References

• African Commission, African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) (1998) < https:// au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/36390-treaty-0011_-_african_charter_on_human_and_ peoples_rights_e.pdf> ‘accessed 9 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• Alexy Robert, ‘Constitutional Rights, Balancing and Rationality’ (2003) 16(2) Ratio Juris 131. google scholar
• Amnesty International, Policy on State Obligations to Respect, Protect and Fulfil the Human Rights of Sex Workers (2016) <www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol30/4062/2016/en/> ‘accessed 26 Aug 2023’. google scholar
• Armstrong Lynzi, Abel Gillian, Sex Work and the New Zealand Model: Decriminalisation and Social Change (Bristol University Press 2020). google scholar
• Ashworth Andrew and Zedner Lucia, ‘Prevention and Criminalization: Justifications and Limits’ (2012) 15(4) New Criminal Law Review 542. google scholar
• Ashworth Andrew, ‘Conceptions of Overcriminalization’ (2008) 5 Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 407. google scholar
• Ashworth Andrew, ‘Is the criminal law a lost cause?’ (2000) 116 Law Quarterly Review 225. google scholar
• Barnett Laura and Casavant Lyne, Prostitution: A Review of Legislation in Selected Countries (Library of Parliament Background Papers 2014) Library of Parliament <https://publications. gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/bdp-lop/bp/2011-115-1-eng.pdf> ‘accessed 25 Aug 2023’. google scholar
• Bassermann Lujo, The Oldest Profession: A History of Prostitution (1st edn, Dorset Press 1994). google scholar
• Bisschop Paul, Kastoryano Stephen and Klaauw Bas van der, ‘Street Prostitution Zones and Crime’ (2015) IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc Discussion Paper No. 9038. google scholar
• Chon Don Soo, ‘Gender Equality, Liberalism, and Attitude Toward Prostitution: Variation in Cross-National Study’ (2015) 30(7) Journal of Family Violence 827. google scholar
• Christie Nils, ‘The Ideal Victim’ in Fattah Ezzat A. (ed) From Crime Policy to Victim Policy: Reorienting the Justice System (Palgrave Macmillan 1986). google scholar
• Council of Europe, European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) (1950) <http://www.echr.coe. int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf> ‘accessed 9 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• Crown Prosecution Service, Prostitution and Exploitation of Prostitution, <https://www.cps.gov. uk/legal-guidance/prostitution-and-exploitation-prostitution> ‘accessed 4 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• Danna Daniela, Report on prostitution laws in the European Union (2014), <http:// lastradainternational.org/lsidocs/3048-EU-prostitution-laws.pdf> ‘accessed 3 September 2023’. google scholar
• de Marneffe Peter, Liberalism and Prostitution (Oxford University Press 2009). google scholar
• de Schutter Olivier, The Prohibition of Discrimination under European Human Rights Law (2011) European Commission Directorate-General for Justice, < www.ab.gov.tr/files/ardb/evt/1_ avrupa_birligi/1_6_raporlar/1_3_diger/human_rights/prohibition_of_discrimination_under_ european_human_rights_law.pdf > ‘accessed 19 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• Dewey Susan, Zheng Tiantian and Orchard Treena, Sex Workers and Criminalization in North America and China: Ethical and Legal Issues in Exclusionary Regimes (Springer 2016). google scholar
• Duff Robin Antony, ‘Perversions and Subversions of Criminal Law’ in Antony Duff Robin and others (eds), The Boundaries of the Criminal Law (Oxford University Press 2010). google scholar
• Duff Robin Antony, ‘Towards a Modest Legal Moralism’ (2014) 8(1) Criminal Law and Philosophy Vol.8(1) 217. google scholar
• Duff Robin Antony, Answering for Crime Responsibility and Liability in the Criminal Law (Hart 2007). google scholar
• European Parliament, Resolution of 14 September 2023 on the regulation of prostitution in the EU: its cross-border implications and impact on gender equality and women’s rights (2022/2139(INI)) <www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2023-0328_EN.pdf> ‘accessed 10 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Handbook on European non-discrimination law (2010) <www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d886bf02.pdf > ‘accessed 9 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• Farley Melissa, ‘Prostitution and the Invisibility of Harm’ (2003) 26(3-4) Women & Therapy 247. google scholar
• Farmer Lindsay, ‘Criminal Wrongs in Historical Perspective’ in Duff Robin Antony and others (eds), The Boundaries of the Criminal Law (Oxford 2010). google scholar
• Feinberg Joel, The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law Volume 1: Harm to Others (Oxford University Press 1987). google scholar
• Gerards Janneke, ‘How to improve the necessity test of the European Court of Human Rights’ (2013) 11(2) International Journal of Constitutional Law 466. google scholar
• Gilead Amihud, ‘Philosophical Prostitution’ (2010) 6 (1) Journal of Social Sciences 85. google scholar
• Gould Arthur, ‘The Criminalisation of Buying Sex: the Politics of Prostitution in Sweden’ (2001) 30(3) Journal of Social Policy 437. google scholar
• Harcourt Bernard E., ‘The Collapse of the Harm Principle’ (1999) 90(1) Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 109. google scholar
• Harcourt Christine and others, ‘The decriminalisation of prostitution is associated with better coverage of health promotion programs for sex workers’ (2010) 34(5) Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 482. google scholar
• Hernandez-Truyol Berta E. and Larson Jane E., ‘Sexual Labor and Human Rights’ (2006) 37(2) Columbia Human Rights Law Review 391. google scholar
• Home Office, A Review of Effective Practice in Responding to Prostitution (2011) www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97778/responding-to-prostitution.pdf> ‘accessed 7 Oct 2020’. google scholar
• Home Office, Paying the Price: A Consultation Paper on Prostitution (2004) <http://news.bbc. co.uk/nol/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/16_07_04_paying.pdf> ‘accessed 10 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• Home Office, Report of the Committee on Homosexual Offences and Prostitution (Cmnd 1957). google scholar
• Hong Yan Alicia and others, ‘Self-Perceived Stigma, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicidal Behaviors Among Female Sex Workers in China’ (2010) 21(1) Journal of Transcultural Nursing 29. google scholar
• House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, Prostitution (2016) <http://www.publications. parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmhaff/26/26.pdf> ‘accessed 28 Aug 2023’. google scholar
• Husak Douglas, ‘Why Punish the Deserving?’ (1992) 26(4) Noûs 447. google scholar
• Husak Douglas, Overcriminalization: The Limits of the Criminal Law (Oxford University Press 2007). google scholar
• James Jennifer, ‘The prostitute as victim’ in Chapman Jane Roberts and Gates Margaret (eds) The victimization of women (Sage 1978). google scholar
• Koken Juline, ‘Independent Female Escort’s Strategies for Coping with Sex Work Related Stigma’ (2012) 16(3) Sexuality & Culture 209. google scholar
• Krüsi Andrea and others, ‘Criminalisation of clients: reproducing vulnerabilities for violence and poor health among street-based sex workers in Canada - a qualitative study’ (2014) 4(6) BMJ Open <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005191> ‘accessed 5 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• Larson Jane E., ‘Prostitution, Labor and Human Rights’ (2004) 37(3) U.C. Davis Law Review 673. google scholar
• Lowman John, ‘Street Prostitution Control: Some Canadian Reflections on the Finsbury Park Experience’ (1992) 32(1) The British Journal of Criminology 1. google scholar
• Marshall Sandra and Duff Robin Antony, ‘Criminalization and Sharing Wrongs’ (1998) 11 Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 7. google scholar
• Matthews Roger and O’Neill Maggie, Prostitution (Ashgate 2003). google scholar
• May Tiggey and others, Police Research Paper Series 118 Street business: The links between sex and drug markets (1999). google scholar
• Melander Sakari, ‘Ultima Ratio in European Criminal Law’ (2013) 3(1) Onati Socio-Legal Series 42. google scholar
• Micheletto Lucille, ‘Towards an Integrated (and Possibly Pan-European?) Prima Facie Legitimacy Test: Merging the Rechtsgut Theory, the Offensivita Principle, and the Harm Principle’ (2021) 29 European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 241. google scholar
• Mill John Stuart and Gray John, Smith G.W. (eds), J.S.Mill, On Liberty, in focus (Routledge 1991). google scholar
• Moeckli Daniel and others, (eds) International human rights law (Oxford University Press 2014). google scholar
• Moore Michael S., Placing blame: a general theory of the criminal law (Oxford University Press 2010). google scholar
• Nestadt Danielle Friedman and others, ‘Criminalization and coercion: sexual encounters with police among a longitudinal cohort of women who exchange sex in Baltimore, Maryland’ (2023) 20(11) Harm Reduction Journal 1. google scholar
• Ole Martin Moen, ‘Is prostitution harmful?’ (2014) 40(2) Journal of Medical Ethics 73. google scholar
• Oselin Sharon S., ‘Leaving the Streets: Transformation of Prostitute Identity Within the Prostitution Rehabilitation Program’ (2009) 30(4) Deviant Behavior 379. google scholar
• Persak Nina, ‘Prostitution, harm and the criminalisation of clients’ in Lieven Pauwels and Gert Vermeulen (eds) Update in de criminologie VI: actuele ontwikkelingen inzake EU-strafrecht, veiligheid & preventie, politie, strafprocedure, prostitutie en mensenhandel, drugsbeleid en penology (Maklu 2012). google scholar
• Phillips Rachel and others, ‘Courtesy stigma: a hidden health concern among front-line service providers to sex workers’ (2012) 34(5) Sociology of Health & Illness 681. google scholar
• Phoenix Jo, ‘Sex, money and the regulation of women’s ‘choices’: a political economy of prostitution’ (2007) 70(1) Criminal Justice Matters 25. google scholar
• Phoenix Joanna, ‘Prostitute Identities: Men, Money and Violence’ (2000) 40(1) The British Journal of Criminology 37. google scholar
• Primoratz Igor, ‘What’s Wrong with Prostitution?’ (1993) 68(264) Philosophy 159. google scholar
• Reanda Laura, ‘Prostitution as a Human Rights Question: Problems and Prospects of United Nations Action’ (1991) 13(2) Human Rights Quarterly 202. google scholar
• Regushevskaya Elena and Tuormaa Tuija, ‘How do prostitution consumers value health and position health in their discussions? Qualitative analysis of online forums’ (2014) 42(7) Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 603. google scholar
• Rekart Michael L., ‘Sex-work harm reduction’ (2005) 366(9503) The Lancet 2123. google scholar
• Roche Kirsten and Keith Corey, ‘How stigma affects healthcare access for transgender sex workers’ 23(21) British Journal of Nursing 1147. google scholar
• Sagar Tracey, ‘Street Watch: Concept and Practice’ (2005) 45(1) The British Journal of Criminology 98. google scholar
• Sallmann Jolanda, ‘Living With Stigma: Women’s Experiences of Prostitution and Substance Use’ (2010) 25(2) Affilia Journal of Women and Social Work 146. google scholar
• Sanders Teela, ‘The Risks of Street Prostitution: Punters, Police and Protesters’ (2004) 41(9) Urban Studies 1703. google scholar
• Sanders Teela, O’Neill Maggie and Pitcher Jane, Prostitution: Sex Work, Policy and Politics (SAGE 2009). google scholar
• Schulze Erika and others, Sexual exploitation and prostitution and its impact on gender equality (2014) European Parliament Policy Department C: Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs PE 493.040, <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2014/493040/IPOL-FEMM_ET(2014)493040_EN.pdf> ‘accessed 15 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• Scottish Parliament, Proposed Criminalisation of the Purchase of Sex (Scotland) Bill (2) (2012) <https://archive2021.parliament.scot/S4_MembersBills/Criminalisation_of_the_Purchase_of_ Sex_(2)_Consultation.pdf > ‘accessed 26 Aug 2023’. google scholar
• Scoular Jane, ‘The ‘subject’ of prostitution: interpreting the discursive, symbolic and material position of sex/work in feminist theory’ (2004) 5(3) Feminist theory 343. google scholar
• Shaver Frances M., ‘Prostitution: A Critical Analysis of Three Policy Approaches’ (1985) 11(3) Canadian Public Policy 493. google scholar
• Sieckmann Jan, ‘Proportionality as a Universal Human Rights Principe’ in Duarte David, Sampaio Jorge Silva (eds), Proportionality in Law: An Analytical Perspective (Springer 2018). google scholar
• Simester A.P. and Von Hirsch Andreas, Crimes, Harms and Wrongs: On the Principles of Criminalisation (Hart 2011). google scholar
• Simpson Brian, ‘Murder, prostitution and patriarchy: why serial killing is a feminist issue’ (2001) 26(6) Alternative Law Journal 278. google scholar
• Stoker Laura, ‘Political Value Judgments’ in Kuklinski James H. (ed.) Citizens and Politics (Cambridge University Press 2001). google scholar
• Tadros Victor, ‘Harm, Sovereignty, and Prohibition’ (2011) 17(1) Legal Theory 35. google scholar
• Tomura Miyuki, ‘A Prostitute’s Lived Experiences of Stigma’ (2009) 40(1) Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 51. google scholar
• United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, What are human rights? < www.ohchr.org/en/what-are-human-rights#:~:text=These%20universal%20rights%20are%20 inherent,work%2C%20health%2C%20and%20liberty.> ‘accessed 16 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Human Trafficking, <www.unodc.org/unodc/en/ human-Trafficking/Human-Trafficking.html> ‘accessed 4 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• United Nations, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966) <https:// treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20999/volume-999-I-14668-English.pdf> ‘accessed 9 Oct 2023>. google scholar
• United Nations, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (1966) <www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/cescr.pdf> ‘accessed 9 Oct 2023>. google scholar
• United Nations, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) (1965) <www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/cerd.pdf> ‘accessed 8 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• United Nations, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979) <www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm> ‘accessed 9 Oct 2023’. google scholar
• United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948), <http://www.un.org/ en/universal-declaration-human-rights/> ‘accessed 16 Sep 2023’. google scholar
• Vanwesenbeeck Ine, ‘Prostitution Push and Pull: Male and Female Perspectives’ (2013) 50(1) The Journal of Sex Research 11. google scholar
• Weiwei Li, ‘Equality and Non-Discrimination Under International Human Rights Law’ (2004) 03/2004 The Norwegian Centre for Human Rights Research Notes. google scholar
• Wendt Rudolf, ‘The principle of “Ultima Ratio” And/Or the Principle of Proportionality’ (2013) 3(1) Onati Socio-Legal Series 81. google scholar
• Whitaker Teresa, Ryan Paul and Cox Gemma, ‘Stigmatization Among Drug-Using Sex Workers Accessing Support Services in Dublin’ (2011) 21(8) Qualitative health research 1086. google scholar
• Williamson Celia and Folaron Gail, ‘Violence, Risk and Survival Strategies of Street Prostitution’ (2001) 23(5) Western Journal of Nursing Research 463. google scholar
• Wilson William, Central Issues in Criminal Theory (Hart 2002). google scholar

Citations