Traces of Warfare in a Medieval City: Examples of Tribolos (Caltrop) and Arrowheads Found in Amorium Inner Wall Excavations
Since ancient times, military strategies as well as the quality of the war material used have played an important role in winning wars that have been fought for political, economic or religious reasons. Archaeological excavations provide important data on the identification of such war materials. In fact, many war materials used for offensive or defensive purposes have been identified in many centres. Amorium, which is located within the borders of Afyonkarahisar province today, is known to have been the scene of military sieges at certain intervals throughout the Middle Ages due to its location on the main road routes in Anatolia. Archaeological excavations carried out in the city further substantiate the information derived from written sources. As a matter of fact, various war materials related to these sieges were found in different parts of the city.
This study analyzes a group of tribolos (caltrop) and arrowhead finds recovered during the excavations in Amorium, which are thought to be related to military sieges. These finds were found in the Inner Wall, which is located in the southwest corner of the Upper City and is considered to be the most protected part of the city. The tribolos (caltrop) samples, all of which are made of iron and produced by the forging technique, were analysed as a single type, while the arrowhead samples were evaluated in three different types: flat, quadrangular and triangular. In addition, both types of finds were dated on the basis of written sources, find:space relationship and similar examples found in other centres.
Bir Orta Çağ Kentinde Savaşın İzleri: Amorium İç Sur Kazılarında Bulunan Tribolos (Caltrop) ve Ok Ucu Örnekleri
Eski çağlardan bu yana siyasi, ekonomik ya da dinî sebeplerden dolayı meydana gelen savaşların kazanılmasında askerî stratejilerin yanı sıra kullanılan savaş malzemesinin niteliği de önemli rol oynamıştır. Arkeolojik kazı çalışmaları, bu türden savaş malzemelerini saptayabilme noktasında önemli veriler sunmaktadır. Nitekim birçok merkezde saldırı ya da savunma amacıyla kullanılan çok sayıda savaş malzemesi tespit edilmiştir. Günümüzde Afyonkarahisar il sınırları içerisinde yer alan Amorium’un da Anadolu’daki başlıca yol güzergâhları üzerindeki konumundan dolayı Orta Çağ boyunca belli aralıklarla askerî kuşatmalara sahne olduğu bilinmektedir. Yazılı kaynaklardan edinilen bu bilgi, kentte yürütülen arkeolojik kazı çalışmalarıyla da desteklenmektedir. Nitekim kentin farklı noktalarında bu kuşatmalara ilişkin çeşitli savaş malzemesi buluntusu ele geçmiştir.
Bu çalışmada Amorium kazılarında ele geçen ve askerî kuşatmalarla ilişkili olduğu düşünülen bir grup tribolos (caltrop) ve ok ucu buluntusu incelenmiştir. Söz konusu buluntular, Yukarı Şehir’in güneybatı köşesinde yer alan ve kentin en korunaklı bölümü olarak değerlendirilen İç Sur’da tespit edilmiştir. Tamamı demir malzemeden olup dövme tekniği ile üretilen buluntulardan tribolos (caltrop) örnekleri tek tip, ok ucu örnekleri ise yassı, dörtgen ve üçgen kesitli olmak üzere üç farklı tip hâlinde değerlendirilmiştir. Bununla birlikte her iki buluntu türü, yazılı kaynaklar, buluntu:mekân ilişkisi ve diğer merkezlerde tespit edilen benzer örneklerden yola çıkılarak tarihlendirilmeye çalışılmıştır
War, one of the oldest and most widespread phenomena in human history, is organised armed conflict usually between two or more groups for various purposes such as control, dominance, resources, or ideological reasons. Wars have played a major role in shaping not only military strategy and technology but also politics, economics and social structure. In addition to military strategy, the technological sophistication of the war material used has played an important role in winning such difficult battles. Since ancient times, warriors have developed various equipment used for personal protection and as effective means of attack. Spears, swords, maces, arrows, bows, tribolos, shields, helmets and armour usually made of metal, leather or wood are the main tools commonly used in ancient battlefields. In many centres where archaeological excavations have been carried out, the finds of such war material have been identified. These finds shed light on the military history of the dominant powers in these centres and contribute to the understanding of their offensive or defensive strategies.
The subject of this study is a group of tribolos (caltrop) and arrowheads found during the excavations of the Inner Wall of Amorium. The Inner Wall, which is located in the southwest of the Upper City walls and has walls at least as strong as the main city walls, is extremely important both in terms of its boundaries and in terms of representing a third line of defence of the city with its living area separated from other areas. The Inner Wall, part of the defence system of Amorium, has been the area on which the most ideas have been carried out since the archaeological excavations started in 2014. The architectural features of the Inner Wall and the processes of its formation and change are very limited. Therefore, there is still a need to complete the archaeological studies in the area. The Inner Wall covers a rectangular area measuring approximately 40x70 m. The 2.30:2.40 m thick fortification walls are supported by towers from the outside and buttresses on the south and west walls from the inside. The south and west walls of the Inner Wall also constitute the south and west walls of the Upper City walls. While there are no traces of any buttresses on the east and north walls of the Inner Wall, there are two square towers outside the east and north walls. These two walls, which are supported by towers from the outside and do not have buttresses on the inner surface, exhibit different characteristics in terms of material:technique when compared to the southern and western walls. In addition, the dilatation found at the junction of the Upper City walls and the Inner Wall in the southeast of the Inner Wall indicates that the eastern and northern walls of the Inner Wall were added later to the Upper City walls. It is possible that Amorium underwent a similar change/transformation during the period when permanent decisions were taken in the defence systems of cities against Arab raids in Anatolia.
The tribolos (caltrop) samples, which are all made of iron and produced by the forging technique are analysed in a single type, while the arrowhead samples are evaluated in 3 different types: flat, quadrangular and triangular. Tribolos constitute an important group of war material from the Inner Wall of Amorium. The Tribolos finds are 4.2:4.5 cm high and weigh 8.44:13.34 g Tribolos consists of four spikes close to each other in length in accordance with the definitions of Flavius Vegetius and Propocius. When thrown on the ground, one end always extends upwards and functions as such, and was used as an effective weapon on the transit routes of cavalry and infantry units, in campsites, or in the defence of cities. Although it is not known exactly when tribolos appeared, written sources reveal that they were used as a war material as early as the 5th century BC. In addition to written sources, surviving examples reveal that tribolos were used as an effective weapon among war materials. The tribolos from Alesia in France, Vindonisa in Switzerland and Walthamstow in England are dated to the 1st century AD, while the tribolos from Europos in Syria:Dura and Caerleon in England are dated to the 3rd century AD. The tribolos exhibited in the Georgian National Museum, which is close to size to the Amorium tribolos, is dated to the late Middle Ages. In Anatolia, the examples found during the rescue excavations of the Kureyşliler Dam were dated to the Middle Ages.
The other type of arrowhead is one of the oldest and most effective military equipment known since ancient times. Being a long:range weapon, it was sometimes possible to inflict damage on the enemy with effective arrow shots without engaging in hand:to:hand combat. Numerous arrowhead finds, varying in material and form, have been found in many centres where such battles were fought. Similar examples of Amorium arrowhead finds can be found in Izmir:Pergamon (Late Byzantine Period), Izmir:Metropolis (11th century AD), Izmir:Sardes (12th:13th century AD Byzan: tine Period), Eskişehir:Karacahisar Castle (12th:13th century AD), Isparta:Sultan Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev Caravanserai (13th century AD), Konya:Gevale Castle (13th century AD), Adıyaman:Samsat Mound (12th:13th century AD). centuries), Elazığ:Taşkun (Medieval Period) and Elazığ:Aşvan Castle (Byzantine Period). Outside of Anatolia, similar examples can be found in Corinth, Greece (Byzantine Period), Israel:Samaria (Medieval Period), Poland:Plemieta (13th century AD) and Djodovo, Bulgaria (11th:12th century AD).
Considering similar examples, it is understood that tribolos and arrowhead finds were used over a fairly long period. Therefore, the find:space relationship and the historical background were considered in the dating suggestions of the samples recovered from the excavations of the Inner Wall of Amorium. The majority of the tribolos and arrowhead finds were found outside the Inner Wall area in front of the tower and the city wall. The destruction layer in the area where these finds were found, the burn marks on the walls and the repair marks on the tower are important archaeological findings in terms of pointing to a military confrontation that took place here. In the 7th century AD, the city of Amorium was the scene of many sieges due to its location on the main road routes through Anatolia as well as its administrative and military role in the region. The first of these sieges by the Umayyads occurred in 644 AD and were followed by sieges in 646, 666, 670, 707, 716, 779 and 796 AD. In 838 AD, the city was subjected to a devastating siege by the army of the Abbasid Caliph Mu'tasim (833:842 AD), and in 931 AD, it was besieged again by the army of Semel al:Dülefi, the Abbasid Emir of Tarsus. By the 11th century AD, Muslim:Arab raids in Anatolia had given way to Muslim:Turkish raids, one of which was organised against Amorium. It is known that the Seljuk commander Afşin Bey, who was in conflict with the Sultan Alp Arslan of the Great Seljuk State, and Ahmetşah organised a raid on Amorium in 1068 AD, during which the city was destroyed and many prisoners and booty were captured.
Although the written sources do not provide detailed information about these sieges, which continued at regular intervals from 644 AD onwards, Tabari, Ibn Kathīr and Ibn al:Asīr describe the siege by the army of the Abbasid Caliph Mutasim in narrative language and in detail. These expressions are important in that they indicate that the conflict in the 838 siege may have progressed to the Inner Wall area, and thus the tribolos and arrowhead finds may have been used in this siege. According to these expressions, in the siege in question, the Abbasid raiders advanced into the interior of the city after overcoming the outermost defence line of the city, which is now defined as the Lower City Wall. Following this advance, the Byzantine soldiers did not immediately surrender and retreated to defensive positions. Because of the effective attacks of the Abbasid soldiers, most of the city was destroyed, except for the castle of Aetius. Aeitus, who was on the defensive in the castle with his soldiers, suffered many losses due to the attacks of the Abassid soldiers and surrendered after a long wait.
It is possible that this fortress, where the Byzantine soldiers put up the last resistance against the Abbasid soldiers, was the Inner Wall, which is considered to be the most protected area of the city and which has been largely exposed by excavations today. In this case, it is also possible to think that the tribolos and arrowhead finds found in the Inner Wall may have been used in this siege in 838. In fact, in previous studies, many war materials were recovered from the destruction layer in the Lower City, reflecting the traces of this siege. However, more data are needed to directly associate the layer where tribolos and arrowhead finds were recovered in front of the Inner Wall with the destruction layer formed by the siege of 838. Nevertheless, with the available data it is possible to make a reasonable but cautious assessment regarding the dating suggestions of these finds and their use at the point where they were found. It is likely that the Byzantine soldiers defending the city placed much tribolos in front of the tower and fortification wall to repel the attacks of the Abbasid soldiers. Abbasid soldiers fired arrows to break through this line of defence. For a more precise assessment and dating suggestion, archaeological excavations and therefore more data are needed.
