Merve

Res. Assist.

Where foreigners under administrative detention were held or remedies against conditions of detention was not regulated in Law on Foreigners and International Protection (LFIP). Because of there is no legislation on remedies against conditions of detention, ECtHR held many times that Turkey is to pay damages. The very first judgment of ECtHR held that there has been a violation of Art.13 of ECHR in conjunction with Art. 3 of ECHR because of the absence of effective remedies to complain about the material conditions of detention is Yarashonen v. Turkey Judgment. In the case, Turkish Government claimed that the applicant could raise his complaints by bring an action for compensation before the administrative courts as provided for Art.125 of the Turkish Constitution and section 2(1) (b) of the Administrative Procedure Act which regulated full remedy action. ECtHR pointed out that if conditions of detention are breach of Art.3, a domestic remedy must capable of putting an end to the ongoing violation of the prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment. Otherwise, compensation of occured violation legitimizes the inhuman and degrading treatment. However, the Court stated that the Government must prove its claims, which remedies as provided for Art.125 and Art.2 (1)(b) is practically effective with examples from the case-law of administrative courts but Government couldn’t submit any judicial or administrative decisions related to this issue. The Court, for these reasons held that there has been a violation of Art.13 in conjunction with Art.3. The very first judgment of the Turkish Constitutional Court related to the absence of effective remedies to complain about the material conditions of detention is Rıza Boudraa Application. But in this application, the Constitutional Court only examined Art.17 of Constitution and did not consider the existence of the effective domestic remedies in the context of Art.40 of the Turkish Constitution. The second judgment of the Constitutional Court related to the matter is F.A. and M.A. Application. The applicants claimed that there is no domestic remedy for the material conditions at Kumkapı Removal Center at the relevant time. Ministry of Interior put forward the claims in Yarashonen Case before ECtHR and demanded the rejection of the application for the reason of the non-exhaustion of domestic remedies. The Court, for the first time, examined the existence of effective domestic remedies in the context Art.40 in conjunction with Art.17. The Court accepted the principles in Yarashonen Judgment and stated that the Government did not submit any decisions which prove the domestic remedy as provided for Art.125 is capable of preventing ongoing violation of the right not to be subjected degrading treatment in Art.17 or compensating the damage. The court held that there is no effective domestic remedy so has been a violation of Art.40 in conjunciton with Art.17. These judgments made before LFIP prompts the legislator to regulate the administrative detention and removal centers. Despite this LFIP does not provide any provisions on remedies for material conditions at removal centers. After the entry into force of LFIP, the first judgment of the Constitutional Court related to supervision of material conditions of detention is K.A. Application. The applicant claimed that the material conditions of removal center was inhumane and there is no domestic remedy to improve conditions or compensate damage caused by material conditions, so there is violation of Constitution Art.17 and Art.20. The Government put forward the claims in Yarashonen Case before ECtHR. The Constitutional Court pointed out that there is no domestic remedy to supervise material conditions of detention and to improve material conditions or to end detention if it’s necessary and to compensate damage. In this judgment, the Constitutional Court decided first time that LFIP does not provide any remedy related to supervise the material conditions of detention. But the Constitutional Court has changed its decision with B.T. Application. The applicant claimed that his mental health has damaged because of material conditions of removal center and there is no remedy provided related to condition of detention and there has been violated Art.17 and Art.20 of Constitution. The Constitutional Court pointed out that because of the end of the violations compensation for damage is the only effective remedy for who have been released from removal center. The Court stated that the decision related to held is administrative decision so full remedy action which regulated in section 2(1) (b) of the Administrative Procedure Act is an effective remedy to compensate damages. In addition, administrative courts have an advantage in considering the situation. The Court also emphasized that the lack of administrative courts’ decisions related to the compensation of damages caused by conditions of removal centers does not mean that full remedy action is not an effective remedy. Based on these reasons, the Court ruled by a majority of votes that full remedy action is an effective remedy and due to the non-exhaustion of this remedy the application is inadmissible. Judge Serruh Kaleli emphasized in his dissenting opinion that to be stated that the violation is end because detention is end is against the case law of ECtHR and to justify the inhumane treatment. In addition that, to decide whether a remedy is effective or not, it should been searched a set of precented decisions that determined the violations in similar cases. The Court has examined the application only in the scope of compensation of damages in its B.T. Judgment. It can be said that the reason of this approach is that the violation has end. However, it’s unacceptable to examine in the scope of only compensation of damages such an application which changes the case law of the Court. Moreover, as stated in dissenting opinion, there is no evidence that this remedy is capable of compensating of damages. Since, Government has already submitted this remedy both before ECtHR and Constitutional Court but not submitted any court decision which is related to compensate damages caused by material conditions at removal centers. At the time of B.T. judgment, while this situtation continued Court has ruled based on an assumption. Furthermore, as stated before, in the case of violation of Art.3 of ECHR, ECtHR emphasizes that the remedy must be in particular capable of preventing ongoing violation. Nevertheless, the Constitutional Court has not examined how this remedy prevents ongoing violation. For these reasons it’s not possible to agree with this decision and despite this decision there is no effective remedy in Turkish legal system to complain about material conditions of removal centers.

Remedies Against Material Conditions at Removal Centers

Esen

The subject of our study is an action brought to state courts regarding a dispute subject to arbitration and the determination of parties’ objections related to arbitration. The respondent may raise an arbitration objection in the case appearing before the state court and the claimant may plead that the arbitration agreement is invalid. On these claims, it is important to determine the scope of the review to be carried out by the court. Before going into the scope of the review, it’s important to address briefly the relevance of a foreign seat and its effects according to Turkish arbitration law. An important result of the determination of a foreign state as the seat of arbitration under Turkish law is that the dispute would fall outside of the scope of the Code on International Arbitration No. 4686. However, in cases where a foreign state is designated as the seat of arbitration, the International Arbitration Code art. 5 regulating the arbitration objection will be applied to the dispute. IAC art. 5 stipulates that if an action is brought before the court in a matter which is subject to an arbitration agreement, the respondent may object to the jurisdiction of the court. The acceptance or refusal of the objection and disputes concerning the validity of the arbitration agreement are subject to the provisions of the Civil Procedure Code regarding the preliminary objections. If such objection is accepted, then the court shall dismiss the action on procedural grounds. Although it is accepted in the article that the court will dismiss the action in case of a valid arbitration agreement, detailed provisions regarding the standard of the review and the validity of the arbitration agreement are not included. Two main opposite views have been accepted in the doctrine regarding the scope of the review. According to the first group of authors the court should, determine the validity of the arbitration agreement after a full review and in case of a valid arbitration agreement, refer the dispute to arbitration. And according to the second view, the court should only look for an arbitration agreement, thus carry out a prima facie review and in case of the existence of an arbitration agreement, refer the dispute to arbitration. In this case, the arbitral tribunal shall have the competence to decide on its own jurisdiction according to the principle of Competence-Competence. It’s important to determine which standard of review should be adopted by Turkish courts when the seat of arbitration is in a foreign country. UNCITRAL Model Law art. 8, 1958 New York Convention art. II/3, Civil Procedure Law art. 422 all include the provision that unless the arbitration agreement is “null and void, inoperative and incapable of being performed” the dispute should be referred to arbitration. It can be deduced from the wording of these articles that the court should carry out a full review and determine the validity of the arbitration agreement. In the doctrine and in the jurisprudence of Swiss courts, it is agreed that the court should decide whether the arbitration agreement is valid in cases where the seat of arbitration is in a foreign state. It is emphasized that otherwise the principle of natural judge would be violated. After determining the scope of the review, the law applicable to the validity of the arbitration agreement is examined in the second part of the study. According to the article 4 of the International Arbitration Code, “The validity of the arbitration agreement is subject to the law agreed by the parties, failing such agreement to Turkish Law.” This article provides for the law applicable to the arbitration agreement, however it cannot be applied where the seat of arbitration is in a foreign country. As there is no other rule or provision regulating the applicable law when the seat is in a foreign country, there is a legal gap in Turkish law regarding this matter. Several views and methods have been put forward in the doctrine on how to fill the gap regarding the law applicable to the arbitration agreement. According to the first view, Article 4 of the International Arbitration Code should be applied by analogy and Turkish law should be applied to the arbitration agreement. The second view also applies Article 4 by analogy however the authors consider that the underlying principle of this article is the “seat of arbitration” and state that the law applicable should be the law of the seat. It is also argued that the applicable law can be determined by application by analogy of the article V/1/a of the New York Convention. And finally, the law applicable to the arbitration agreement can be determined according to the conflict of law rules on the law applicable to the contracts, thus article 24 of the Code on Private International Law and International Procedure Law. In our opinion, it is possible to fill this gap with the application of the provisions of the Code on Private International Law and International Procedure Law, which contains general rules regarding the disputes including a foreign element. In cases where there is no provision in the lex specialis, namely the Code on International Arbitration, it is possible to refer to the aforementioned Code. Article 62/f of the Code on PIL which regulates the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitration awards can be applied by analogy. According to this article, the law applicable to the validity of the arbitration agreement is subject to the law designated by the parties, or in the absence thereof, to the law of the place where the arbitral award is rendered. Thus, in the absence of any choice of law by the parties, the law of the seat of arbitration should apply

Review of the Validity of the Arbitration Agreements by Turkish Courts in Cases Where the Seat of Arbitration is in a Foreign Country and the Applicable Law

Şafak

Assist. Prof.

Surrogate motherhood has become one of the most interesting and complicated issues of family law in domestic laws as well as in private international law. The wellaccepted certainty of the ‘mater semper certa est’ principle of Roman law has started to lose potency with the development of new reproduction techniques. The different national legal provisions and applications have become the reason for the rise of international surrogacy tourism. It has been observed that the once rigid approach of European countries in this matter has become softer following the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Mennesson and Labassee. The subject in Turkish law is partly regulated and the practice of surrogate motherhood is prohibited. In our study, we attempted to approach the subject from different perspectives in terms of comparative law and recent ECHR decisions. In this way, we wish to make a contribution to the discussion and potential legal framing and harmonization in Turkish law. Surrogate motherhood has recently turned into a global operation because couples who face legal prohibition of surrogacy in their own countries head towards those countries which allow the process. Nonetheless, this process does not function smoothly especially because of the associated legal and ethical problems. Moreover, the legal problems of transnational surrogate motherhood, issues such as the legal validity of the conditions of the surrogacy agreement, the parties to the agreement, the rights and obligations of the parties in case of breach of contract, the legal and ethical nature of the contract, and the parentage issues are the main topics for discussion. Cases regarding surrogate motherhood initially started to engage public attention in the 1980s. The legal cases ‘Baby Cotton’ (Britain) and ‘Baby M’ (USA) have had serious repercussions across the world and have brought forth the legal and ethical issues regarding the process. The current and famous international cases such as ‘Baby Donna’ (Belgium), ‘Baby Manji’ and ‘Balaz Twins’ (India), ‘Baby Gammy’ (Australia-Thailand) have followed these cases. National legislators are now faced with this new and interesting element in family law, confirming that the practice of surrogate motherhood is steadily increasing. In comparative law, countries may be divided into three categories according to their legal policies on surrogate motherhood: 1. Those countries known as ‘import countries’ in the doctrine because that they do not currently allow surrogate motherhood in their domestic law. Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria, Italy, Spain and Turkey are in this first category. 2. Those countries where no legal regulations regarding surrogate motherhood exist or where the process is allowed in domestic law under strict conditions and supervision provided that the willing couples are entitled to nationality or permanent residence e.g. Belgium, Holland, New Zealand, Brazil. 3. The third group is referred to as export countries, including certain states in the United States (e.g. California), Russia, Ukraine, Israel, India and Greece. These countries accept both transnational and domestic surrogacy. Those countries belonging to categories I. and II. have long refused parental authority for willing couples of babies who were already born in countries which allow surrogate motherhood based on the grounds of ‘contradiction to public policy’, ‘fraud against law’ or incompleteness of other requirements. Nonetheless, it is possible to say that the rigid approach of European countries in this area has softened since the EHCR decisions in Mennesson and Labassee case. In Turkey, there was no specific legal regulation (in terms of ‘code’) for a long time regarding having a child by assisted reproductive technologies and surrogate motherhood – although the legal aspect of the subject was partly regulated by a by-law. Evaluating the legislation of the foreign countries that have prohibited the surrogacy, it was truthfully criticized in the doctrine that such a legal prohibition of surrogate motherhood should have been set forward rather by the will of legislator, but not the administration. Finally, there have been amendments to Law 2238 on the Harvesting, Storage, Grafting, and Transplantation of Organs and Tissues, by Law 7151 on the Amendment of Certain Laws and Decree Laws enacted in Official Gazette 30616 dated 05.12.2018. Accordingly, surrogate motherhood is legally prohibited by power of these amendments. (Non-commercial) Surrogate motherhood should also be accepted as a legal possibility de lege ferenda and should be the subject of an extensive and detailed legal arrangement and supervision as it is the case in Israel, in case there is no other medical choice left. It is possible that surrogacy can come to be a useful alternative solution, provided that the arrangements aiming at the protection of the child and the parties to the application are carried out under strict supervision. As evidenced by the increasing number of cases of surrogate motherhood, disregarding what the science of medicine provides and, moreover, legal prohibition of its practice is not a long-term solution. Since the surrogate motherhood agreement is a private law contract, it will be more appropriate to allow the implementation of this application in the event that no one can be forced to become a party to the contract. Furthermore, the application is considered as a last resort when the usefulness of the application is taken into consideration and the other means are officially depleted. Hence, we believe that the legal arrangements should be made to facilitate the establishment of paternity with the willing father and mother. In the face of medical developments in reproductive methods, the silence or prohibition of the law will violate the rights of individual/families to have children and their rights to reproduction. We would like to express that surrogacy has been prohibited not just because of the ethical aspects of the subject matter, but also the legislator may probably have thought of avoiding the problems to be occurred in the practice.

A Difficult Turning Point in Family Law: The Current Developments on Surrogate Motherhood with a Comparative Law Perspective

Cansu

Every state has different rules and regulations with regard to their commercial law and law of obligations, and such differences create a major obstacle on the development of international trade. In this regard, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) which came into force on January 1, 1998 was accepted by 42 states, for the prevention of such problems and for the development of international trade. The Agreement has come into force in our country on August 1, 2011 and has become a part of our domestic sales law regarding the international sale of goods. The liability and the non-performance system established under the Agreement contains major differences compared to the ones established under Turkish law. Contrary to the 6098 numbered Turkish Code of Obligations, stating different nonperformance types under respective articles, the Agreement adopted a system that unifies all non-performance types under a single roof and shaped parties’ liabilities accordingly. Additionally, contrary to the Turkish regulation, the liability system established under the Agreement was accepted as being based on a warranty liability and the scope of such liability has been limited by the foreseeability principle established under Art 74 with regard to damages and by the exemption from liability regime established under Arts 79 and 80. CISG has developed a general nonperformance system that contains all types of breach of obligations and unified them under a single breach of contract regime. It has been accepted that the liability regime established under the Agreement is based on a warranty liability principle. Therefore, in case of a breach of an obligation arising from the contract terms or the Agreement, it shall be subject to the legal remedies established under the agreement with no further need to establish the negligence of the defaulting party. However, this liability has to be limited to a certain extent in order to prevent unbearable situations. Article 79 establishes a basic exemption from liability regime for the parties. For this regard, a party shall not be liable for damages regarding the failure of the nonperformance of his obligations if he proves that such failure is due to an impediment beyond his control and that he could not reasonably be expected to have taken the impediment into account at the time of the conclusion or to have avoided or overcome it or its consequences. In the event where all the conditions laid under Article 79 have been met, both seller and buyer shall be exempt from liability with regard to damages arising out of non-performance. However, such exemption has only been established with regard to damages and it does not prevent buyer from using his Art 46 rights against buyer. Additionally, Art. 79 shall only be applicable where parties did not make any contractual liability distribution amongst themselves. If the seller fails to perform his obligations with regard to an impediment that has been stated under Art 79, he shall be exempt from liability. Although Art 79 limits the strict liability regime underlying the CISG, such exemption from liability depends on the realization of strict conditions and therefore, it caused such non-liability to be applicable in very rare circumstances. According to Art 79/2, if the party’s failure is due to the failure by a third person whom he has engaged to perform the whole or a part of the contract, that party is exempt from liability only if such non-performance is caused by an independent third party who shall not be under the supervision of the party. However, it also has to be mentioned that, in case where the third party has the ability to overcome the impediment, the party shall not be able to exempt from liability. In addition, while Art 79/3 states that the exemption from liability provided by this article shall only be effective for the period during which the impediment exits, Art 79/4 states that, the party who fails to perform must give notice to the other party of the impediment and its effect on his ability to perform. The failing party shall only be exempt from damages; however, the buyer can still invoke his rights under Art 46 such as specific performance, delivery of substitute goods and a request for substitute goods. Article 79/5, which states that this article shall not prevent either party from exercising any right other than to claim damages under this Convention, has been subject to dispute regarding parties’ right to request specific performance. The possibility of performing such request should be determined according to Articles 46 and 62, instead of Art 79. While Art 79 establishes parties’ exemption from liability to pay damages; Art 80 indicates that a party may not rely on a failure of the other party to perform, to the extent that such failure was caused by the first party’s act or omission. For this regard, the other party shall not be able to revoke his rights such as specific performance, repairment or reduction. Considered from this aspect, it could be said that, the scope of the exemption from liability regime established under Art 80 is broader than the regime established under Art 79.

The Buyer’s and Seller’s Exclusion from Liability Under the CISG and Its Comparision with the Turkish Law of Obligations

Doğan

Today’s commercial and economic life has a character that transcends the borders of countries. Knowledge and expertise gain importance in this economic structure. Therefore, in many fields such as consultancy, banking, the medical sector, education, law, architecture, which require expertise, the contract of mandate has a wide application area. As a matter of fact, the contract of mandate manifests itself in many cases together with the representative authority or, more precisely, requires the representative authority raising the question of which regulations will be subject to the contract status and which law to be applied to the representative authority. Due to the similarity between the contract of mandate and the representative authority, the resolution of the qualification dispute is very important in the determination of the applicable law to the contract of mandate. Since, according to the qualification methods (lex causae method or lex fori method), gray areas can be evaluated within the scope of the representative authority or contract of mandate. In the determination of the subject, it is necessary to evaluate the areas touching the representative authority as a whole and to be subject to the same law. At the beginning of these areas, sub-power of attorney, substitution of mandate and the cases required special representative authority come together. These institutions should be considered within the concept of representative authority and subject to the law of the state in which the agent has his place of business according to Article 30, paragraph 2 of the International Private and Civil Procedure Law (Act No. 5718) that regulates the representative authority. This is because these institutions dispose the conditions under which acts of the agent bind the principal in relation to third parties. Therefore, possible legal conflicts that may arise as a result of subjecting gray areas to different legal systems will be prevented. On the other hand, the case that several persons conclude a contract of mandate as agents according to the substantive law and those of agents do not act together as a representative, cause an agency without authority. In the same way, when the substitution of mandate is available, the lack of authority to delegate the power of representation to another person as a representative or the authorization that is not given in cases where special representation is required lead to the agency without authority. Since the conditions required to be accountable the principal to third parties for the acts of agents are deficient in these cases, this deficiency falls into the application area of the Article 30, paragraph 2 of the International Private and Civil Procedure Law. The law to be applied to the indirect representation is always connected with the basic legal relationship with the substantive law and should be considered as its integral part. Therefore, the indirect representation should be subject to the law applied to the basic legal relationship. Outside of the grey areas, the applicable law to the contract of mandate shows parallelism with the general “contract status”, in other words “the law applicable to contractual obligations”. In the absence of a choice of law, the applicable law to the mandate will be governed by the most connected and closest law to the contract of mandate in accordance with the objective connecting factor that should be specified according to the characteristic obligation of mandate. In the contract of mandate, it is accepted that the characteristic obligation is the service obligation of the agent. This objective connecting factor is the habitual resident of the agent or if the contract of mandate was concluded in the exercise of a professional or commercial activity, where the agent has his place of business. Having regard to the complexity of today’s economic relations, the possibility of a more closely related law will be strengthened. Considering the state of all affairs, if there is a law more tightly related to the contract of mandate, that particular law shall govern the relationship between the parties in accordance with Article 24, paragraph 4 of the International Private and Civil Procedure Law. The exceptional application of the exception clause will be more important than the expected situation of this disposition in the present case. It should be noted that doctors, engineers, architects, lawyers, counselors, notaries, dentists, veterinarians and banks who have the capacity to act as agent in the contract of mandate will often perform their obligation of service on their own place of business. Accordingly, in the absence of a choice of law in these professional activities, the law which the objective connecting factor determines, will often be considered as the more closely related law with the contract of mandate.

The Applicable Law to the Contract of Mandate

Hüseyin Akif

The CISG is an international treaty that creates uniform rules for international sales of goods. It has been ratified and applied by 89 states including Turkey, who represent all legal systems in the world. In this article, international application sphere of the CISG is analysed. In order to achieve this, some interpretation problems regarding indirect application of the CISG according to the Article 1 and the Article 95 reservation to indirect application is analysed in detail. The party autonomy principle situated in Article 6 is also analysed in detail. In terms of the CISG, a sales of goods contract is international when business places of the parties are in different countries. This should be understood either from the contract or from the negotiation stage of the contract. The CISG regulates its’ application sphere in Article 1. It applies to international sales of goods either when the business places of the parties are in different contracting states or when at least one of the parties’ business place is not in a contracting state and the conflict of laws rules of the forum refers to the law of a contracting state. The first type of application is named as direct application and the second type of application is named as indirect application since it applies through the conflict of laws rules of the forum. It should be mentioned that either direct application of the CISG or indirect application of the CISG and the effect of Article 95 reservation to indirect application can come into place in the courts of a contracting state. Since, it is the obligation of a contracting state under international law due to being party to the treaty. The courts of a noncontracting state can apply the CISG when their conflict of laws rules refer to the law of a contracting state. In this case, the CISG is applied as part of the law of that contracting state. The indirect application of the CISG had created concern to some contracting states that it would expand too much the application of the CISG. Therefore, a right to make a reservation to the indirect application is provided to the contracting states in Article 95. The reservation states do not obliged to apply the CISG under international law through indirect application. Although due to the increasing number of contracting states, the CISG has been applied through direct application and indirect application is very rare, Article 95 reservation has caused much doctrinal debate. As it is rightly explained in the CISG AC Opinion No 15, indirect application of the CISG comes into place due to the reference of the forum’s conflict of laws rules to the law of a contracting state. The CISG is applied since reference condition is met, it is not applied as part of the law of that state to whom reference is made. It is submitted that there is no need for a treaty provision that can be interpreted as latter type, since that kind of application is requirement of coflict of laws system of any country. Although Article 95 reservation removes obligation of a reservation state to apply the CISG through indirect application under international law, if coflict of laws rules of reservation state refer to the law of a contracting state, the CISG is applied as part of the law of that country. In this case, the CISG is applied as in the courts of the country that is not party to the CISG. In the courts of a non-reservation contracting state if the conflict rules of the forum refers to the law of a reservation state the CISG should be applied, since reservation does not remove the contracting status of that state. In the courts of a non-contracting states, if the forum’s conflict of laws rules refer to a contracting state’s law that makes reservation, the CISG should not be applied and domestic sales law of that country should be applied. Since, the judge should apply the foreign law as the judge of that country and the application conditions of the CISG is not met in that country. Article 6 of the CISG provides a right to the parties based on party autonomy principle. According to this article, parties to a sales contract can prevent the application of the CISG to their contract even the application conditions situated in Article 1 are met. This could be made either through a clear provision in their sales contract that states the CISG will not be applied to contract between them. They could also made this through choosing the law of a country who is not party to the CISG. The parties to a sales contract can also prevent the application of the CISG partially. This could be made also through clear provision or choosing the law of a third country who is not party to the CISG for that part of the contract. They can also regulate that subjects in the sales contract between them. Since the CISG provisions are not mandatory and primarily the provisions of the sales contract should be applied. The parties to the sales contract can also choose the CISG to be applied to their contract when the application conditions are not met. However, this is not a choice of law in state courts. Since the CISG on itself is not law of a state. This kind of choice can be regarded as incorporation and the CISG is applied as contract provisions. Therefore, the provisions of the CISG can be applied if they are not against the mandatory provisions of the applicable law.

The CISG’s Internatıonal Sphere of Applıcation, Party Autonomy and Some Interpretation Problems

Ceren

The United Nations Security Council has the primary responsibility for maintenance of international peace and security. The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security (Article 39 UN Charter). According to Article 41 of the United Nations Charter, the Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decision. These may include a complete or partial interruption of economic relations and rail, sea, air, postal telegraphic, radio and other means of communication and the severance of diplomatic relations. The sanctions list of Article 41 is not a closed list, but in practice, economic sanctions on the list are more frequently referred to than others. The policy of government-oriented economic sanctions has led to negative consequences on the civilian population. For this reason, the Council has started to take decisions on certain goods and products or responsible persons or organizations instead of taking comprehensive measures affecting everyone. While typically states are sanctioned, non-state entities and individuals have recently also become targets. United Nations Security Council has a wide margin apprecition to determine any situation contrary to international peace and security within the framework of Article 39. Targeted sanctions have been utilized by the Security Council to address the range of threats to international peace and security such as counter terrorism and the protection of human rights. Thus, the Security Council proposed to protect individual human rights and to reduce the negative impact of economic measures. However, there have been some problems as a result of the effective implementation of targeted sanctions. In recent practice, the most common sanctions are arms embargoes, targeted travel restrictions, the freezing of assets or funds and any sources of terror financing. These sanctions may affect the specific individual rights and freedoms, for instance free movement of people, property rights and the right to a fair trial as well as the right to an effective remedy. In this context, the lack of adequate protection of human rights poses various violations and leads to debates about the determination of the legal limits of decisions and judicial review. The Security Council has established Sancitons Commitees to list the names of the individuals or entities to be sanctioned. Guidelines on the working procedures of the committees are accepted. However, working guideline determined the working procedure of committees are neither clear nor fair. A judicial mechanism is not envisaged by which individuals or entities may apply for their removal from the list. The implementation of sanctions without granting these individuals the possibility of being heard or of challenging the measures taken against them, causes a violation of the right of access to court and the right to a fair trial. The procedure of listing and de-listing should be improved. Listed individuals and entities should be notified of the decision and the statement of the case. First of all, this issue is to a large extent discussed within the framework of the United Nations Charter. According to Article 24 (2) of the Charter, the Security Council is bound to act in accordance with the purposes and principles of the United Nations. The promotion of respect for human rights is one of the aims of the United Nations. Therefore the Charter must be interpreted with evolving human rights. Secondly, this issue is discussed within the framework of human rights conventions. The targeted sanctions do not contain sufficient guarantees for the protection of human rights. Especially, sanctions lack adequate guarantees under the right to a fair trial. That is why the implementation of sanctions causes a violation of the right of access to court and the right to a fair trial as well as the right to an effective remedy. In the United Nations system, a judicial review is not foreseen in order to ensure the control of the Security Council resolutions. The issue of judicial review of these sanctions both internationally and nationally arises as a problem. The domestic courts control within the framework of national regulations the implementation of the sanctions. This review is undoubtedly important in terms of fulfilling the fundamental rights and freedoms. However, the national authorities decide on the basis of the legislation they depend on. This situation may cause the decisions of the Council to move away from a uniform application and to appear in different ways. Therefore, a new and centralized control mechanism needs to be developed within the United Nations. The members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter. But at the same time, states have to comply with the provisions of the human rights conventions to which they are parties. At this point, the question of whether there should be a hierarchy between the obligations of the member States arising from Conventions regarding human rights and United Nations Charter are raised. However, it is accepted that obligations of Charter and human rights law should be interpreted in harmony without entering into any hierarchy discussion and the Security Council resolutions should be implemented in the light of human rights law by member states.

The Evaluation of United Nations Economic Sanctions Decisions in Terms of Human Rights Law

Burcu

The Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (CIArb) in its Code of Professional and Ethical Conduct for Members, defines ethical rules as “a set of moral principles according to which one should conduct one’s affairs”. It is common for parties in international commercial arbitration cases to be represented by one or more party representatives registered with multiple bars or not registered with a bar at all or even by a layperson, when permitted. Moreover, often, the seat of arbitration can be where neither party’s representative is licensed. This brings up the question of which ethical rules shall be applicable to the parties’ representatives, who shall be the competent authority in case of breach, whether the arbitral tribunals have legitimate power to sanction the parties’ representatives and so on. Long before the current discussions on the necessity to adopt a Code of Ethics for parties’ representatives, Professor Michael Reisman affirmed in 1971 that parties’ representatives should be subject to regulation at an international level. The International Bar Association (IBA) published the IBA Guidelines on Party Representation in its IBA Guidelines on 23rd May 2013 specifically regulating the conduct of party representatives in international arbitration proceedings. According to the Guidelines, it shall apply where and to the extent that the Parties have so agreed, or if the arbitral tribunal, after consultation with the Parties, wishes to rely upon them after having determined that it has the authority to rule on matters of Party representation to ensure the integrity and fairness of the arbitral proceedings. Furthermore, the London Court of International Arbitration (LCIA) Rules came into force on 1st October 2014 with an Annex entitled General Guidelines for the Parties’ Legal Representatives (LCIA Rules). Contrary to the IBA Guidelines, the LCIA Rules apply to all arbitration conducted under the auspices of the LCIA commenced on or after 1st October 2014. Finally, the Singapore Institute of Arbitrators (SIArb) published Guidelines on Party-Representative Ethics (SIArb Guidelines) on 26th April 2018 and the American Arbitration Association (AAA) together with the International Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR) published Standards of Conduct for Parties and Representatives (AAA Standards). Uncertainty regarding the ethical rules applicable to party representatives as well as the differences in the application and appreciation of the above-mentioned regulations lead to two concerns: the use of guerrilla tactics by party representatives in an attempt to derail arbitral proceedings and the absence of a level playing field for parties and their counsel in international arbitration. Existing guidelines and rules deal with common areas of concern, including the party representative’s duty to ensure the integrity and fairness of the arbitral proceedings, duty of candour or honesty owed to the arbitral tribunal, the promotion of the good and equal conduct, limitation of the communication with witnesses, the other party and arbitrators. However, it is clear that existing regulations do not provide a solution for all the existing ethical problems, such as contingent fees, third party funders, lawyer-client privilege, and confidentiality of settlement negotiations. Some scholars called for the creation of a Global Code of Ethics, a uniform set of rules applicable to all party representatives at an international level. However, other scholars expressed concerns that the super production of rules and guidelines may bring more harm than the benefit it is supposed to bring and is a threat to one of the biggest advantages of international arbitration which is the procedural flexibility. One of the biggest problems regarding the application of ethical rules to party representatives in international arbitration is the absence of a competent authority who is able to enforce the said rules in case of a breach. The IBA Guidelines as well as the LCIA Rules give arbitral tribunals the power and duty to sanction breaching party representatives. It is understandable knowing that the arbitral tribunals are vested with wide powers and in the best position to supervise and prevent unethical behaviour. An alternative would be to give the power to sanction party representatives to arbitral institutions - as did the AAA in its Standards of Conduct - by recording party representatives that do not conduct themselves in an appropriate manner in the Institute’s black lists. Finally, the Swiss Arbitration Association (ASA) suggested the creation of a Global Arbitration Ethics Council, a transnational body charged with the enforcement of ethical principles. In November 2015, an informal working group was chaired by the ASA in which several known arbitration associations and institutions participated. After reviewing empirical data collected from bar councils all over Europe and the US, the group held a second meeting and reached the conclusion that the “time has not yet come” to form an international body charged with the enforcement of ethical standards. This article suggests that, before calling for radical changes such as the implementation of a Global Code of Ethics or the creation of a transnational body charged with the enforcement of ethical principles, it should be deeply analysed whether arbitral tribunals are able to deal with ethical issues under current regulations.

Ethical Rules Applicable to Party Representatives in International Commercial Arbitration and Difficulties Encountered in Practice

Berk Hasan

The Path of Eastern Arbitration to Take Islamic Finance Disputes from the Hands of English Litigation

Zeynep Derya

Assoc. Prof.

Turkish Private International Law and International Civil Procedure Code no. 5718 (PIL Code), stipulates both choice of law and jurisdiction rules on matters relating to consumer contracts, which aim at protecting the consumer. While Article 26 of PIL Code determines the applicable law, Article 45 states the international jurisdiction of Turkish courts over consumer contracts. According to Art. 26/1 of PIL Code, the law of the consumer’s habitual residence shall govern the consumer contract in the absence of choice of law. To ascertain which types of contracts fall within the scope of this provision, Art. 26/1 initially lays down a general definition for consumer contracts. Accordingly, consumer contracts are such contracts that lack a professional or commercial aim and are concluded in order to acquire goods, service or credit. Following that, under the second paragraph of Art. 26, three alternative conditions are listed for a contract to be characterized as a consumer contract. Accordingly; (a) the contract should be concluded upon a specially sent invitation or an announcement, and the required acts should be performed by the consumer in the abovementioned state, or (b) the other party or its representative should receive the consumer’s orders in the abovementioned state, or (c) in case the relationship is a sales contract, the seller should organize a trip in order to persuade the consumer to purchase and the consumer should travel to another country and give his order therein. Thus, for a contract to be characterized as a consumer contract under Art. 26 of PIL Code, the definition under Art. 26/1 is not conclusive and the relevant contract shall fulfill one of the conditions set forth under Art. 26/2. Finally, law applicable to package tours, carriage contracts and the contracts in which it is required to provide the service to the consumer in a country different than the location of his/her habitual residence (such as contracts pertaining to a stay at a hotel or a language teaching course at a different country) are excluded from the scope of Art. 26/2 and are subjected to Art. 24 which regulates the general rule for the law applicable to contracts. With regards to the international jurisdiction of Turkish courts over consumer contracts, Art. 45 states a special jurisdiction rule. Accordingly, regarding the disputes arising from the consumer contracts specified in Art. 26, according to the choice of the consumer, the Turkish courts in places where the consumer’s domicile or habitual residence or the counter-party’s work place, domicile or habitual residence is located are competent. On the other hand, regarding proceedings initiated against the consumer, the competent court is the court of the place where the consumer has his/her habitual residence. The wording of Art. 45 causes a debate in Turkish legal doctrine as to whether Art. 45 refers only to the consumer contracts within the general meaning of Art. 26/1 or whether the conditions set forth under Art. 26/2 shall also be required for a contractual dispute to be considered within the special jurisdiction of Art. 45. In light of comparative law and in line with the objective of protecting the weaker party, it is shown under this paper that the latter view should be adopted. Another controversy over Art. 45 is related to the legal characteristics of this special jurisdiction rule, as whether it introduces an exclusive jurisdiction or not. It is argued under this paper that the jurisdiction rule under Art. 45 should not be interpreted as an exclusive jurisdiction rule. This debate also triggers two issues, namely the validity of choice of court agreements and the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgements, as one of the non-recognition grounds is that the judgement is given on a matter falling within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Turkish courts. In relation to choice of court agreements, according to Art. 47/2 of PIL Code, the competency of courts specified in Art. 45 cannot be removed by the parties’ agreement. The debate over this provision is mainly focused on the question as to whether this provision enables the parties to provide the consumers with alternative forums along with those specified under Art. 45 or if this provision renders all the choice of court agreements relating to consumer contracts invalid. In light of comparative law and in line with the objective of protecting the weaker party, it is shown under this paper that the former view should be adopted. The main cause for different legal interpretations in the doctrine in matters relating to the international jurisdiction of Turkish courts over consumer contracts is the wording under the provisions of Art. 26, 45 and 47/2 of the Turkish PIL Code; and amendments to such provisions should be considered.

Consumer Contracts in Private International Law

Ayşe

Prof.

Bahattin

Cüneyt

Prof. Dr.

Nesrin

Throughout history, the Aegean Islands have been under the sovereignty of different empires and dynasties. The roots of the current Eastern Aegean Islands problem go back to the middle of the 19th century when Greece gained its independence. The Eastern Aegean Islands include the Boğazönü Islands (at the entrance to the Dardanelles), the Northeastern Aegean Islands, and the Dodecanese Islands. These islands are geographically located in close proximity to the Turkish coast, which has raised concerns about Türkiye’s security. For this reason, the islands have been subject to international conventions. Among these, the 1913 London Treaty and the 1913 Athens Treaty, in which the authority to decide ownership of the islands was left to the Major Powers, are very crucial. With the Joint Decision of the Six Major Powers of 1914, the islands under the occupation of Greece were subordinated to the sovereignty of Greece. According to this joint decision, the islands were ceded to Greece on the condition that they were to remain under demilitarized status.The 1923 Lausanne Peace Treaty confirmed the Joint Decision of the Six Major Powers of 1914 and includes detailed regulations regarding the demilitarized status of the islands. The 1923 Convention Relating to the Regime of the Straits (the 1923 Lausanne Straits Convention) regulated the demilitarized status of the Boğazönü Islands, which are subject to Turkish and Greek sovereignty. The 1936 Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits (the 1936 Montreux Convention) abolished this status for the region of the Turkish Straits while maintaining the demilitarized status of the Booğazönü Islands, which are subject to Greek sovereignty. Finally, the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty transferred the sovereignty of the Dodecanese Islands and Kastellorizo Island, which had been under the sovereignty of Italy, to Greece under the provision that these islands remain under demilitarized status. Türkiye should be noted to have not been a party to the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty.Greece claims the regulations of these conventions to have abolished the demilitarized status of the Eastern Aegean Islands. In this regard, the first claim of Greece is that fundamental changes have occurred to the circumstances of the treaties. According to this claim, the 1923 Lausanne Peace Treaty and the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty cover different circumstances. The second is the claim that the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty replaced the 1923 Lausanne Peace Treaty. Accordingly, the 1936 Montreux Convention also replaced the 1923 Lausanne Straits Convention. Third, Greece claims that Türkiye cannot uphold the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty as Türkiye had not been a party to this treaty. The last claim sees Greece’s right of self-defense coming to the fore, as according to Greece, Türkiye has made so-called threats against Greece.However, one should note that no fundamental changes have occurred regarding the circumstances on which both Treaties were made. For this reason, neither of these Treaties can be terminated. In terms of the second claim, the Montreux Convention only regulates the abolition of the demilitarized status for the region of the Turkish Straits (i.e., the Dardanelles, the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara). Moreover, the provisions in the 1923 Lausanne Straits Convention are not in conflict with provisions in the 1936 Montreux Convention that are in force today. Thirdly, the fact that Türkiye was not a party to the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty does not mean Türkiye cannot abide by this treaty. The 1947 Paris Peace Treaty established an objective status. Finally, the claim of a threat is insufficient for invoking the right to self-defense. In order for a country to invoke the right to self-defense, Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations (1945) clearly states the requirement of the presence of an armed attack for invoking self-defense. Therefore, Greece’s claim goes against international law. In this context, Greece’s claims regarding the abolishment of the demilitarized status of the Eastern Aegean Islands constitute a violation of the relevant international conventions and rules of international law.Within the framework of these erroneous claims, Greece has engaged in activities and actions aimed at violating the demilitarized status of these islands, and these activities and actions in violation of the islands’ demilitarized stated have currently begun increasing. For this reason, Greece’s arguments regarding the abolishment of the demilitarized status of these islands should be evaluated in the context of current issues. Considering which steps Türkiye will take in response to these violations is also essential.This study consists of three sections. The first section discusses and examines the Aegean Islands and the history of sovereignty over them. Afterward, the study discusses the concept of demilitarized status and international regulations regarding&nbsp;the demilitarized status of the Eastern Aegean Islands. The second section discusses Greece’s claims regarding fundamental changes to the circumstances of the treaties (rebus sic stantibus), how the later treaty replaces the previous treaty, invoking the right to self-defense, and Türkiye’s in ability to uphold the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty (res inter alios acta). The last part evaluates the demilitarized status of the Eastern Aegean Islands in light of current issues, with the study lastly putting Türkiye’s options forward in the context of international law.&nbsp;

Demilitarized Status in International Law and the Militarization Problem of the Eastern Aegean Islands

Işık

Assist. Prof. Dr.

This article deals with a specific problem regarding the interpretation and scope of arbitration agreements with a focus on international arbitration. In practice, the parties to a fixed-term contract regarding a continuous relationship (e.g., lease agreement, distributorship agreement) commonly continue the relationship de facto without explicitly entering into a new agreement at the end of the term. In such a case, the problem arises whether the arbitration clause in the original written contract covers disputes arising out of the legal relationship that continues beyond the initially agreedupon term.To tackle this problem, the article firstly inquires as to the legal consequences of such de facto continuation of a legal relationship under Turkish law. The study hereby submits that such a de facto continuation shall, as a rule, be construed as a tacit extension (i.e., renewal, prolongation) of the same contract.&nbsp;The article continues with general considerations regarding the interpretation of arbitration agreements, followed by discussions the applicable law to the interpretation of arbitration agreements. The prevailing view is that the law applicable to substantive issues regarding the arbitration agreement, which is the one also governs the issue of interpretation. The trend in international arbitration calls for a broad interpretation of the arbitration agreement. The ratio of such approach is that business persons acting in good faith can easily be presumed to desire a one-stop method to resolve their given disputes. In particular, the Swiss Federal Court more than once has stated in its decisions that once parties’ consent to arbitrate has been ascertained, the scope of the arbitration agreement shall be interpreted extensively.The article also questions the role Article II of the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (NYC) with regard to the interpretation of arbitration agreements, whereby the said convention applies. According to one view in literature, the interpretation of arbitration agreements should be done in light of the pro-arbitration objectives of the convention. This view relies on the suggestion that Article II of the NYC mandates an international rule of arbitration agreements subject to the NYC. If this view is adopted, the interpretation of arbitration agreements would be conducted irrespective of the national law applicable to the arbitration agreement.Even if the view suggesting that Article II of the NYC imposes an international rule for interpretation of arbitration agreements be not followed, or in cases where the NYC does not apply, the study hereby argues that Turkish courts should interpret arbitration agreements broadly and in a pro-arbitration manner in line with the trends in international arbitration. The Turkish legislator has openly stated their intention to draft a legal framework in line with trends in international arbitration. The preamble of the International Arbitration Law states that this law was prepared “based on the model law prepared by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and the contemporary understanding, developments and principles in comparative international arbitration law.” Similar language has been used in the explanatory notes on rules regulating domestic arbitration. The judiciary must take into account these intentions of the legislator.However, a brief look at case law of Turkish Court of Cassation reveals the court’s tendency to interpret arbitration agreements restrictively. Decisions by first instance courts are found that conform to the trends in international arbitration but that were later overturned by the Court of Cassation. This article examines one example of such a decision. The analysis shows that the Court of Cassation’s approach to the issue is neither compliant with the views adopted in this article nor with the trends in international commercial arbitration.The conclusions reached can be summarized as follows:1- In contrast to the Court of Cassation’s decision, a fixed-term distributorship agreement whose parties continue the relationship de facto without entering into a new agreement explicitly at the end of the term should be construed as a tacit extension of the same contract.2- When parties extend an existing contractual relationship, the arbitration agreement shall also cover the disputes relating to the extended period, unless the parties’ will to the contrary can be ascertained. This outcome is in line with the presumed intentions of business people acting in good faith. The fact that the parties did not re-express their intention to arbitrate in accordance with the written form requirement at the time of the extension of the contract does not in itself indicate their intention to resolve the disputes before the state courts for the extended period. This conclusion is also consistent with the practice of international arbitration and the opinions on Article II (2) of the NYC. However, in exceptional cases where parties in addition to extending the term of the contract also substantially modify their contractual rights and obligations, the re-expression of their intention to arbitrate may be necessary.3- The parties may also establish a new contract with similar content following the expiration of the first contract at the end of a certain period. In this case, whether the arbitration agreement regarding the first contract will also cover the new contract should be evaluated. This evaluation requires an interpretation of the parties’ intentions. The starting point for this interpretation will be the text of the arbitration agreement. However, the standard arbitration clauses that are generally used in practice state that disputes “in connection with” or “relating to” the contract in which the clause is included will be resolved through arbitration, and such arbitration clauses are interpreted broadly in international arbitration practice. This assessment should take the relationship between the two contracts into account. If the second contract is deemed to be a continuation of the previous contract, economically if not also legally, or to complement the first, the arbitration agreement in the first contract should cover the second contract as well. Of course, the solution to this problem ultimately requires the interpretation of the parties’ intentions. In practice, similar problems are also encountered in cases where a settlement agreement without an arbitration clause has been concluded in relation to the main contract containing an arbitration clause, or in cases where more than one contract has been concluded for the same work or project and only one or more of them contain an arbitration clause. In the practice of international arbitration practice, there is a tendency to interpret the arbitration agreement broadly in such cases. Unless a different dispute resolution method has been agreed upon in the contracts that do not contain arbitration clauses and no other facts are found to support the parties’ intention to the contrary, to assume that the parties’ intention is to resolve their disputes with a single dispute resolution method would be appropriate.4- The decision of the 11th Civil Chamber of the Turkish Court of Cassation, as well as previous decisions by the Court of Cassation on similar matters, does not appear in line with the conclusions reached above or with the practice of international arbitration. When analyzing the legislature’s recent regulations on arbitration, the legislature is seen to have aimed to establish a legal order in accordance with the contemporary understanding, developments, and principles in comparative international arbitration law. Having the courts adopt a more arbitration-friendly approach in their legal practice and in line with this aim of the legislators would be appropriate.

Is an Arbitration Agreement in a Fixed Term Contract Enforceable in the Event of the De Facto Continuation of the Relationship at the End of the Term? Critique of a Recent Decision by the 11th Civil Chamber of the Court of Cassation

Hande

In parallel with the increase in cross-border mobility, states are expanding the possibilities for naturalization. Nevertheless, people who acquired their nationality by birth still constitute a predominant part of the world’s population. In other words, the person’s will does not play a role in the nationality acquired by birth. Despite this, nationality significantly impacts a person’s flow of life. However, a person can be born without the nationality of any state, that is, become stateless. The statelessness status,which has negative consequences for the child who requires state services during his/her developmental period, can also have a negative impact on his/her adulthood. Therefore, we can argue that the provisions of the nationality laws regarding the acquisition of nationality by birth play an important role in an individual’s life course.According to the established rule of international law, each state is free to choose who its nationals will be. Two basic principles, namely ius sanguinis and ius soli, have long been engaged to attribute nationality by birth. However, as the practices reveal, adhering solely to one of these principles in nationality laws may lead to situations such as the child having a different nationality from her/his parents or being stateless. As a result, nationality laws generally use one of these principles as the primary foundation and the other as a complementary one. In this context, using ius soli as a supplement has become very common for children who cannot acquire the nationality of any state because of their parents. In addition, ius soli has become an established provision of international agreements on preventing or reducing statelessness. Although the widespread use of ius soli has not been sufficient to eliminate the statelessness by birth, its adoption plays a crucial role in reducing the number of statelessness status for children who cannot acquire nationality relying on their parents.The complementary use of ius soli is also utilized to cover children who have been “found” in the territory of the state in question. The birth in the territory of that state is a sine qua non condition for attribution of nationality via ius soli. However, in many cases, definitive birthplace proof is impossible for foundlings. For this reason,additional provisions (presumption of birth in the state’s territory) stating that the foundling to be considered “born in the country” are an important part of international agreements and nationality laws. However, these regulations may differ significantly from one another. These distinctions are particularly relevant to the proof of the presumption of birth in the country and the age of the foundling. Nevertheless, the wordings of the presumption of being born in the country are sometimes criticized for causing the person to ambiguity and damaging the principles of legal security and continuity of nationality.In contrast, one can say that the basis that a state has preferred may change over time. States enacts nationality laws to determine the community of people affiliated to them and approaches in defining this community may change. For example, states that encourage migration due to population decrease may accept ius soli to allow the children of immigrants to integrate into society more quickly, but if they want to control migration flows over time, they may abandon or restrict the use of ius soli in favor of the ius sanguinis basis. Furthermore, the states’ approaches to these two bases are affected not only by their policies but also by the general developments in the world. The ius soli basis, which was once associated with the feudal regime and accepted as a reactionary method due to its connection with the land, is now described as a “liberal” method because it allows children to acquire a nationality independent of their parents’ nationality. Especially in the last century, in parallel with the increase in cross-border movements and migration flows, ius soli is considered advantageous in terms of providing nationality to second- or third-generation migrants by birth, thus serving more effectively for the child’s acceptance as a member of society.Hence a relatively new use of ius soli, which could also be referred to as “new generation ius soli,” become widespread, especially in the last 30 years. In this use of ius soli, nationality is attributed to the child born in the country in certain conditions. These conditions are frequently related to the parents, such as having a permanent residence permit or having lived in the country for a certain period. In terms of nationality laws, the use of “new generation ius soli” reveals progressive and inclusive practices. Thus, the laws that include such provisions are qualified as “liberal citizenship laws.” However, it should not be ignored that for a nationality law to be called “liberal,” the other law provisions in question, such as dual nationality provisions, should also be considered.There are also criticisms of using the ius soli, particularly the traditional use of the ius soli. The critics focus on the fact that ius soli encourages “birth tourism,” causing the child to acquire the nationality of a state other than the one into which he or she will eventually integrate. As a result, states with more developed social state aspects find the use of ius sanguinis over the use of ius soli to keep the population they are responsible for under control.The study is divided into four chapters: The first chapter, titled “An Overview of the Concept of Nationality and Acquisition of Nationality by Birth” examines the function of the concept of nationality, its place in social life, and its significance to the individual before discussing methods of acquiring nationality at birth. The goal of the first chapter is to sketch out the theoretical framework. The second chapter of the study, titled “Historical Overview of the Development and Applications of the Ius Soli Basis,” examines the emergence and development of the ius soli and its changes, as well as the pros and cons of this basis. The third chapter is titled “The Basic Element of the Ius Soli: Territory.” The indispensable condition for attribution of nationality on ius soli basis is the birth of the person in question on the territory of the state whose nationality is in question. However, the term “territory” could be interpreted differently in practice. Within the scope of the chapter, the concept of territory will be examined with examples from national laws and practice. The fourth and last chapter of the study is called the “Usages of Ius Soli.” It examines three different usage patterns of ius soli in depth. The study is completed with a conclusion that includes suggestions and a general evaluation.

Ius Soli Basis in the Acquisition of Nationality by Birth

Candan

The right to be heard is a fundamental right granted to the parties in arbitration proceedings. One requirement of the right to be heard is that the parties are adequately and timely informed about the appointment of the arbitrator and the arbitral proceedings. Proper notice ensures the implementation of the right to be informed in arbitration. Thus, notice directly affects the validity and enforcement of arbitral awards. Article V(1)(b) of the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (the New York Convention; UN, June 10, 1958) provides that recognition or enforcement of an award may be refused if “the party against whom the award is invoked was not given proper notice of the appointment of the arbitrator or the arbitration proceedings.” This study examines what should be understood from the concept of “proper notice” as found under Article V(1)(b) of the New York Convention and how this concept is elaborated upon in the practice of arbitration.According to Article V(1)(b) of the New York Convention, a proper notice is one that adequately informs the parties of the appointment of the arbitrator and the arbitral proceedings and that is served properly, in the proper language, in a timely manner, and to the correct addressee and address. For a notice in arbitration to be considered proper, having it be served in an official manner is unnecessary, nor is applying domestic rules regarding service or the methods set forth in bilateral or multilateral international agreements. What is essential in terms of a notice in arbitration proceedings is to ensure that a notification procedure has been applied that will enable the addressee to receive information on the relevant matter and to do so by means that are suitable for proof.Not every breach or deficiency in the notification procedure shall result in the refusal to enforce an award pursuant to Article V(1)(b) of the New York Convention. The objections under Article V(1)(b) of the New York Convention should be interpreted narrowly. Accordingly, in order to speak of a violation of the right to be heard as a&nbsp;result of improper service, this breach should be of a nature that may affect the outcome of the arbitration proceedings.If no doubt exists about the addressee actually being aware of the content of the notice despite a procedural breach regarding the notice, the said procedural breach alone should not lead to the refusal of enforcing an arbitral award. Here, one should examine whether the concerned party had the opportunity to meaningfully exercise its right to be heard as a result of actual knowledge or whether it had been granted such an opportunity, even if it were to have occurred later.In determining whether the right to be informed has been violated for the purposes of Article V(1)(b) of the New Yok Convention, the laws in the place of enforcement will have practical importance. In any case, an enforcement judge in Türkiye should take into account the minimum standards on the right to be informed under Turkish law, being their own law.Even if the contents of the notice were not written on the tracking documents issued by the courier company, these documents should, in principle, be deemed sufficient to prove that the notifice was made. A defendant who objects to enforcement with the claims that the notices made to him or her via courier were unrelated to the arbitration proceedings and that the contents of the notice did not include documents related to the arbitration proceedings must prove this fact.

Breach of Proper Notice Regarding Arbitrator Appointment or Arbitration Proceedings as Grounds for Refusal of Enforcement Under the New York Convention

Kerem

Pervin

This study evaluated the use of satellites, which denote an important space-based tool for peaceful purposes’ which is one of the humanity. To achieve its objective, it adopted the perspective of a fundamental principle of space law: the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes. Thus, the following research questions were posed for the study:• Why are satellites used?• How has the use of satellites changed in the historical context?• What does the principle of exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes mean by the term “peaceful purposes”?• How is this term referenced in legal documents?• What problems could be presented by the exploration and use of satellites for peaceful purposes and why?Currently, the area of space law is intensively combines law and technology. Rapid technological developments emanate from the competition between space powers and reveal the need for permanent legal regulations.The unpredictable nature of space-related activities also mandates legal regulation. Scrutiny of the existing legal procedures discloses that they have not advanced at a similar pace to technological progression. This situation necessitates an examination of space activities in a legal context.Satellites exemplify such rapidly evolving technological progress. In the beginning, they were used primarily by a limited number of states for military purposes. A paradigm shift occurred after the Cold War, which has made it necessary for activities to be assessed from a legal perspective. Space activities became classified as “old” and “new” in the scholarly literature because of the impact of the Cold War, which resulted in the intensive use of space by diverse actors and transformations in the ways space could be accessed. These changes are reflected in a graph generated from the quantitative data analyzed during the present study.The paradigm shift in space exploration demands the assessment of current practices in a legal context. The present study examines the texts of international treaties and United Nations documents to conduct such an evaluation. This scrutiny includes articles from legal documents related to space law as well as areas accorded a status similar to space, for instance, the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. The study’s objective of investigating the use of relevant areas for peaceful purposes is highlighted in its examination of the relevant legal texts. Therefore, it focuses on elucidating the common construal of the concept of peaceful purposes and how this term should be evaluated in the context of space activities. The literature analysis reveals that the concept of peaceful purposes is inferred as use that is “nonaggressive” and “nonmilitary.”The use of the term “nonaggressive” implies that the mere evaluation of aggression in military terms would be limiting. Therefore, it would be apposite to institute the idea of “peaceful purposes” as a category to examine whether the nature of space exploration activities is aggressive. Conversely, the use of the term “nonmilitary” suggests that military activities are incompatible with the concept of peace. Thus, space-related activities should be assessed as military and non-military activities. This literature review disclosed that the nature of unarmed military activities cannot be defined. Such actions are problematic because of the lack of an institutional basis from which the issue may be discussed in an international context. This situation demands discourse, especially because satellites form the focus of this study and their dual-use nature is considered.This duality of use creates an uncertain area when satellites are considered in the context of the principle of exploration and use of space for peaceful purposes. For instance, remote sensing and communication satellites are frequently used in a dual manner. Similarly, commercial satellites are intensively deployed and are also used for dual purposes.The 1991 Gulf War and the Russia–Ukraine War that began in 2022 are outstanding examples of such dual use of satellites. Cases such as the acquisition of rights to satellite images and the tracking of movements by nations by commercial satellites have been reported during these wars. Satellites have not yet become tools for armed activities; however, they have provided significant data flow for unarmed military activities. This fact evokes the question of whether the nature of such activities can still be deemed limited to the scope of the principle of the exploration and use of space for peaceful purposes. In addition, the present study reveals that the statement “exploration and use of space and satellites for peaceful purposes” encompasses an indeterminate area for the actors using satellites as well as the private agents who make them available. Accordingly, this study cites examples of satellite use and evaluates them in the light of the principle.

Use of Satellites in Terms of the Principle of Exploration and Use of Space for Peaceful Purposes

Lider

Türkiye’s withdrawal by presidential decree from the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, commonly known as the Istanbul Convention, has been widely debated at the national level. These debates have focused particularly on what legal procedures and competent authority are needed to withdraw from international treaties and the legal consequences for the national legal order of a potential unlawful withdrawal. When considering that every denunciatory act has legal effects on the other parties to a treaty, sometimes within the framework of international organizations and judicial mechanisms, and even on individuals in the international arena, discussions regarding Türkiye’s withdrawal from the Istanbul Convention inevitably fall within the scope of international law.In light of Türkiye’s withdrawal from the Istanbul Convention, this study aims to examine the issues of authority and procedure regarding international treaty withdrawal from the perspective of international law. Firstly, a crucial question arises as to who has the competency to declare a withdrawal as the will of a State. In principle, the issue of which persons and/or bodies have the competency to withdraw from international treaties is a matter that international law leaves to the national preference of each state. For pragmatic reasons and in order to create legal predictability, however, international law has adopted a presumption of representation in favor of certain persons. According to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), heads of state, heads of government, and ministers for foreign affairs are accepted as representing their state for the purpose of performing all acts in relation to a treaty. This presumption of representation in favor of these persons who exercise executive power in the national arena has resulted in the executive-centered approach of international law in state representation.This executive-centered approach in international law has not found the same favorable reception in the national sphere due to the principles of separation of powers and democracy. The idea that the executive branch is the only authority that can declare&nbsp;the will of the state at the international level has been criticized within the national arena, especially with the progressive confirmation of the role of the legislative branch regarding the conclusion and denunciation of treaties. These developments at the national level can be described as the democratization of treaty-making power and also have effects on the international legal order, at least within the framework of international organizations and state practices at the regional level.In this regard, the Council of Europe, of which Türkiye is a member, and the Istanbul Convention, which constitutes a core human rights instruments, are important examples. Democracy, the rule of law, and human rights are considered the core values of the Council of Europe. Protecting and promoting them are the main purpose of the Council and all its instruments and doing so requires respect for the principles of separation of powers and democracy. Therefore, these principles are no longer solely a concern of national law, as they have transformed into international obligations for the Member States of the Council of Europe.These obligations of member states undoubtedly have legal consequences in terms of which legal procedures exist and who has the competent authority to withdraw from an international treaty. The most evident example of this can be seen within the framework of human rights treaties. These treaties contain provisions on the fundamental rights and freedoms that are regulated and protected usually at the constitutional level and are considered legislative in nature.Therefore, just as the approval of the legislature is required when concluding such treaties, in the case of withdrawal, the legislature should assume a similar role. This practice is known as the symmetrical model and has been legally adopted in the majority of the Council of Europe’s Member States. From this clear trend toward parliamentary involvement in withdrawal decisions, one should interpret the symmetrical model as a normal practice, a violation of which could be qualified as manifest for all States acting in good faith as per Article 46 of the VCLT.Moreover, human rights treaties are considered a distinct category of international treaties and create particular legal consequences that also affect the possibility and process of a Member State’s withdrawal. The specificity given to withdrawing from such treaties is much more visible in regional legal systems, such as the Organization of American States and the Council of Europe, which transformed the principle of democracy into an organizational obligation and created effective legal mechanisms for the protection of human rights.In conclusion, Türkiye’s withdrawal by presidential decree from the Istanbul Convention appears legally incontestable from the point of view of classical international law of treaty, which prioritizes the presumption of representation. However, a trend is&nbsp;found opposite this classical view. Indeed, with the approach regional organizations have taken, particularly concerning human rights treaties, prioritizing the presumption of representation might change in a way where the principles of democracy and the rule of law should also be taken into account. Therefore, the legal effects of Türkiye’s withdrawal should be evaluated by taking into account its organizational obligations arising from the Council of Europe’s membership and regional states’ practices on how to conclude and denounce such treaties.

Discussions on Authority and Procedure in Withdrawal from International Treaties from the Perspective of International Law

Naziye

Lecturer

Revisiting the Content of United Nations General Assembly Resolutions in Shaping and Expanding the International Legal Content of Humanitarian Assistance

Bilge

The primary responsibility of ensuring adherence to the rules governing the treatymaking process lies with the state. As such, states must exercise caution and diligence in transactions that create international obligations. During the treaty-making process, a state may employ diverse methods determined by its own legal system, involving various branches of government. If these methods are not properly followed, a treaty may be concluded in violation of domestic law, creating the possibility of a conflict between domestic and international legal norms. Such a conflict may lead to disputes over the valid implementation and enforcement of the treaty.In certain cases, a conflict may arise between the legislative and executive branches when the executive expresses its consent to be bound by a treaty without obtaining the approval of the legislature, in violation of the state’s domestic law. This not only disrupts constitutional and democratic processes but also undermines the effectiveness and security of international treaties. In such a scenario, the only means of invoking the invalidity of a treaty, which is in principle presumed to be valid, is Article 46 of the VCLT. This article sets out the grounds for invalidity based on a breach of the competence to conclude treaties. However, Article 46 of the VCLT should be noted for its highly exceptional nature.To invoke invalidity under Article 46 of the VCLT, the state party wishing to do so must base its claim on a constitutional or equivalent provision. However, this alone may be insufficient. The success of such a claim may depend on whether another state party can clearly identify the violation of such a fundamental rule through normal practice and objective assessment while acting in good faith. Given the diversity and complexity of domestic legal systems in different states, the ability of another state party to identify such violations is further compromised. Moreover, if a state’s domestic law classifies treaty ratification procedures into different categories, such as exclusive executive ratification, joint legislative and executive ratification, or exclusive legislative ratification, a third state’s ability to definitively determine the category to which a particular treaty belongs may prove difficult. Such a determination may even require an assessment of the content and nature of matters falling within the exclusive&nbsp;&nbsp;competence of the invoking state, which would violate the principle of non-interference in internal affairs.The executive’s ratification of treaties, without involving the parliament which symbolizes the people’s will in the ratification process and in violation of domestic treaty-making rules, could imply that executive branch may alter laws if treaties are deemed equivalent to or superior to domestic legislation. This has the potential for undesirable consequences, especially concerning fundamental rights and freedoms. In fact, a treaty concluded in violation of domestic law will persist in the international arena without a successful claim of invalidity; however, the invoking state may not recognize the treaty as valid under its domestic law due to its failure to be duly entered into force. Therefore, the executive’s action, considered a usurpation of authority under domestic law, might be deemed valid under international law. This situation presents two options: first, the parliament may come under pressure to ratify or approve the treaty to prevent the state from facing difficulties in the international arena; second, the state may choose to violate international obligations by taking no such action.The most rational solution for a state to avoid such a conflict is to empower the constitutional court (or an equivalent judicial body) to decide on constitutionality or compliance with domestic law of international treaties in preliminary review proceedings. Indeed, this concern has prompted some states to introduce mechanisms for the prospective judicial review of treaties into their domestic legal systems. Despite concerns about the potential lengthening of proceedings in the treaty-making process—a task traditionally within the purview of the executive—due to the inclusion of constitutional review, this step should be regarded as a valuable measure. It aims to prevent potential future claims of invalidity based on violations of internal law in treaty-making and contributes to strengthening the stability and security of treaties.Considering the seeming unlikelihood of the application of Article 46 of the VCLT to treaty withdrawals, national legal systems are confronted with the urgent task of devising a mechanism to strike a balance in this context, given the absence of any readily available remedy in the field of international law. One potential option under international law might be to revoke the notice of withdrawal in accordance with Article 68 of the VCLT. However, this solution is not definitive, as it must be implemented before the withdrawal becomes legally effective. If, after legal effectiveness, the other state parties accept the revocation of the withdrawal notice, the withdrawing state could then resume its status as a party to the treaty without the need for re-accession procedures. It is essential to note that no objective condition exists requiring unanimous consent for revocation; such a practice remains solely at the discretion of the states that are parties to the treaty.A proactive step toward this goal would be the widespread inclusion of explicit provisions on treaty withdrawal in national constitutions. At the same time, the democratization the power of withdrawal and denunciation, which is originally vested in the executive, should be restructured as a shared power exercised jointly by the legislative and executive branches. Such a multi-pronged approach has the potential to proactively mitigate the legal dilemmas raised by withdrawals, as exemplified by Türkiye’s withdrawal from the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention), which was made solely by a presidential decision. To consider the establishment of a streamlined procedure for facilitating the re-accession of states that have withdrawn from treaties would be beneficial from the perspective of international law, particularly regarding treaties concerning fundamental rights and freedoms.

The Competence to Conclude Treaties in International Law and the Invalidity of Treaties within the Scope of Article 46 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

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Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL), which is regularly being published by Istanbul University Faculty of Law Research Center of International Law and International Relations since 1981, targets national and international audience. Articles submitted to Public and Private International Law (PPIL) are subject to a double-blind peer-review evaluation system. Public and Private International Law (PPIL) is published twice a year, in June and December. The academic papers requested to be published in Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL) have to be submitted by the latest March 31st for June issue and September 30th for December issue. Disciplinary and interdisciplinary academic papers focused on the diverse faces of public and private international law in connection with the basis of justice are being published in Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL). Therefore, while following public and private international law and international relations issues and publishing related academic papers this journal aims to help academicians studying or making researches in the same field. Besides academic articles on public international law and private international law, book reviews regarding the same subjects and evaluations of related court decisions are published in Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL).

İnci

Galip

Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)

EBSCO

ERIH PLUS

TR Dizin

DOAJ

SOBIAD

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@METRIC_OPENACCESS

Public and Private International Law Bulletin

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Editor in Chief

Co Editor in Chief

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Section Editor

Ethics Editor

Publicity Manager

Language Editor

Editorial Board Member

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Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL), which is regularly being published by Istanbul University Faculty of Law Research Center of International Law and International Relations since 1981, targets national and international audience. Articles submitted to Public and Private International Law (PPIL) are subject to a double-blind peer-review evaluation system. Public and Private International Law (PPIL) is published twice a year, in June and December. The academic papers requested to be published in Public and Private International Law (PPIL) have to be submitted by the latest March 31st for June issue and September 30th for December issue.Disciplinary and interdisciplinary academic papers focused on the diverse faces of public and private international law in connection with the basis of justice are being published in Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL). Therefore, while following public and private international law and international relations issues and publishing related academic papers this journal aims to help academicians studying or making researches in the same field.Besides academic articles on public international law and private international law, book reviews regarding the same subjects and evaluations of related court decisions are published in Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL).Mainly preferred topics of (a) public international law and (b) private international law in Public and Private International Law Bulletin (PPIL) are listed below.(a) Public International Law<div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: left;">1.    International Law (in general, i.e., History, Philosophy, Theory, Sources, Subjects of International Law; The Relations of International and National laws)</div></div><div style="text-align: left;">2.    International Law Personality, Recognition of States and Governments</div><div style="text-align: left;">3.    Territorial Sovereignty and State Jurisdiction </div><div style="text-align: left;">4.    International Transactions: Unilateral Acts and The Law of Treaties</div><div style="text-align: left;">5.    International Peace and Security Law and Use of Force</div><div style="text-align: left;">6.    International Human Rights Law</div><div style="text-align: left;">7.    International Environmental Law</div><div style="text-align: left;">8.    International Humanitarian Law ( Armed Conflicts Law)</div><div style="text-align: left;">9.    International Organizations Law</div><div style="text-align: left;">10.  International Law of the Sea</div><div style="text-align: left;">11.  International Economic Law</div><div style="text-align: left;">12.  State Responsibility</div><div style="text-align: left;">13.  International Criminal Law</div><div style="text-align: left;">14.  International Refugees Law</div><div style="text-align: left;">15.  Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes (Diplomatic and Judicial Means)</div><div style="text-align: left;">16.  International Air and Space law</div><div style="text-align: left;">17.  Transboundary Waters and Aquifer (groundwaters) Law</div>(b) Private International Law:<div>1.    General Principles of Private International Law 2.    International Procedure Law 3.    Conflict of Laws Rules 4.    International Investment Law 5.    Law on Aliens (i.e., Social Rights, Property Rights, Right to Education) 6.    Citizenship Law 7.    International Jurisdiction 8.    Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Court Judgements and Foreign Arbitration Awards 9.    International Family and Child Law 10.  International Contracts Law 11.  Alternative Dispute Resolutions 12.  International Commercial Arbitration 13.  Migration LawIntersecting topics of these two areas such as immigration and refugee law, investment law are also being subject to interdisciplinary legal reviews.  </div>

Aim and Scope

Web of Science - Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) TUBITAK-ULAKBIM TR DizinDOAJERIH PLUSEBSCO Central &amp; Eastern European Academic SourceEBSCO Legal SourceSOBİAD

Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. PlagiarismSubmitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-ReviewAfter plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Policies

The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a>) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a> and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

Public and Private International Law Bulletin is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, the <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, the <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing. The journal will act according to the COPE guidelines and flowcharts when faced with cases of suspected misconduct, complaints and appeals.

Ethics

The journal adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.- Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.- The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.- The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.- Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.- Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.- The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.- In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.- If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.- In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/848869224A0F46AF8A1AF364064CF007" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by editor-in-chief  upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing. Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed. Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective. Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side. A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process. The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Peer Review

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by Editor-in-Chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts.The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by Editor-in-Chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review.- Does the manuscript contain new and significant information?- Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript?- Is the problem significant and concisely stated?- Are the methods described comprehensively?- Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results?- Is adequate references made to other Works in the field?- Is the language acceptable?Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

LanguageArticles in Turkish and English are published. Submitted Turkish article must include an English abstract, keyword and an extended abstract. Extended abstract in English is not required for articles in English. Manuscript Organization and FormatAll correspondence will be sent to the first-named author unless otherwise specified. Manuscpript is to be submitted online via <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ppil" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ppil</a> and it must be accompanied by a cover letter indicating that the manuscript is intended for publication, specifying the article category (i.e. research article, review etc.) and including information about the manuscript (see the Submission Checklist). Manuscripts should be prepared in Microsoft Word 2003 and upper versions. In addition, <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/848869224A0F46AF8A1AF364064CF007" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a> that has to be signed by all authors must be submitted. 1. The manuscripts should be in A4 paper standards: having 2.5 cm margins from right, left, bottom and top, Times New Roman font style in 12 font size, line spacing of 1.5 and “justify align” format. For indented paragraph, tab key should be used. One line spacing should be used for the tables and figures, which are included in the text. 2. The title of the text should be centered on the page, in lower-case letter, bold, Times New Roman font and 14 font size. 3. Information about the author is to be written on the left part of the page skipping one line space after the title, and it should be in Times New Roman font, 10 font size, with one line spacing. After indicating the name of the author in lower-case letter and surname in capital letter, the title, affiliation, and e-mail address should be included. 4. Before the introduction part, there should be an abstract of 200-250 words both in the language of the article and in English. An extended abstract in English between 800-1000 words, summarizing the scope, the purpose, the results of the study and the methodology used is to be included following the abstracts. If the manuscript is in English, extended abstract is not required. Underneath the abstracts, 5-15 keywords that inform the reader about the content of the study should be specified in the language of the article and in English. 6. The manuscripts should contain mainly these components: title, abstract and keywords; extended abstract (If the manuscript is in English, extended abstract is not required), sections, footnotes and references. 7. Tables, graphs and figures can be given with a number and a defining title if and only if it is necessary to follow the idea of the article. Otherwise features like demographic characteristics can be given within the text. 8. A <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/5BA20B6708CA44FAAF80776194D8FB31" target="_blank">title page</a> including author information must be submitted together with the manuscript. The title page is to include fully descriptive title of the manuscript and, affiliation, title, e-mail address, ORCID, postal address, phone and fax number of the author(s) (see The Submission Checklist). 9. The rights of the manuscripts submitted to our journal for publication, belongs to the author(s). 10. The author(s) can be asked to make some changes in their articles due to peer reviews. 11. A copy of the journal will be sent to each author of the accepted articles upon their request. 12. The studies that were sent to the journal will not be returned whether they are published or not.OSCOLA Reference ExamplesPrimary Sources Do not use full stops in abbreviations. Separate citations with a semi-colon. Cases Give the party names, followed by the neutral citation, followed by the Law Reports citation (eg AC, Ch, QB). If there is no neutral citation, give the Law Reports citation followed by the court in brackets. If the case is not reported in the Law Reports, cite the All ER or the WLR, or failing that a specialist report. Corr v IBC Vehicles Ltd [2008] UKHL 13, [2008] 1 AC 884. R (Roberts) v Parole Board [2004] EWCA Civ 1031, [2005] QB 410. Page v Smith [1996] AC 155 (HL). When pinpointing, give paragraph numbers in square brackets at the end of the citation. If the judgment has no paragraph numbers, provide the page number pinpoint after the court. Callery v Gray [2001] EWCA Civ 1117, [2001] 1 WLR 2112 [42], [45]. Bunt v Tilley [2006] EWHC 407 (QB), [2006] 3 All ER 336 [1]–[37]. R v Leeds County Court, ex p Morris [1990] QB 523 (QB) 530–31. If citing a particular judge: Arscott v The Coal Authority [2004] EWCA Civ 892, [2005] Env LR 6 [27] (Laws LJ). Statutes and statutory instruments Act of Supremacy 1558. Human Rights Act 1998, s 15(1)(b). Penalties for Disorderly Behaviour (Amendment of Minimum Age) Order 2004, SI 2004/3166. EU legislation and cases Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2008] OJ C115/13. Council Regulation (EC) 139/2004 on the control of concentrations between undertakings (EC Merger Regulation) [2004] OJ L24/1, art 5. Case C–176/03 Commission v Council [2005] ECR I–7879, paras 47–48. European Court of Human Rights Omojudi v UK (2009) 51 EHRR 10. Osman v UK ECHR 1998–VIII 3124. Balogh v Hungary App no 47940/99 (ECHR, 20 July 2004). Simpson v UK (1989) 64 DR 188. Secondary Sources Books Give the author’s name in the same form as in the publication, except in bibliographies, where you should give only the surname followed by the initial(s). Give relevant information about editions, translators and so forth before the publisher, and give page numbers at the end of the citation, after the brackets. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (first published 1651, Penguin 1985) 268. Gareth Jones, Goff and Jones: The Law of Restitution (1st supp, 7th edn, Sweet &amp; Maxwell 2009). K Zweigert and H Kötz, An Introduction to Comparative Law (Tony Weir tr, 3rd edn, OUP 1998). Contributions to edited books Francis Rose, ‘The Evolution of the Species’ in Andrew Burrows and Alan Rodger (eds), Mapping the Law: Essays in Memory of Peter Birks (OUP 2006). Encyclopedias Halsbury’s Laws (5th edn, 2010) vol 57, para 53. Journal articles Paul Craig, ‘Theory, “Pure Theory” and Values in Public Law’ [2005] PL 440. When pinpointing, put a comma between the first page of the article and the page pinpoint. JAG Griffith, ‘The Common Law and the Political Constitution’(2001) 117 LQR 42, 64. Online journals Graham Greenleaf, ‘The Global Development of Free Access to Legal Information’ (2010) 1(1) EJLT &lt; http://ejlt.org//article/view/17 &gt; accessed 27 July 2010. Command papers and Law Commission reports Department for International Development, Eliminating World Poverty: Building our Common Future (White Paper, Cm 7656, 2009) ch 5. Law Commission, Reforming Bribery (Law Com No 313, 2008) paras 3.12–3.17. Websites and blogs Sarah Cole, ‘Virtual Friend Fires Employee’ (Naked Law, 1 May 2009) accessed 19 November 2009. Newspaper articles Jane Croft, ‘Supreme Court Warns on Quality’ Financial Times (London, 1 July 2010) 3.k/sites/files/oxlaw/oscola_2006_citing_international_law.pdf

Author Guidelines

Before beginning the online submission process please read the Information for Authors and make sure you have the followings available:Cover letter to the editor<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.</li> <li>Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.</li> <li>Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.</li> <li>Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.</li> <li>Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with OSCOLA 4th Edition. </li> </ul> </ul><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/848869224A0F46AF8A1AF364064CF007" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>Permission of previous published material if used in the present manuscript<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/9463F19C103F4828B2E32AAFBDB13F53" target="_blank">Title page</a><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The category of the manuscript</li> <li>The title of the manuscript both in the language of the article and in English</li> <li>All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addresses</li> <li>Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax number</li> <li>ORCIDs of all authors.</li> </ul> </ul>Main Manuscript Document<ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript Turkish and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (200-250 words) Turkish and in English</li> <li>Key words: 5-15 words Turkish and in English</li> <li>Extended Summary (800-1000 words) in English (only for articles which are Turkish)</li> <li>Grant Support (if exits)</li> <li>Conflict of interest (if exits) </li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exits)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul>Manuscript Submission<ul type="disc"> <li>Dergipark anuscript submission site of the journal is: <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ppil" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ppil</a></li><li>While uploading Main Document, make sure that the main document has no information that clarify the author’s identity. Due to double blind peer review, Main Document must not include Title Page, the name of author or any other detail that can disclose the author identity. </li> <li>Additionaly, Supplemental File for Review must not include any detail that can disclose author identity as well.</li> </ul>Files to be uploaded separately<ul type="disc"> <li>Copyright Agreement Form</li> <li>Permissions obtained for previously published material if used in the present manuscript</li> <li>Title page</li> <li>Main Manuscript Document</li> </ul><ul type="disc"> <ul type="circle"> <li>The title of the manuscript Turkish and in English</li> <li>Abstracts (200-250 words) Turkish and in English</li> <li>Key words: 5-15 words Turkish and in English</li> <li>Extended summary (800-1000 words) in English (only for articles which are Turkish)</li> <li>Grant Support (if exits)</li> <li>Conflict of interest (if exits)</li> <li>Acknowledgement (if exists)</li> <li>References</li> <li>All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)</li> </ul> </ul><ul type="disc"> </ul>

<a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=03-oscola_4th_edn_hart_2012.pdf" target="_blank" style="font-size: 14px;">03-oscola_4th_edn_hart_2012.pdf</a>

Ensure that the following items are present:●    Cover letter to the editorü    The category of the manuscriptü    Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.ü    Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.ü    Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.ü    Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.ü    Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.ü    Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with OSCOLA 4th Edition.●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/848869224A0F46AF8A1AF364064CF007" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>●    Permission of previously published copyrighted material if used in the present manuscript●    <a href="http://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=ppil_title-page_637057799040699150.docx" target="_blank">Title page</a>ü    The category of the manuscriptü    The title of the manuscriptü    All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addressesü    Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax numberü    ORCIDs of all authors.●    Main Manuscript Documentü    The title of the manuscriptü    Abstract (200-250 words)ü    Key words: 3 to 5 wordsü    Extended Summary (800-1000 words) in English for the articles which are not in Englishü    Grant support (if exists)ü    Conflict of interest (if exists)ü    Acknowledgement (if exists)ü    Referencesü    All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)

<a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/848869224A0F46AF8A1AF364064CF007" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a> <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/5BA20B6708CA44FAAF80776194D8FB31" target="_blank">Title Page</a>

Issue Type	Regular
Editor(s)	Ayşe Nur Tütüncü, Bahattin Bahadır Erdem
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