”. Red light theory, developed for the function of administrative law, defends the strong role of judicial supervision in investigating the activities of administrative authorities. The main goal of the red light theory is to control the activities of the administration in order to protect the rights and freedoms of individuals. At the heart of the said control is judicial control, which is conducted through the courts. In contrast to the red light theory, the green light theory argues that the function of administrative law is to facilitate the functioning of the administration, with the belief that administrative authorities will operate most efficiently when outside interventions are minimized. According to the green light theory, which provides a social and democratic perspective for the activities of the state –more specifically for the administration– administrative law should play a facilitating and auxiliary role for the administration in order to meet the needs of individuals and increase their satisfaction. The main purpose of the amber light theory as a third theory is to enable the effective implementation of democratic and political control mechanisms as well as judicial control. In amber light theory, the importance of judicial supervision, which forms the basis of red light theory, is not denied, but it is argued that the role of this supervision should be limited. This is because the strict approach of the judiciary in the face of the increasing needs of society may harm the administration›s duty to meet the needs of individuals by operating effectively. From this point of view, the amber light theory points on the one hand to the importance of judicial control as in the red light theory, while on the other hand, it emphasizes the need to balance the supervision to be conducted for the purpose of meeting the needs of individuals as required, which is the target of green light theory It should be noted that administrative law should have a function to ensure that the rights and freedoms of individuals are secured by keeping the administration within the boundaries of the law through the control mechanisms of the administration, while facilitating the proper fulfillment of the needs of individuals. Based on this, it can be said that the two inseparable functions of administrative law are to contribute to the proper provision of services as well as keeping the administration under control. Therefore, the ideal situation, “as accepted in the amber light theory”, is that administrative law has a structure capable of performing both functions.

An Approach to the Function of Administrative Law: “The Traffic-Light Metaphor”

Abuzer

Prof. Dr.

Res. Assist. Dr.

Pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC, temporary measures offer legal protection and prevent conflict between parties during proceedings from the filing of a divorce case until the legal effect of the decision.With the filing of a divorce case, spouses have the right to suspend the joint household. This measure is not based on the decision of the judge, and whether the divorce case is disputed or uncontested is not a decisive factor. Furthermore, the right to live separately exists independently of whether the related case is justified or not. As a rule, the right of spouses to live separately will end with the legal effect of the decision to dismiss the divorce case or the withdrawal of the case.&nbsp;While evaluating the allocation of the use of the family home, the criterion of fitness for purpose should be considered, regardless of the fault status regarding the ground for divorce. Who owns the property right or limited right in rem on the common residence or who is a party to the debt relationship (e.g., lease agreement) on which the possession is based is insignificant. As the marital union continues to exist throughout the divorce proceedings, all protective provisions regarding the family home shall continue to be effective as long as the relevant immovable maintains that characteristic. If this protection is deemed insufficient in the concrete case, the judge can take any necessary temporary legal protection regarding the immovable property without any obstacles.The notable criteria for determination of precautionary maintenance are the needs of the spouses and their ability to pay. In the calculation of the amount of the minimum needs (subsistence) of the spouses, both the expenses owing to the suspension of the joint household and continuation of the marital union will be taken into consideration. Pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC, the other of the two main elements for the calculation of cautionary maintenance is the income of the spouses. The concept of income includes both earnings and asset returns (e.g., rents or interest). Pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC, the precautionary maintenance shall be calculated based on the difference between the minimum needs of the spouses—determined within the framework of the principles—and the income of the spouses. Moreover, pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC, when deciding on the precautionary maintenance, who is at fault is not considered in the facts alleged as the ground for divorce.In Article 169 of the TCC, the legislator mentions the measures regarding management of the property of the spouses among those that the judge can consider ex officio during continuation of the divorce or separation proceedings. Thus, if a spouse, who has the authority to freely use, benefit, and dispose of the assets that he or she owns in accordance with the marital property regime of participation in acquired property, violates the interests of the other spouse while exercising those powers or the obligation to provide information, the transition to separation of property can be decided. However, it is possible only if it complies with the principles of necessity, appropriateness, and proportionality, such as other measures in Article 169 of the TCC. Moreover, the judge can ex officio order restrictions on the power of disposal and payment of debtors of one spouse to the other spouse, which are essentially regulated in the law as measures to protect the marital union. While making such decisions, the characteristics of the fact that a divorce case has been filed should be considered.The judge can rule ex officio, i.e., without the need for any request, on the temporary legal measures that are necessary during divorce proceedings, i.e., those related to the spouses. During divorce proceedings, the judge can rule on any proportionate temporary measures, if needed. The provisional measures to be taken regarding the spouses during divorce proceedings are subject to a simplified procedure. Pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC, the decision on provisional measures can be rendered at the earliest when the divorce case is filed and can be effective at that time. The temporary measures taken pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC shall be effective until the legal effect of the divorce decision. Moreover, provisional measures pursuant to Article 169 of the TCC, which do not constitute a final judgment, can be amended during the proceedings.&nbsp;

Eemporary Measures Regarding Spouses During Divorce Proceedings Pursuant to Turkish Civil Code Article 169

Muhammet

Nilüfer

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Articles 105 through 113 of the Turkish Code of Civil Procedure (CCP) regulate the types of lawsuits. However, these regulations do not have a limiting nature. A type of lawsuit is also found that is not explicitly included in the law and is referred to as an unseasonal (untimely/early) lawsuit, particularly with regard to judicial decisions and partially with respect to doctrine. The law makes no mention of this type of unseasonal lawsuit (untimely lawsuit/early lawsuit) nor provide any characterization. While accepted by judicial decisions, this type of lawsuit has also not been defined in these judicial decisions, and the conditions for this lawsuit are nowhere to be found. Based on the decisions, unseasonal lawsuits are understood to be used for receivables or claims that are not yet at the stage of being able to be claimed pursuant to various laws. In terms of unseasonal actions, a particular problem arises when addressing the dismissal of the lawsuit. This issue has been discussed and brought to the agenda, especially as the subject of a recent Unification of Jurisprudence Decision dated February 18, 2022. According to the judicial decisions, a lawsuit that is filed prematurely should be dismissed. However, whether the decision to dismiss this type of lawsuit is procedural or substantive is a matter of debate and needs to be evaluated. In judicial decisions, the unseasonal lawsuit is mostly dismissed procedurally on the basis of lack of legal interest. However, some judicial decisions have also observed that, in the event of the existence of an unseasonal lawsuit, a decision of dismissal is made based on the merits.In terms of civil procedural law, the procedural or substantive dismissal of a lawsuit is subject to different conditions and consequences. In judicial decisions, however, the current aspect of the debate on whether to dismiss an unseasonal lawsuit procedurally or on its merits is based on the more practical and pragmatic reason of how to determine the attorney’s fees rather than on any fundamental approach or perspective. In the event that an unseasonal lawsuit is dismissed procedurally, a lump sum attorney’s fee will have to be decided upon in accordance with the Paragraph 2 of Article 7 of the Attorney Minimum Fee Tariff. If the case is dismissed on merits, a proportional attorney’s fee is to be awarded.The Unification of Jurisprudence Decision dated February 18, 2022 decided that, in a lawsuit filed for a receivable that is not yet due, whether it is due or not is a matter to be evaluated ex officio and at every stage of the lawsuit within the scope of the legal interest as a condition of the lawsuit. With this case-law unification decision, a legal characterization has emerged where the due date is a litigation condition dependent on legal interest. Whether the receivable is due and whether the condition is met require an assessment of the substantive law. In an unseasonable lawsuit, the defendant asserts and proves that the claim is not yet due or that the condition has not yet been fulfilled. Claims regarding the maturity or condition may be asserted through defenses or objections. The ex officio consideration of these periods related to substantive law arises not from the fact that they are procedural conditions of action but from the fact that they have the nature of objections based on merit.Explaining conditional or contingent receivables through the concepts of cause of action and legal benefit may cause problems in terms of enforcement and bankruptcy law. Enforcement law and civil procedural law are two complementary fields. Enforcement law is an extension of civil procedural law. If one accepts conditional receivables or due receivables as a condition of litigation, the enforcement office will have to take the condition and due date into consideration ex officio during the enforcement proceedings.The decision to dismiss an unseasonal lawsuit only involves a determination that the receivable cannot yet be claimed. In an unseasonal lawsuit, the existence or nonexistence of the original receivable is not evaluated. A decision has not yet been made regarding the receivable whose right to be claimed has not yet occurred. Although not applicable to all unseasonal lawsuits, this study has the opinion that a lawsuit that is filed before the condition is realized or before the maturity date has occurred should be dismissed for the time being in terms of receivables subject to condition or maturity. In the case of a claim for a future performance, the claimant’s claim is not yet recognizable, and the claimant must wait until the due date. This decision is no final and definitive rejection of the claim. The dismissal of the lawsuit for the time being is a final procedural decision and not a final definitive rejection of the claim. Therefore, once the condition is fulfilled or the due date has been reached, the lawsuit may be reopened without facing the objection of res judicata. The procedural dismissal of unseasonal cases with a decision of dismissal for the time being will also resolve the issue of whether the attorney’s fee will be fixed or proportional. Because unseasonable lawsuits are generally evaluated based on the concepts of substantive law and not procedural law, the realization of the condition, the arrival of the due date, or the expiration of the period after the lawsuit is filed are considered as new facts. Therefore, after the lawsuit is filed, facts such as the realization of the condition and the maturity or expiration of the term can be asserted by the parties as a rule without being subject to any prohibition regarding changing the claim and/or defense.

Evaluating Unseasonable (Untimely/Early) Litigation Within The Scope of Judicial Decisions

Sümeyye

Articles 659-668 of the Turkish Civil Code No. 4721 (TCC) had regulated the provisions on the sharing of inheritance in inheritance cases involving agricultural lands or agricultural enterprises. However, Law No. 6537 repealed these relevant articles of the TCC and moved the regulations of these cases under the Soil Conservation and Land Use Law No. 5403 (SCLUL). As a rule, immovables are allocated to one of the heirs based on the actual (market, current) value at the time of distributing the inheritance. Inheritance cases involving agricultural lands are an exception, as the property is allocated based on the income value (Art. 657 TCC, Art. 8/C, f. 2/a of the SCLUL). The definition and calculation of the income-based value is not legally regulated but provisions on how to do this are made in the Regulation on the Transfer of Ownership of Agricultural Lands (RTOAL). In 2014, the regulations regarding the TCC provisions on agricultural immovables in SCLUL also detailed the income value basis. In December 2021, many changes were also made to the provisions in RTOAL on how agricultural lands are to be evaluated.The income-based value of agricultural land is often considerably lower than its real (market/fair) value. This study presents solutions to the existing problems regarding how agricultural lands subject to inheritance laws are allocated to heirs based on income evaluations. The difference in value between the income-based evaluation and market value creates a breach of interest, especially for the heirs other than the one to whom the agricultural land is to be allocated. However, this study is of the opinion that this situation should be evaluated within the framework of the purposes for which the income capitalization method was adopted, because applying the value obtained using the income capitalization method is more appropriate with regard to maintaining objectivity, protecting the financial status of the competent heir to whom the agricultural land is allocated, and ensuring in relation to this continuity in the agricultural system. However, adopting the income capitalization method when allocating agricultural lands does not justify the gap that exists between the incomebased value and the market value. In this respect, importance is had in updating the data from the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat) and Ministry over shorter time frames and in increasing the number of academic studies to be conducted in the&nbsp;region in order to determine the correct capitalization interest rate and to evaluate the enhancement factors regarding objective value. In addition, having experts be experts in their field and make comparisons on the market value of a large number of similar agricultural lands based on the market approach and annual net income would be more appropriate in order to create a balance between the income-based and actual market values.The legislation contains no provision limiting a competent heir to whom agricultural land has been allocated from transferring its ownership at market value. In other words, a competent heir who has been allocated agricultural land based on the estimated income value may transfer said land to a third party subject to a barter agreement or put it up as capital in a company. Therefore, this competent heir will be able to obtain as much profit as the difference between the income-based value and the value determined in the relevant agreement under which the obligation to transfer ownership is undertaken. In this context, the claim should be accepted that profit has been purposefully obtained by interpreting the provision of the Law on the increase in value due to non-agricultural use (Art. 8/C/V TKAKK). However, this article is of the opinion that regulating a legislative provision would be more appropriate in which the profit to be obtained due to the transfer of agricultural land by a competent heir can also be claimed by the other heirs in proportion to their inheritance shares.In addition to all these suggestions, legislators should consider giving the outright ownership of agricultural lands to all heirs by granting usufruct rights to the competent heir and deducting the value of the usufruct right from the inheritance share. Choosing this method will both prevent the violation of the interests of other heirs due to agricultural lands not being allocated at their actual market value as well as ensure continuity in agriculture wherein competent heirs actually cultivate the agricultural lands. However, calculating the usufruct value should not be forgotten to also fall within the scope of evaluation. Therefore,the problems that arise when making income-based evaluations will obviously also arise with regard to the acceptance of usufruct rights. In addition, because inheritance shares not being terminated when applying usufruct rights may increase the likelihood of disputes, more problems are likely to occur than when using the income capitalization method. As a result, this study believes that, instead of granting usufruct rights to competent heirs regarding agricultural lands subject to inheritance, allocation should be made based on the value obtained by the income capitalization method within the scope of the solution proposals presented in the study.

Problems with the Income Value Basis in Agricultural Lands Subject to Inheritance

The ambiguity regarding many areas of constitutional law following the 2017 Amendments to the Turkish Constitution is also apparent in lawmaking. Annulling the executive branch’s power to introduce bills has raised questions regarding the executive branch’s role in the initial stages of lawmaking. The purpose of this paper is to clarify some of these issues by presenting and discussing the role of the executive and legislative branches of government in the initial stages of lawmaking (i.e., the preparation of bills).The paper identifies two main services in the initial stages of lawmaking: (i) assistance in obtaining information and conducting research in order to determine the necessity for enacting legislation and (ii) the preparation of draft bills that are technically accurate, that express concepts accurately, and that take into account existing enactments. The evaluation regarding the roles of the two branches of government is limited to these two services, and the study presents two sets of research questions: (i) Which mechanisms does the TBMM have access to in terms of the two services mentioned above, and is the TBMM’s institutional capacity sufficient for carrying out these services adequately? (ii) Has the executive organ been empowered to play a role in bill preparation through these two services as a result of the 2017 Constitutional Amendments, and if so, what are the legal limits to such power?Part I of the paper focuses on the mechanisms that Parliamentarians wield through Parliament. For this purpose, the paper presents and briefly analyzes the different mechanisms through which Parliament can obtain information for determining the necessity of enacting a law under three sections: (i) the constitutional mechanisms for obtaining information, (ii) the powers of the administrative staff of the TBMM&nbsp;&nbsp;in terms of conducting research and obtaining information, and (iii) the mechanisms regarding parliamentary committees. Lastly, the paper presents information on the assistance for legislative drafting as provided by the TBMM administrative staff, along with statistical data.Part II of the paper questions the power the executive organ has to play a role in the preparation of bills and the legal bases for this power. Firstly, the paper explores the legal limits for the sources of bills and the possibilities the executive organ has for producing information and draft legislation. The paper then examines the meaning, extent, and practice regarding the presidential power of recommendation, exploring whether this power can be interpreted as the constitutional foundation of the executive role and its assistance in preparing bills. Part III of the paper examines the regulations on executive drafting before and after the 2017 Constitutional Amendments and questions whether the regulations that are in force encompass legislative drafting in the aftermath of the amendments.Part IV of the paper puts forth the advantages and disadvantages of the executive branch’s involvement in the preparation of bills in the aftermath of the 2017 Constitutional Amendments. The paper identifies uncertainties and problematic issues and presents recommendations. Firstly, the article puts forth the advantages that the executive branch holds and what its participation contributes to the procedure. Secondly, this section identifies the need to regulate the power of recommendation and what the legal limits to such possible regulations are. Furthermore, the article identifies and considers the problems that have been encountered in terms of transparency, as well as the lack of the necessary checks and balances in the current governmental system. Finally, the article evaluates the sufficiency of the TBMM’s institutional capacity regarding personnel infrastructure and its capacity to obtain information and conduct research.

The Role of the Executive and Legislative Branch in the Preparation of Bills in Türkiye Following the 2017 Constitutional Amendments

Gökhan

Assist. Prof. Dr.

The issue of nullifying a judgment is one of the most arguable subjects in criminal procedural law. According to the prevailing opinion in the literature on criminal procedural law, judgments that are afflicted with particularly obvious defects are incapable of producing the intended effects due to consequences contrary to the general structure of criminal procedural law. Recognizing the validity of such judgments is to be refused due to being clearly intolerable for the legal community as a result of the extent and weight of their defects. Nullifying a judgment allows the recognition of a court judgment to be refused, thus allowing everyone (e.g., courts and enforcement authorities) to ignore said judgment without further judicial elimination proceedings. The supporters of this opinion use the term nullification to refer to the absence of the legal effects of a judgment. However, providing an exhaustive list of defects that constitute nullification is impossible.Whether a judgment given by a criminal court may be acceptably deemed to nullified due to the nature of the defects it contains and therefore also be incapable of having any legal consequences is an important issue to explain in terms of the theory of judicial proceedings. In the case of the acceptance of the nullification of a judgment given by an empowered court, apart from the judgment being considered unlawful by classification of the qualification of illegality, questions such as the criteria by which the qualification is made and the persons or authorities who are authorized to make this classification are to be answered in accordance with the criminal procedural system adopting the audit of legal remedy.As a judicial proceeding, judgments appear in the legal world through the occurrence of material, voluntary, and formal conditions. A judgment that contains these conditions legally subsists without having importance to whether its context is legally correct or not or whether it has complied with criminal procedural principles or not. In a criminal procedural system that foreseen an audit of legal remedy, the legal nullification of a judgment may be unaccepted regardless of the qualification of its illegality. An opinion that differs from the foreseen system of criminal procedure regarding the illegality of a judgment and basing this on the inconvenience of a judgment resulting in any legal consequences upon being rendered are undesirable for legal security. In this respect, regardless of the qualification of the illegality of a&nbsp;judgment a judicial authority has handed down, this illegality is to be resolved in an audit of legal remedy.As a result, the Turkish criminal procedural system is not designed to be able to reveal the legal consequences from a judgment being nullified. Due to the principle of legal security, the judgments courts hand down have an essential authority. The illegalities of these are eliminated through the audit of legal remedy, which is the accepted control mechanism in the structural scope of the criminal procedural system. One category is found that indicates how the nullification of a judgment is not predicated in the Criminal Procedural Code. The Criminal Procedural Code does not include nullification with regard to any illegality of judgment; regardless of the qualification of the illegality, the code has decided that all illegalities shall be discussed in an appeal and audit of legal remedy. In this respect and distinct from the illegalities subject to legal remedy, no reasons for nullification can be mentioned that refer to self-invalidity or that have foreseen a criterion of distinction. The category of nullifying a judgment is unnecessary in the Turkish legal system, as it particularly includes the Chief Public Prosecutor Objection and the Reversal in Favor of the Law as extraordinary legal remedies, thus revealing the Turkish legal system to have a more comprehensive system of audit of legal remedy comparted to German criminal procedural law.

The Issue of Nullifying a Judgment in Criminal Procedural Law

Koray

Zoning plans can be said to be technical legal documents composed of written and visual materials for defining the spatial characteristic and functional identity of urban settlements. In the other words, the priority aim of zoning plans is to afford an urban settlement’s spatial, ecological, sociocultural, and economic necessities. Zoning plans are also regulatory documents that assist in making healthy livable settlements.In this context, zoning plans depend on the relationships between legislative knowledge, which is necessarily composed of formal obligations, and the planning criteria and principles of urbanism, which consist of subjective and objective qualifications. Therefore, planning criteria and the principles of urbanism principles can be viewed as the criteria for a subjective and objective review of zoning plans as one of the main tools of regulatory documents regarding property rights.According to the literature on the judicial review of zoning plans, zoning plans are seen to have been examined in terms of plans types, special purpose plans, the hierarchical order between plans and authority, responsible procedures, and the principles of urban planning. The source of these judicial reviews is based on the knowledge of national legislation alongside the status of council decisions regarding the national dimension, as well as internationally on the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights.This paper attempts to determine and detail the context and contents of the planning criteria and principles of urbanism by benefitting from the literature on legislative knowledge, urban planning, and law. In this framework, the study is designed to be a systematic guide regarding planning criteria and the principles of urbanism for resolving disputes related to zoning plans.As a result of this paper, a guide has been created regarding planning criteria and the principles of urbanism composed of seven criteria based on the planning literature and on the legal knowledge of planning criteria and the principles of urbanism. The first criterion entails that zoning plans should be prepared in terms of the eligibility of the planning methods and techniques in the context of legislative obligations and the planning literature. These methods and techniques should be composed of successive stages that involve the design of the scenario, including vision and strategies, survey and analysis, synthesis, planning implementation and monitoring, controls, and revision. These stages are referred to as the spatial planning process in the urbanism literature. The second criterion is that integrity and continuity should exist among a zoning plan’s plan, legend, plan report, and plan notes. This also pertains to the integrity and continuity of plan decisions in the context of land use and the transportation system regarding the density in zoning plans.The third criterion is that zoning plans should provide knowledge on the required details with respect to the function and scale differentiation of the plan. In this framework, the decision contents of zoning plans regarding the different scales and types should show the differences in terms of their scales and types of plans. The fourth criterion states that zoning plans should have a hierarchical order from the upper scale to the lower scale between zoning plans. In the other words, lower scale plans should be prepared in accordance with the upper scale plan’s decisions. The fifth criterion states that the distribution of sociocultural services and technical infrastructure in zoning plans should be balanced and also should meet the sociocultural requirements in the context of legal obligations. The sixth criteria states that zoning plans’ spatial, functional, and demographic decisions should be in accordance with the site-specific conditions of the planning zone. Lastly, the seventh criterion states that all decisions in zoning plans should be objective in terms of how they distribute public services on private property. It is considered that this guide as a criteria set can be contributed subjectively, objectively, and technically to resolving disputes related to zoning plans.

A contribution to the judicial review process of the development plans: A guide proposal for planning criteria and the principles of urbanism

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Istanbul Law Review is a publication of Istanbul University, Faculty of Law.  

Istanbul Law Review is a quarterly, academic, peer reviewed journal which publishes articles in Turkish and English. Istanbul Law Review publishes articles, judicial reviews, legislation analysis’, publication criticism, translations which involves in law and law related subjects, and are based on genuine theoretical and practical academic research and suitable for national and international scale.

Istanbul Law Review involves in publications which are (i) capable of expanding theory and enhancing theoretical basis, (ii) analyzing either academic or judicial methodology, (iii) scrutinizing legal theory, practice, process, symbols etc. effecting society on private or public levels, (iv) exploring the subject in legal, sociological, political, psychological, philosophical, ethical, geographical and historical manner.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

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Istanbul Law Review

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Istanbul Law Review is a quarterly, academic, peer reviewed journal which publishes articles in Turkish and English. Istanbul Law Review publishes articles, judicial reviews, legislation analysis’, publication criticism, translations which involves in law and law related subjects, and are based on genuine theoretical and practical academic research and suitable for national and international scale.Istanbul Law Review involves in publications which are (i) capable of expanding theory and enhancing theoretical basis, (ii) analyzing either academic or judicial methodology, (iii) scrutinizing legal theory, practice, process, symbols etc. effecting society on private or public levels, (iv) exploring the subject in legal, sociological, political, psychological, philosophical, ethical, geographical and historical manner.In this frame, primary fields of interest are listed as follows:• Human rights law,• Criminal law,• Financial and fiscal law,• Civil law,• Commercial law,• Obligations law,• Execution and bankruptcy law

Aim and Scope

Web of Science - Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)TÜBİTAK-ULAKBİM TR Index EBSCO Central &amp; Eastern European Academic SourceEBSCO Legal SourceDOAJERIH PLUSSOBİAD

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All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

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Istanbul Law Review is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

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It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/BD7F3551BBE543F7A0E7628427A827AE" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form.</a> The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for double-blind peer review evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Peer Review

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated?- Are the methods described comprehensively?- Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

1. Istanbul Law Review is a peer reviewed Journal that is published four times a year (in March, June, September and December) and indexed by ESCI and ULAKBİM.2. The articles sent to be published in our journal should not be published elsewhere, not be submitted to other journals simultaneously even with the purpose of evaluation. In this purpose, the authors shall also be reguired to sign a letter of undertaking. 3. Articles that are considered as unsuitable with the publication principles by the Editorial Board are sent back to the author without review. It is sufficient for the article to be rejected by the Editorial Board if the spelling errors are extraordinary, the domestic and foreign resources required for the subject being examined are not utilized, the scientific criteria academic ethical principles are not complied with, the article subject does not have an up-to-date significance in terms of theory and-or practice. 4. Before the article is sent to the referees, it is subjected to plagiarism examination withthe help of special computer programs. If the digital similarity rate is above 20%, it is sufficient for the rejection of the article within the scope of the editorial review of the related software report. 5. The article to be published in the journal must be written following the highest academic standards. In this context, intellectual background and effort at the level of doctoral or associate professorship thesis are expected from the authors. 6. Papers that are approved by the Editorial Board are submitted to reviewers in line with blind peer review principle. Authors are not informed about the identity of the referees. According to the assessments of the referees, the paper may be approved for publication, required to resubmission with amendments or rejected on the basis of inadequate quality. The referee phase does not have a minimum or maximum duration. The follow-up of this issue is a duty and authority exclusively belonging to the Editorial Board. 7. As a result of the referee reports, the final discretion and responsibility regarding whether the article will be finally published and if it will be published, in which issue of the Journal, the editorial board is responsible. The existence of a single rejectionnegative referee report is sufficient to prevent the article from being published. 8. The completion of the referee stage does not give authors the authority to request a private or official document indicating that the article will be published. The authors, with the awareness and responsibility of this issue, apply for their articles to be published in Istanbul Law Review and to be subjected to peer review. 9. Authors, must provide their titles, institutions, correspondence address, phone number and e-mail address. 10. The Review accepts and publishes articles written in Turkish and English. The articles must include Turkish and English abstracts consisting of at least 250 and at most 300 words and at least five and at most fifteen keywords must be added to the paper in Turkish and English languages. Following the abstracts, there must also be an extended summary of 600-800 words for all the articles both in English and Turkish. The article subject to the publication application must contain a maximum of 20,000 words, including footnotes. There is no minimum word limit. 11. The main text and footnotes must be written in Times New Roman. Font size for the main text should be 12 with 1,5 line spacing while footnotes are written in font size 10 with 1 line spacing. Footnotes are to be shown at the bottom of the page. Citations must be made based on the OSCOLA citation system. Otherwise, the article is sent back to the author to make corrections without a referee assignment. Abbreviations and other issues in Turkish articles must be made following the announced spelling rules. The mentioned citation rules can be accessed at https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ihm. 12. Author’s name must be written bottom right of the Turkish and English title of the paper and should end with a star symbol. Star footnote should consists of title and institution of the author and correspondence address, phone number and e- mail address. 13. The article must consist of a bibliography at the end and references need to be arranged in alphabetical order.14. To be limited with the copies published by the Faculty; financial rights regarding reproduction, distribution, public performance, derivative works and translation of the papers which are approved for publication are to be transferred to the faculty to be used on the print, auditory, digital etc. media, nationwide and worldwide. Authors accept not to receive any royalty payment.15. Besides articles, also translations may be published in the accepted languages. These papers might be approved or rejected by the Editorial Board. Original text of the translation and consent of the rightful owner are also should be enclosed with the translation. Translations are also subject to the assessment of reviewers.16. Papers should be sent to iuhfdergiler@istanbul.edu.tr in Microsoft Word (*.doc, *.docx) file type.17. Only one article of an applicant in the same publication year (4 issues) could be subject to peer review.18. The Editorial Board determines the articles to be included in one issue of the journal by considering criteria such as the purpose of maintaining the balance of Private LawPublic Law, the date of submission of the article to the Journal, the date of completion of the referee stage, the timeliness of the article subject, and the proportional balance on whether the authors are members of Istanbul University.19. The Editorial Board makes the utmost effort to publish all issues with the same number of articles as possible. An article that has completed all the necessary steps for publication, including the layout stage, as of the date of publication of an issue, could not be published in the relevant issue in terms of the number of articles, however, after a certain period after the relevant issue, within the framework of the system called Online-First it is published digitally before the issue is released.

Author Guidelines

Before beginning the online submission process please read the Information for Authors and make sure you have the followings available:Article submissions should be submitted directly to the e-mail address <a href="mailto:iuhfdergiler@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">iuhfdergiler@istanbul.edu.tr</a>Cover letter to the editor<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li>Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li> <li>Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li>Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with OSCOLA.</li> </ul> </ul><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/BD7F3551BBE543F7A0E7628427A827AE" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/6444C75BA6B344EBB1496510B0BAF8A3" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the languge of the manuscript and in English</li> <li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li> <li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li> </ul> </ul>Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of manuscript and in English</li> <li>Abstracts: 250-30 words</li> <li>Key words: 5-15 words </li> <li>Extended Abstract (600-1000 words) in English (for the articles which are not in English)</li> <li>Main article sections</li> <li>Grant Support (if exists)</li> <li>Conflict of Interest (if exists)</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exits)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul>

Although references to review articles can be an efficient way to guide readers to a body of literature, review articles do not always reflect original work accurately. Readers should therefore be provided with direct references to original research sources whenever possible. On the other hand, extensive lists of references to original work on a topic can use excessive space on the printed page. Small numbers of references to key original papers often serve as well as more exhaustive lists, particularly since references can now be added to the electronic version of published papers, and since electronic literature searching allows readers to retrieve published literature efficiently. Papers accepted but not yet included in the issue are published online in the Early View section and they should be cited as “advance online publication”. Citing a “personal communication” should be avoided unless it provides essential information not available from a public source, in which case the name of the person and date of communication should be cited in parentheses in the text. For scientific articles, written permission and confirmation of accuracy from the source of a personal communication must be obtained.Reference Style and FormatIstanbul Law Review offers referencing style OSCOLA. OSCOLA (Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities) is published by the University of Oxford and detail and examples about the style can be found at https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/research-subject-groups/publications/oscolaOSCOLA Reference ExamplesPrimary SourcesDo not use full stops in abbreviations. Separate citations with a semi-colon.CasesGive the party names, followed by the neutral citation, followed by the Law Reports citation (eg AC, Ch, QB). If there is no neutral citation, give the Law Reports citation followed by the court in brackets. If the case is not reported in the Law Reports, cite the All ER or the WLR, or failing that a specialist report.Corr v IBC Vehicles Ltd [2008] UKHL 13, [2008] 1 AC 884.R (Roberts) v Parole Board [2004] EWCA Civ 1031, [2005] QB 410.Page v Smith [1996] AC 155 (HL).When pinpointing, give paragraph numbers in square brackets at the end of the citation. If the judgment has no paragraph numbers, provide the page number pinpoint after the court.Callery v Gray [2001] EWCA Civ 1117, [2001] 1 WLR 2112 [42], [45].Bunt v Tilley [2006] EWHC 407 (QB), [2006] 3 All ER 336 [1]–[37].R v Leeds County Court, ex p Morris [1990] QB 523 (QB) 530–31.If citing a particular judge:Arscott v The Coal Authority [2004] EWCA Civ 892, [2005] Env LR 6 [27] (Laws LJ).Statutes and statutory instrumentsAct of Supremacy 1558.Human Rights Act 1998, s 15(1)(b).Penalties for Disorderly Behaviour (Amendment of Minimum Age) Order 2004, SI 2004/3166.EU legislation and casesConsolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2008] OJ C115/13.Council Regulation (EC) 139/2004 on the control of concentrations between undertakings(EC Merger Regulation) [2004] OJ L24/1, art 5.Case C–176/03 Commission v Council [2005] ECR I–7879, paras 47–48.European Court of Human RightsOmojudi v UK (2009) 51 EHRR 10.Osman v UK ECHR 1998–VIII 3124.Balogh v Hungary App no 47940/99 (ECHR, 20 July 2004).Simpson v UK (1989) 64 DR 188.Secondary SourcesBooksGive the author’s name in the same form as in the publication, except in bibliographies, where you should give only the surname followed by the initial(s). Give relevant information about editions, translators and so forth before the publisher, and give page numbers at the end of the citation, after the brackets.Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (first published 1651, Penguin 1985) 268.Gareth Jones, Goff and Jones: The Law of Restitution (1st supp, 7th edn, Sweet &amp; Maxwell 2009).K Zweigert and H Kötz, An Introduction to Comparative Law (Tony Weir tr, 3rd edn, OUP 1998).Contributions to edited booksFrancis Rose, ‘The Evolution of the Species’ in Andrew Burrows and Alan Rodger (eds),Mapping the Law: Essays in Memory of Peter Birks (OUP 2006).EncyclopediasHalsbury’s Laws (5th edn, 2010) vol 57, para 53.Journal articlesPaul Craig, ‘Theory, “Pure Theory” and Values in Public Law’ [2005] PL 440.When pinpointing, put a comma between the first page of the article and the page pinpoint.JAG Griffith, ‘The Common Law and the Political Constitution’(2001) 117 LQR 42, 64.Online journalsGraham Greenleaf, ‘The Global Development of Free Access to Legal Information’ (2010)1(1) EJLT &lt; http://ejlt.org//article/view/17 &gt; accessed 27 July 2010.Command papers and Law Commission reportsDepartment for International Development, Eliminating World Poverty: Building our Common Future (White Paper, Cm 7656, 2009) ch 5.Law Commission, Reforming Bribery (Law Com No 313, 2008) paras 3.12–3.17.Websites and blogsSarah Cole, ‘Virtual Friend Fires Employee’ (Naked Law, 1 May 2009)&lt;www.nakedlaw.com/2009/05/index.html&gt; accessed 19 November 2009.Newspaper articlesJane Croft, ‘Supreme Court Warns on Quality’ Financial Times (London, 1 July 2010) 3.

<div><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/2BB9074E09174E55BE3CA4941309A672" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/F6FB8940C9B54CC08CDC740CCFC6B8F3" target="_blank">Title Page</a></div>

<div>Ensure that the following items are present:● Cover letter to the editor<ul><li>The category of the manuscript</li><li>Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li><li>Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li><li>Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li><li>Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li><li>Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li><li>Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with OSCOLA</li></ul>● <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/BD7F3551BBE543F7A0E7628427A827AE" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>● Permission of previously published copyrighted material if used in the present manuscript● <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/D4FC914AF17F43D6A40E18412A5E6731" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul><li>The category of the manuscript</li><li>The title of the manuscript</li><li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li><li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li><li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li></ul>● Main Manuscript Document<ul><li>The title of the manuscript</li><li>Abstract: 250-300 words</li><li>Extended Summary (600-1000 words) in English for the articles which are not in English </li><li>Key words: 5-15 words</li><li>Main article sections</li><li>Grant support (if exists)</li><li>Conflict of interest (if exists)</li><li>Acknowledgement (if exists)</li><li>References</li><li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li></ul>​</div>

Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	Abuzer Kendigelen, Ali Paslı
Full Text (PDF)