Although it is generally accepted that Muslim maritime activities first began in the period of ʻUthmān b. ʻAffān (23-35/644-656), Islamic historical sources mention some maritime landings and conquests carried out during the period/reign of ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb (13- 23/634-644) without his knowledge, as well as maritime activities carried out at his behest. In this study, the maritime activities carried out in the period of Caliph ‘Umar will be examined, the position and attitude of the caliph in the face of the developments, his perspectives on the sea and maritime affairs, and the measures taken to protect Muslims in the case of possible attacks will be discussed in the light of the information provided by the sources.

Before Islam, Arabs were engaged in some maritime activities. As a matter of fact, the use of sea and sea characteristics in the poems written by the poets of the age of Djāhiliyya confirms this situation. As efforts to spread and consolidate Islam in the Arabian Peninsula continued during the reign of Prophet Muḥammad (610-632) with the birth of Islam, activities at sea could not be carried out continuously and regularly by Muslims during the aforementioned years. In Abu Bākr’s short caliphate time (11-13/632-634), Muslims made remarkable progress towards Iraq and Syria. However, it is possible to say that their activities were not very effective in the seas during the reign of the first caliph after Prophet Muhammad since coastal countries such as Bilād al-Shām [Syria] and Egypt were not conquered.

In the history of Islam, it is understood from the information provided by the sources that the attempts with the aim of jihad in maritime affairs began in the time of Caliph ‘Umar. The main reason for this was that Muslims had gradually dominated the regions of Bilād al-Shām, Iran, Iraq and Egypt due to the jihadist activities carried out during ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb’s time.

It is worth noting that the capture of Bilād al-Shām and Egypt by the Islamic armies led to the birth of a new maritime age in the Mediterranean. As a matter of fact, the Battle of Yarmūk, which took place in 15 (636), would allow the Muslims to conquer the coastal cities, meaning the Muslims would be neighboring the Byzantine Empire, which was the only dominant power in the seas in this period in the east of the Mediterranean. Although ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb did not allow sea expeditions in the Mediterranean, with some of his practices in coastal cities, he seems to have laid the groundwork for the operations that his successor would carry out.

The first statesman who understood that their dominance in Syria and Egypt was under threat if Byzantium’s superiority at the sea continued and realized that the struggle against Byzantium could not be carried out without the support of the navy during the reign of Caliph ‘Umar was Muʿāwiya (d. 60/680). In general, in addition to the currently available information about the maritime activities carried out in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and 

Red Sea during ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb’s era, it is seen that Muʿāwiya, who wanted to carry out maritime activities in the Mediterranean from the coastal parts of Bilād al-Shām, had an insistent request. In this regard, it was natural for Caliph ‘Umar to consult with the governor of Egypt, which is on the Mediterranean coast, to get an idea. However, it seems unlikely that the caliph did not predict that Byzantium was the supreme power in this sea, and his answer to Muʿāwiya was actually about knowing the truth. Another reason for Muʿāwiya’s rejection of his request, on the other hand, was related to the number and value of Muslims.

It should be noted ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb’s reluctance to allow his commanders or governors to make sea journeys was not due to religious requirements. The sunna of the prophet, for example, his actions, rhetoric, and the Ḳurʾān did not prohibit Muslims from traveling in the sea. The Ḳurʾān encourages Muslims to explores the seas and take advantage of the rich resources there. In the same way, the hadiths recommend that Muslims should organize sea travel, go to Makka (Mecca) for Hadj, use sea resources, and develop overseas trade.

‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb made every effort to preserve the coastal cities in the captured areas when Iran was conquered. In fact, based on the information provided by Islamic historical sources, it seems possible that Muslims actually started maritime activities during the period of Caliph ‘Umar. The main reason for ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb’s reaction to the naval operations carried out in this geography without his permission and the hesitation of Muslims to explore the seas are the likely fatal consequences. The answer to Muʿāwiya is that Caliph ‘Umar was sensitive to the value of human life and even the number of Muslim soldiers, anticipating or knowing what power he was facing. Because of the Byzantine naval force, ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb ordered Muʿāwiya to strengthen the garrisons in the coastal areas and keep the cities under control, even if he did not allow them to make expeditions in the Mediterranean. Although he had hesitated to go to sea, he took various initiatives/steps to protect the coastal cities.

It is necessary to emphasize the following: the foundation of maritime activities in the Mediterranean in a de facto manner during ʻUthmān b. ʻAffān’s era was laid during the period of his predecessor. As a matter of fact, during ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb’s time, naval operations in the Red Sea, Uman, Persian Gulf and India were relatively concentrated, while during ʻUthmān b. ʻAffān’s caliphate, it is necessary to state that naval expeditions were concentrated in the Mediterranean. The attitude of Caliph ‘Umar, who did not allow the sea expeditions that a commander/admiral like Muʿāwiya wanted to conduct in the Mediterranean and restricted maritime activities during his own caliphate, stemmed from the risk of harm to the Muslims under his rule. In addition, the caliph, who was aware of the small number of Muslims and the more deadly consequences of sea expeditions compared to land wars, must have preferred a cautious attitude in order not to allow mass deaths. The main reason why ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb behaved less tolerantly regarding the sea was the experience of Byzantines and Persians in maritime affairs.

In this article, the maritime activities carried out in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, and Red Sea during the caliphate of ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb, the intensive measures taken to protect the coastal cities in Bilād al-Shām, the factors affecting the attitude of the caliph, known for making decisions on the basis of consultation, towards the sea and maritime affairs were handled and evaluated chronologically in the light of the information provided by the main sources.