Geç Orta Çağ ve Erken Modern Dönem Avrupa Cadılık Davalarında Norm Dışılık Metaforu
Avrupa tarihine “Cadı Avı Çağı” olarak geçen dönem sebepleri, sonuçları, farklı coğrafi bağlamlarda gösterdiği özgüllükler gibi pek çok veçhesiyle tarih araştırmalarına konu olmuştur. Ancak büyük oranda yargısal bir süreç olan cadı avının hukuki yönüyle analizi görece geri planda kalmıştır. Avın yoğun seyrettiği bölgelerde 13. yüzyılda geçerlilik kazanan sorgulamaya dayalı usul hukukunun rolü ve detayları kimi çalışmalarda yer bulsa da bu davalarda çeşitli örtük varsayım ve önyargıların işleyişi incelenmeye muhtaçtır. Özellikle avın kurbanları arasında ağırlık kazanan profilin marjinal özellikleri mahkûmiyet kararına gerekçe oluşturan bir tür norm dışılık metaforunun varlığına dair kuşku uyandırmaktadır. Bu çalışma, söz konusu şüpheyi doğrulamanın mümkün olup olmadığını araştırmayı amaçlamıştır. Yargı kararlarında rol oynayan metaforların rolünü açığa çıkaran feminist yöntemden faydalanan makale, söz konusu metaforun kimi özellikleriyle kendine has ceza yargılamaları teşkil eden cadılık davalarında işleyip işlemediğini, işlemişse nasıl işlediğini ve ne tür bileşenlerden oluştuğunu aydınlatmayı hedef edinmiştir. Araştırmada söz konusu problemlere cevaben özellikle yönetici sınıfların tehlikeli bulduğu bekâr, yaşlı ve yoksul kadınların yine bu sınıflar tarafından formüle edilen modern cadılık anlayışı çerçevesinde şeytan işbirlikçisi olarak hedef gösterildikleri ve bunun sonucunda norm dışılıklarının suç isnadına gerekçe olarak kullanıldığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Dolayısıyla dolaşıma sokulan norm dışılık metaforunun işleyişi sonucunda metaforun bileşenlerini taşıyan bekâr, yaşlı ve yoksul kadınların suçlamanın muhatabı hâline getirildiğine dikkat çekilmiştir. Cadılık davalarında işkence uygulamasına izin veren ve mahkemeye hem ispat hem de karar verme yükümlülüğü yükleyen yeni yargılama usulünün de etkisiyle bu metaforun sadece isnadı değil aynı zamanda mahkûmiyeti de beraberinde getirecek şekilde işlediğine ve binlerce norm dışı kadının suç isnadı aşamasında infazını da kesinleştirdiğine işaret edilmiştir.
The Metaphor of Anomalousness in European Witch Trials During the Late Medieval and Early Modern Periods
The period, which went down in European history as “The Age of the Witch-Hunts”, has been the subject of many historical studies, with several aspects, such as its causes, consequences, and varying characteristics in different geographic contexts. However, the analysis of the legal aspects of the hunt, which was essentially a judicial process, has remained relatively obscure. Although the role and details of the inquisitorial system that became valid in the 13th century in regions where the hunt was intense have been examined in some studies, the operation of various tacit assumptions and prejudices in the cases of witchcraft needs to be analysed. In particular, the marginal characteristics of the general profile of victims raise doubts about the existence of a metaphor of anomalousness that justified the verdict of conviction. The objective of this study is to investigate whether it is possible to confirm this suspicion. Employing the feminist method that reveals the role of metaphors in judicial decisions, the article aims to discover whether the metaphor in question had impacts in the cases of witchcraft, if so, how it operated, and what kind of components it consisted of. In response to the aforementioned questions, it is concluded that the anomalousness of unmarried, old, and poor women, who were found dangerous by ruling classes and were targeted as Satan’s followers within the framework of the modern concept of witchcraft, was used as a rationale for the accusations. Thus, it has been noted that as a result of the operation of the metaphor of anomalousness, unmarried, old, and poor women who display the components of the metaphor were made the targets of the accusations. It is highlighted that with the introduction of the new criminal procedure, which allowed the use of torture in the cases of witchcraft and imposed both the burden of proof and the determination of the verdict on the court, the operation of this metaphor not only resulted in the accusation but also in the conviction, and therefore in the execution of thousands of anomalous women at the stage of the criminal charge.
The period, which went down in European history as “The Age of the Witch Hunts”, has been the subject of many historical studies with several aspects, such as its causes, consequences, and varying characteristics in different geographic contexts. However, the analysis of the legal aspects of the hunt, which was essentially a judicial process, has remained relatively obscure. Although the role and details of the inquisitorial system that became valid in the 13th century in regions where the hunt was intense have been examined in some studies, the operation of various tacit assumptions and prejudices in the cases of witchcraft needs to be analysed. In particular, the marginal characteristics of the general profile of victims raise doubts about the existence of a metaphor of anomalousness that justified the verdict of conviction. The objective of this article is to investigate whether it is possible to confirm this suspicion. Employing the feminist method that reveals the role of metaphors in judicial decisions, this article aims to discover whether the metaphor in question had impacts in the cases of witchcraft, if so, how it operated, and what kind of components it consisted of.
To verify the possible operation of the metaphor, the feminist method aimed at revealing gender-based assumptions that constitute the rationale for judicial decisions was employed. As a result of the application of the aforementioned method to cases of witchcraft, it has been argued that unmarried, old, and mostly poor women, who were found dangerous by the ruling classes, were targeted as Satan’s followers within the framework of the modern witchcraft notion formulated by the same groups. Although the main victims were also often considered eccentric by their neighbours, the transformation of their harmless anomalousness into a rationale for witchcraft accusations occurred in the late Medieval and Early Modern periods as a result of the efforts made by the ruling elites, especially by the clergy. Therefore, it has been pointed out that as a result of the operation of the metaphor of anomalousness, which was established by the classes that organised the hunt, women displaying the components of the metaphor, namely, unmarried, old, and poor women, were made the main target of the hunt. Principally, the data obtained from the writings and the statements of demonologists and witch hunters has been used as a basis for determining the role of the ruling classes in the association of unmarried, old, and poor women with the crime of witchcraft. In this article, the single status of the accused women is presented as the principal element of the metaphor. As outcasts free of masculine control, unmarried women were often found threatening and targeted as prominent suspects by the ruling elite of medieval and early modern Christian Europe, where the family was a fundamental social structure. It has been revealed that these women, who were also seen as a social problem by the ruling classes due to their poverty, became the bearer of another component of the metaphor, as a result of the presumption that they made a pact with Satan in exchange for pecuniary gain. Finally, the vulnerability of old women to witchcraft accusations was examined as a result of gendered prejudices such as their so-called envy against the “fertility” of young mothers and wives.
In response to the questions put forward in the first paragraph, it has been concluded that unmarried, old, and poor women who were found dangerous by ruling classes were targeted as Satan’s servants within the framework of the modern concept of witchcraft. The anomalousness attributed to the civil status, age, and class of these women often served as a rationale for the witchcraft accusations. Thus, it has been noted that as a result of the operation of the metaphor of anomalousness, unmarried, old, and poor women who displayed the characteristics of the metaphor were the main targets of the accusations. It has been highlighted that with the introduction of the new criminal procedure, which allowed the use of torture in the cases of witchcraft and imposed both the burden of proof and the determination of the verdict on the court, the operation of this metaphor not only resulted in the accusation but also in the conviction, and therefore in the execution of thousands of anomalous women at the stage of the criminal charge.
