Resul

Assist. Prof. Dr.

Although the studies on construction materials and construction techniques have increased in recent architectural history research, they have not yet reached a developed level. The plan and space arrangements of historical buildings provide information about the level of architectural development of the period in which they were built. The ornamentation programs in the buildings show the reflections of the understanding of aesthetics and beauty. The construction and decoration materials used in the structures provide information about the geography and geoscience of the region. The simplicity or diversity of the use of construction and decoration materials in historical buildings reflects the architectural understanding of the region where the building was constructed. Another notable feature is the use of spolia. Due to the expedient procurement and straightforward applicability of the spolia material, it is encountered in every age. The high number and variety of spolia usage in Anatolia is worthy of particular interest.The choice and application of spolia materials during the Anatolian Seljuk Era and the Ottoman Empire reveal remarkable causes and consequences. It is seen that the use of spolia materials was abundant in the architecture of the Seljuk period. The fact that the Seljuks carried out many construction activities in the short time they spent in Anatolia must have caused them to prefer construction and decoration materials in buildings belonging to old and different societies, as well as the production of new construction materials. In the Middle Ages, traces of architectural pieces from the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods can be seen on the works of the Turkish-Islamic period, especially in the monuments in the Central and Western Anatolia Region. In Ottoman architecture, the use of spolia architectural pieces, especially in the Classical period, in harmony with the original material makes it difficult to immediately recognize the spolia material. When the architecture of Anatolian Seljuks and II. Principalities period is examined, spolia materials were used in columns, column bases and capitals, masonry, arches, balustrade panels, lintels and architraves, and were also used as an ornamental material. The reason why spolia is frequently preferred in centers such as Konya and nearby cities, the Western Anatolia Region, Bursa, Istanbul and Diyarbakır is that some buildings have become unusable and have turned&nbsp;into ready-made material warehouses. However, since Christian communities continue their lives and use their buildings in many settlements of the Eastern Anatolia Region, the use of spolia materials in Turkish-Islamic monuments is rare in this region.The Gevaş Izzettin Shir Mosque, located in the Gevaş district of Van province and although its first construction date is controversial, researchers generally accept that it was built in the 14th century, reflecting the characteristics of the Medieval Anatolian Turkish-Islamic mosque architecture with its dome in front of the mihrab and the transverse aisles behind it. The tomb inscription dated 1197, located to the east of the mosque mihrab, reveals that the architecture in the area began much earlier. A madrasah unit was added to the northern façade of the place of worship in 1594-1595, and a minaret was added to the western façade recently. It is understood from the traces on the walls of the work in the form of a complex and the restoration reports that it has undergone a restoration process spanning many years. However, these renovation works have also brought with them some questions.&nbsp;It is obvious that the tomb monument inscription on the east side of the area in front of the mihrab and some stones found in various parts of the building belong to another building. A total of 11 qualified spolia materials were found in this structure. It is thought that 8 of these belong to a tomb monument (gunbad) and two of them are tombstones. It is not clear whether one piece is an architectural piece or a tombstone. In addition, a large number of undecorated building stones, thought to be spolia, were used on the facades of the Izzettin Shir Mosque. Introducing the spolia stones that differ in structure gives ideas about which type of structure they belong to and from where they would have been brought.The inscription on the right side of the mihrab (Harim Stone No. 1) belongs to a grave monument (hazire) and the name of Shah Sarimuddin, who died in January 1197, is written on it. Harim stone no. 2 is located in the corner of the arch on the north nave and is a 5-armed medallion decoration on limestone. Stone no.1 on the south façade of the mosque has the same decorative composition as stone no.2 on the harim. Stones no.2 and no.3 on the south façade and stone 1 on the east façade have the same formal and decorative features.These stones, which are thought to be border arrangements, have a round-surface carving technique, a decoration similar to the “zencirek” motif, continued with broken and straight lines. The stone no.2 on the eastern façade of the mosque is a horizontal rectangle and there are three ornamental panels on it. Since these decorations were destroyed, their nature could not be understood. Composition panels were probably created from similar decorations. Madrasah student cell stone no.1 is a gravestone, but it has not survived to the present day because it was removed during repairs. There is a 10-pointed star motif in the center of stone no.1 on the north façade of the madrasah.&nbsp;Stone no.1 on the east façade of the madrasah is also a piece of a tombstone. There is a burning candle motif in the frame at the center of the stone. The candle pattern is filled with reverse palmette, knot and rumi motifs on both sides. In addition, there are white-textured limestone stones on a large surface on the upper rows of the eastern façade of the mosque. The fact that these stones are different from the other stone textures in the building shows that these undecorated stones were taken from another building.The spolia materials in Izzettin Shir Mosque and Madrasah should be divided into two groups: tomb monument architectural pieces and tombstones. It is thought that the majority of the decorated architectural pieces and facing stones belong to a tomb. The strongest evidence in this determination is that there is a grave monument that is meant by the word “hazire” in the inscription inside the harim. The other second evidence is the border decorations defined as the “zencirek” motif seen on the facades of this building, when we examine the tombs of the Seljuk Age in Anatolia, geometric border arrangements in the form of knitting and interlocking were frequently used in the transition section between the base of the buildings and the body. Another evidence that the stones belonging to the tomb were used is that the stones of harim 2, mosque south façade 1 and madrasah north façade 1 are similar to the use of medallions in the window and entrance openings in the tomb monuments. Since the stones of Harim 2 and the south façade of the mosque number 1 have the same symmetry, it is assumed that these stones were used as repeated decorations in the decoration program of the tomb where they were spolia. Or it can be thought that these stones were used in the arch spandrels of the entrance opening of the tomb. It is assumed that the stones numbered 1 of the madrasah student cell and 1 of the eastern façade of the madrasah are not architectural pieces but were originally used as gravestones.Van Province and its surroundings are located in the first-degree earthquake zone. Many monuments have been damaged or destroyed in the region which has witnessed devastating earthquakes throughout history. Since the tomb to which the spolia stones we examined within the scope of the study belonged was destroyed and became unusable, probably as a result of an earthquake, they were not used in the reconstruction of the tomb. Instead, it is thought that it was used in the repair of Gevaş Izzettin Shir Mosque as a more practical method. In addition, the placement of these spolia stones without regard to aesthetics and symmetry also indicates a local repair.&nbsp;Based on the evidence, the word “hazîre” in the inscription on the wall to the left of the mihrab was used not as a grave-burial area (cemetery) but in a context that would refer to a type of structure / grave monument in the sense of “mausoleum - tomb”. Thus, it is understood that this inscription does not belong to the mosque but is the inscription of the tomb where a person named Shah Sarimuddin was buried during the&nbsp;Ahlatshahs period. It is determined that the medallion decorations in the harim area, on the south façade and the north façade of the madrasah, the border decorations on the east façade of the harim and the white-toned limestone stones in the upper row are also stones belonging to this tomb due to their formal and decorative nature. The tombstone with a candle motif on the east wall of the madrasah and the tombstone used as a scarf stone in the student cell are also used in the building, and it is thought that these are the tombstones around the tomb we know of, or the stones brought from the nearby historical Turkish cemetery. In addition, the intense use of this spolia material on the eastern façade of the mosque is the strongest evidence that the tomb dated 1197 was located in this direction. In fact, this shows that Izzettin Shir Mosque may have been built in the 12th century before the 14th century and that a tomb was built near the mosque. The structures were probably damaged and destroyed by the effects of devastating earthquakes. While the mosque was being repaired, the inscriptions, architectural pieces and plastic decorations belonging to the tomb were used to raise the mosque. Thus, the existence of the earliest Seljuk Era tomb in the Lake Van Basin and in Gevaş was identified from the traces on the walls of the mosque built during the Seljuk period and the madrasah added during the Ottoman period and was brought to the history of architecture. As a result, and as indicated in Table 1, the spolia from the Izzettin Shir Mosque belong to the tomb dated 1197. However, the tombstones used in the madrasah are strongly dated to the 14th century.&nbsp;

Possible Traces of the Lost Tower Dome Tomb in Gevaş, Thought To Be From the Seljuk Era

Funda

Anatolian Seljuk architecture was strongly influenced by a fusion of Islamic, Persian, and Byzantine cultures, complemented by the region’s unique historical, cultural, political, and religious context. The buildings from this era are remarkable, particularly due to their simple and introverted architectural designs. The buildings were constructed as plain and unembellished structures but were enhanced with elaborate entrances throughout the early Seljuk eras. The architectural features of the period are asymmetrical plans, courtyards and iwans, decorations, and buildings composed of more than one function. The Anatolian Seljuk Period is characterized by numerous examples of combined-function buildings. These examples may serve several functions, such as madrasah-mosque, mosque-tomb, mosque-mosque, and mosque-madrasah-tomb. Combined-function buildings hold a significant place in architectural history, as they are considered to represent the earliest examples of social complexes that influenced the development of similar structures in the following centuries. These buildings, which served multiple purposes, such as religious, educational, and social gathering places, laid the groundwork for the design and functionality of future social complexes. Their innovative approach to combining different functions within a single building highlighted an advanced understanding of architecture’s role in societal development and community life. In these multifunctional buildings, depending on the specific needs of the time or location, two or three distinct functions were integrated into a single building. Despite the combination of various functions, the relationship between them could either be unplanned, as observed in the Madrasah-Darüşşifa (educational institution-hospital) buildings, or it could evolve naturally, as seen with mosque-tomb complexes. This versatility in function and the varying degrees of integration between different spaces reflect the adaptive and innovative approaches to architecture during that period. Research efforts have focused on identifying the construction periods of combined-function buildings as well as establishing a typological classification for these buildings. Studies on geometric analysis, however, have typically concentrated on Seljuk patterns. A limited amount of research employs the geometric analysis method to examine buildings that provide several functions. The studies use the geometric analysis approach to examine the mass relationship between the hospital and the mosque in Divriği Grand Mosque and Hospital. These researches&nbsp;have indicated that particular guidelines might have been applied when combining various functions. Analyzing the mass relationship is crucial for understanding the history of architecture because no source indicates whether the mass combinations in Seljuk architecture are regular or irregular. This study’s research issue focuses on determining if the relationship among diverse functional masses, which together form combined functional buildings, adheres to specific geometric and proportional rules. The objective of conducting geometric analysis on the plans and sections of Anatolian Seljuk buildings, which serve multiple functions, was to identify the proportions and principles guiding the arrangement of various functional masses.&nbsp;The module system, special triangle analysis (3-4-5 triangle, 30-60-90 degree triangle, or equilateral triangle), and application of the golden ratio have been used to analyze combined-function Anatolian Seljuk buildings.&nbsp;Module: These are units with fixed dimensions where an element repeats, either increasing or decreasing, by itself or through its multiples. Previous researches have established that the Anatolian Seljuk Period did not have precise module measurements. Thus, only modularity was proportionately investigated in these researches.Special Triangles: This kind of analysis investigates how equilateral and special (Pythagorean) triangles are used on drawings. The two triangle types most frequently employed in structural design are the right-angled isosceles triangle and the equilateral triangle, whose height is equal to the side of the square. The impact of special triangles on the forms or proportions of sections or facades will be examined in this study.The golden ratio: The formula (x+y) /x = x/y expresses the golden ratio. The golden ratio is obtained by splitting a line segment into two pieces so that the ratio of the long segment (x) to the total component (x+y) equals the ratio of the short segment (y) to the long segment (x). The study’s goal is to identify the alignments defined by the golden rectangle, which was created using the golden ratio rule as a guide.This study examined the plans and sections of seven combined-function buildings. This approach considers two sorts of functions when they come together: functions, such as mosque-tomb functions, and consciously created functions, such as Madrasah-Hospital functions. Within this framework, the emphasis lies on three instances of buildings that possess two primary functions that are interconnected, as well as four instances of buildings that have a tomb annexed to the main use. The designs and sections of the madrasah-tomb and mosque-tomb buildings were first studied in the analytical studies. Next, buildings that combine larger masses, like the madrasah-hospital and mosque-madrasah, were examined. Results of geometric analysis can thus be compared based on mass size, number, and function type. Çay Taş Madrasah, Beyşehir Eşrefoğlu Mosque, and Tomb, Amasya Burmalı Minare Mosque and&nbsp;Tomb, and Amasya Gök Medrese Mosque and Tomb were chosen for the first analysis group, where the tomb is integrated into the main purpose. The second analysis group buildings are the Divriği Grand Mosque and Hospital, the Kayseri Huand Hatun Social Complex, the Kayseri Gıyasiye Madrasah, and the Gevher Nesibe Hospital. Plans and sections of the buildings have been drawn using surveys of the buildings to illustrate their form and the interactions between the masses. Analyses were done on the drawings in the computer environment. It examined the usage of the modular system, special triangle, and golden ratio on the drawings. The investigations led to the determination of proportional and formal relationships between various functional masses, the golden ratio in plans, and corresponding triangles in sections. The dimensions of the portals and the positions and proportions of the tombs are determined by the golden rectangle in the plans of buildings where a tomb is connected to a main function, such as the mosque-tomb and madrasah-tomb.&nbsp;Golden rectangles on all façades have been noted to determine the exact positions and dimensions of the tombs in Amasya Gök Madrasah, Amasya Burmalı Minare Mosque, and Çay Taş Madrasah. Only the proportions of the northeastern façade of Beyşehir Eşrefoğlu Mosque’s tomb were accessible. The golden rectangle at Amasya Gök Madrasah determines the dimensions of the dome-covered naves within the building and the tower and portal located on the north façade.The golden rectangle in Amasya Burmalı Minare Mosque exhibits identical dimensions for both the tomb’s interior space and the area in front of the mihrab. The dimensions and proportions of the tomb at Çay Taş Madrasah, including the size, position, wall thickness, and entrance width of the main iwan and the adjacent domed classrooms, were determined using the golden rectangle.Golden rectangles establish the proportional connection between different masses on long façades in architectural plans that examine the two main functions (madrasah-mosque, şifahane-madrasah). The dimensions of the golden rectangles that determine the proportions of Kayseri Gıyasiye Madrasah, Gevher Nesibe Hospital, Divriği Ulu Mosque, and Hospital are the same. While the dimensions of the portals in both buildings are identified by the golden rectangles, no information is given about the sizes of the tombs.The dimensions of the mosque portal and the proportional connection between the madrasah and mosque buildings were determined using the golden rectangle in the Kayseri Huand (Hunat) Hatun Complex. The analysis does not provide any details concerning the tomb situated within the mosque.The findings demonstrate that the golden ratio had a crucial role in the design of multifunctional buildings in the Anatolian Seljuk Period. The golden rectangle on&nbsp;the plan indicates the position of a tomb combined with a main building. The study did not provide any information about the positions and sizes of the tombs that were combined with two main buildings. Modular systems, golden rectangles, and special triangles were used in the sections. Even though the golden square shows the inner sizes of the tomb and the naves of the Amasya Burmalı Minare Mosque, it does not how the tomb and mosque masses should be proportioned. A golden ratio can be used to show the relation between the height of the cone and the tomb wall, and the position of the dome springing line.In Amasya Gök Madrasah, the golden ratio between the dome and the cone was found. The equal-length triangles identify the cone’s height and shape, as well as the proportions of the spaces of the harim. The 2:3 ratio was used for the tomb’s mass and the harim’s inner areas. Modules, special triangles, and golden rectangles were also seen in Taş Madrasah and Beyşehir Eşrefoğlu Mosque. It shows the dimensions of the tomb in Beyşehir Eşrefoğlu Mosque and the relation of the harim and the maksure dome. In the Kayseri Huand Hatun Social Complex, the proportions of the dome and the tomb cone were identified by golden squares that were all the same size. The same 5-12-13 triangle identifies the division of the mosque vaults and the dome in front of the mihrab. The madrasah’s iwan and the harim’s dome are the same size when measured by the equilateral triangle.&nbsp;The golden rectangle at the Divriği Grand Mosque and Hospital sets the right height for the Hospital and the tomb, as well as the dome’s measurements in front of the mihrab. Equal-sided triangles shape the cones on the roof. The 8-5-17 triangle shows how high the lantern is on the dome, and the 5-12-13 triangle shows how the naves are arranged next to each other.&nbsp;The study’s results were evaluated based on parameters such as number of functions and mass size. Based on the plan, the golden ratio was essential when designing combined-function buildings during the Anatolian Seljuk Period. The golden rectangle shows the ratios of the two main masses in a building with two primary functions and a tomb, but it fails to demonstrate a relationship with the tomb’s plan. This shows that Anatolian Seljuk builders and designers intentionally used the golden ratio in their plans. The golden rectangle established the ratios between the various masses in the architectural layout of each building. Nevertheless, the outcomes of the cross-sectional analysis varied for each building. The data on proportional relationships for the sections was obtained from the modular system or golden rectangles. Conversely, the information regarding the formal connections between the masses was derived from special triangles. When a building serves two main functions, one of which is as a mosque, it is possible to identify the relative relationships between different masses within the building. However, if a building served as both a madrasah and a hospital,&nbsp;there was no connection between the two masses. The modular system determines the internal dimensions of architectural components, such as roofs and vaults, rather than how the masses are interconnected. The ratio of 2:3 does not accurately represent the proportional relationship between masses. It can be used to indicate the relative size of the cone compared to the main building in specific examples, such as the Amasya Gök Madrasah, Divriği Ulu Mosque, and Hospital. Special triangles were primarily utilized to determine the shapes of structural components such as cones and domes. The sizes of the domes and cones of the Amasya Burmalı Minaret, the Amasya Gök Madrasah, and the Kayseri Huand Hatun Social Complex were determined using similar triangles in their sections. No existing research has examined the impact of special triangles on the architectural design of Anatolian Seljuk buildings. Geometric proportions and features are commonly used in buildings with structural elements such as cones to maintain formal and proportionate relationships. The study reveals that it is crucial to consider geometric and proportional relationships when designing contemporary additions for historically significant buildings or surroundings. The research contributes to the conservation of historic buildings and provides essential insights into using geometry in architectural design within architectural history. This study has made a significant theoretical and practical contribution to the combined function buildings of the Anatolian Seljuk Period. The results indicate that Seljuk architecture keenly understands aesthetics and design.A constraint that extends the duration of the study is the difficulty in locating survey drawings of the buildings and then digitizing them. Therefore, the progress of these scientific inquiries relies on recording historical buildings and establishing and sharing a digital archive. Research will be done to analyze the social complexes and combined-function buildings built during and after the Anatolian Seljuk era. Periodic similarities and divergences in design choices can be identified using this approach.

Geometric Analysis of Mass Formation and Proportions in Combined Function Buildings in Anatolian Seljuk Architecture

Ayşegül

The political and artistic golden age of the Anatolian Seljuk State was experienced during the reign of Ala al-Din Kayqubad I. Ala al-Din Kayqubad is remembered for his magnificence and interest in art both during his own time and in the following centuries. Ibn Bibi, one of the sources of the period, mentions the buildings that the sultan himself designed, his examination of the drawn decorations or his visits to the construction site. Kubadabat Palace in Beyşehir, Keykubadiye Palace in Kayseri, Alara Castle Pavilion in Alanya, Alara Caravanserai in Alanya, Castle Palace in Alanya; Alâeddin Mosque in Konya, Yivli Minaret Mosque in Antalya, Hunat Hatun Madrasa and Bath in Kayseri, Tuzhisar Sultan Caravanserai in Kayseri, Sultan Caravanserai in Aksaray, Ilgın Hot Spring in Konya, Çubuk Çayı Bridge in Ankara, Konya Castle and city wall, which were all constructed by the Sultan himself. The repair of his castle and walls demonstrates his fondness for architecture and art. The common features of these structures that have survived to the present day are monumental and ostentatious facades, as well as remarkable decorations. It is known that 91 buildings, including original examples such as the Divriği Ulu Mosque and the Niğde Alâeddin Mosque, were built during the sultan’s rule. Given that the ruler reigned for only 17 years, it can be said that this figure is quite high and that the construction activities were accelerated during this period.&nbsp;Sultan Ala al-Din Kayqubad is a ruler who is remembered with pride by his era and beyond, with his political unity in Anatolia, the victory at Yassı Çimen and the measures he took against the Mongols. It can be assumed that Ala al-Din Kayqubad ‘s political success was reflected by architectural activities. Ala al-Din Kayqubad continued to be remembered for the structures he built or were attributed to him in Anatolia, even long after the Seljuk Period. A discourse attributed to Timur indicates how Ala al-Din Kayqubad was perceived in different periods. When Timur invaded Anatolia, he was asked why he had caused so much destruction. The story can be summarised as follows: I do not have the goods and treasure to build an inn in every village or a mosque in every city like Ala al-Din Kayqubad, just as he became famous for building, I will also become famous for destroying. This gives clues about the image of the Seljuk Sultan during his period. British traveler Harry Charles Lukach, who visited Konya in the early 1900s, compared Sultan Ala al-Din Kayqubad to Emperor Justinianus, described him as the greatest and most powerful benefactor of his dynasty, and stated that his name still lives on in these lands. These expressions reveal that Ala al-Din Kayqubad preserved his presence in these lands until the beginning of the 20th century, without losing anything from his image in the Seljuk period.The archive records from the Ottoman Period also provide insight into the perception of the sultan in Ottoman society. Many buildings are attributed to Ala al-Din Kayqubad. While it is stated in the records that Sultan Ala al-Din Kayqubad built 48 buildings, it is stated that he established a foundation for one building. The structures in question are located in the following cities: Adıyaman, Afyonkarahisar, Afşin (in Kahramanmaraş), Aksaray, Akşehir (in Konya), Alanya (in Antalya), Amasya, Ankara, Antalya, Beypazarı (in Ankara), Bor (in Niğde), Çay. (in Afyonkarahisar), Çermik (in Diyarbakır), Doğanhisar (in Konya), Eskişehir, Gazlıgöl (in Afyonkarahisar), Gerger (in Adıyaman), Günyüzü (in Eskişehir), Karahisar (Afyonkarahisar city center), Kırşehir, Kıreli Yarangömü (in Konya), Konya city center, Korkuteli (in Antalya), Kütahya, Nevşehir, Niğde, Niksar (in Tokat), and Silifke (in Mersin), Sinop, Sivas, Uluborlu (in Isparta), and Zara (in Sivas). It is evident from the inscriptions and sources that Sultan Ala al-Din constructed several notable edifices, including Konya Ala al-Din Mosque, Konya Hospital, Antalya Yivli Minaret Mosque, Alanya Ala al-Din Mosque and Alanya Ala al-Din Bath. It is understood that examples such as Niğde Ala alDin Mosque, Amasya Bimarhanesi (Mental Hospital), Afyonkarahisar Çay Mücahid Yusuf bin Yakub Mosque, the Madrasah, Caravanserai and Bath, and Antalya Atabey Armağan Madrasah are attributed to Ala al-Din Kayqubad, although there are other names as patrons in their inscriptions. The majority of these structures lack any inscriptions related to Ala al-Din Kayqubad or the Seljuk period and have undergone significant alterations. It is understood that some of the structures in this situation have ornamental features reminiscent of the Seljuk period. However, the majority of the structures subject to research were completely renovated during the Ottoman period or have not survived to the present day. The reasons behind the association of these structures with Ala al-Din Kayqubad remain a matter of debate.Upon examination of the structures subject to research, it becomes evident that some of them are attributed to Sultan Ala al-Din Kayqubad among the public. This suggests that the archive records may have indicated that these structures were built by Sultan Ala al-Din, influenced by the expressions spoken by the public. Currently, 43 of these buildings are named after Ala al-Din. The reason for this situation is that the name has become widespread among the public and has survived centuries later. It can be assumed that the buildings were named after their patrons when they were first built, as in the Niğde Ala al-Din Mosque, and in later periods they began to be called Ala al-Din. The reasons why these structures are associated with Sultan Alaeddin among the public can be attributed to historical memory or social memory. Societies create a collective memory that develops over time about events and historical figures that have an impact on the entire community. Historical heroes such as Köroğlu and Battal Gazi are examples of this collective memory that spans centuries. A collective memory has been formed for the Battle of Ankara and the Victory of Manzikert, which the society has developed over the centuries. Those who recall these conflicts exhibit comparable sentiments and discourses. It is postulated that Ala al-Din Kayqubad, the subject of this study, underwent the influence of this collective memory&nbsp;and established a distinct identity. The first Sultan that comes to mind when discussing the Anatolian Seljuks in Anatolian lands and even in some periods in different geographies is Ala al-Din Kayqubad, the personality of the Sultan was constructed with magnificent structures and monumentality. The Seljuk period is remembered in the collective consciousness for its magnificent portals, castle-like facades, blue to purple tiles, ceramics, brick minarets, and high-relief stone decorations, as well as for buildings displaying Seljuk features. These have been attributed to the period even if they are not. A similar approach is valid for Ala al-Din Kayqubad. Ala al-Din Kayqubad is regarded as the architect of structures associated with the Seljuks or the pr Ala al-Din Kayqubad e-Ottoman period. It is believed that Ala al-Din Kayqubad gained renown for centuries through his construction and construction, as evidenced by the saying of Timur that life is mortal and reputation is eternal, and therefore even buildings that he may not have built were named after him.It is assumed that some of the 54 works examined were built by Ala al-Din Kayqubad, some may be unknown patronages of the Sultan, and some were built by others but attributed to the Sultan. However, it is difficult to attribute all the buildings named after Ala al-Din to the sultan. It is known that 12 buildings were built by Ala al-Din Kayqubad. It seems difficult that the Sultan had 54 buildings built during his 17-year reign. Therefore, it must be assumed that some, if not all, of the buildings were attributed to Ala al-Din Kayqubad by society. The fact that Ala al-Din Kayqubad came to the fore in social memory with his architectural structures must have prompted Ottoman society to name some old buildings after him. The Sultan’s influence as a patron and the fact that many buildings were attributed to him did not seem strange to the researchers who studied these works. In the studies of the buildings mentioned, archival documents were taken into account and Ala al-Din Kayqubad was usually mentioned as the patron. In the absence of any inscription on the building to the contrary, archival documents must be taken into account. However, some studies have found that historical data and archive information do not coincide. These examples call into question the accuracy of such information in archival documents. However, since the architectural and ornamental details in some examples point to the Seljuk period, the information in the archival documents was accepted as correct. What is striking about this research is that the name of Ala al-Din Kayqubad, rather than that of any other Seljuk sultan, finds so much space in the archives and among the public. This situation is concrete evidence of how the image of the Sultan created during the Seljuk period grew and even became exaggerated over the centuries. This study tries to show what kind of impact the Seljuk Sultan Ala al-Din Kayqubad had on society and art even centuries later.By looking at the centuries-long adventure of Seljuk art as a means of communication through Ala Al-Din Kayqubad, this research reveals how Seljuk architecture and Seljuk sultans were perceived from the perspective of Ottoman society and how this perception was reflected in Ottoman documents, as well as examining the unknown patronages of Ala Al-Din Kayqubad. Considering these works as a whole allowed for different evaluations. The examination of the Ottoman archives with similar studies will make important contributions to the field of art history. It is hoped that this research will set an example for future studies.

The Ottoman Archive Contains Records Pertaining to the Patronage of the Seljuk Sultan Ala Al-Din Kayqubad

Demet

Kütahya is one of the three cities located in the Inner Western Anatolia part of the Aegean Region of Turkey. The old settlement in the city center took place around Kapan Stream, which divides the city into two in the north-south direction. It is known that the first settlement in the city started in ancient times. The name of the city is mentioned for the first time by the ancient geographer Strabon. Strabon mentioned Kütahya as one of the cities of Lesser Phrygia and its name was Kotiaeion. Historical sources indicate that the city dates back to BC. 6. It shows that it was first under the rule of Lydia and then the Persians towards the end of the century. B.C. 4. The city, which was captured by Alexander the Great in the 16th century, was under the rule of the Bithynia and Pergamon kingdoms after his death. B.C. 1. century and AD. 4. It remained under the rule of the Roman Empire for centuries and then came under Byzantine rule. It is known that the city, which became an important bishopric center during the Byzantine period, and the castles, walls and bastions that still exist today, were built during this period. After the Byzantine Period, Anatolian Seljuk rule began in the city. Anatolian Seljuks defeated the Byzantines decisively in Malazgirt in 1071continued their advance in Anatolia and started settlement. In 1075, Kutalmış son Suleyman Shah conquered the region up to Iznik and declared Iznik the capital. The first conquest of Kütahya, which was on the route followed by the Seljuks in order to realize the conquest of Iznik, must have occurred between 1075 and 1078 by the Seljuks. It is accepted that there was a Turkish settlement around Kütahya after the conquest. However, the Crusaders, who captured Iznik in the First Crusade in 1097, came to Eskişehir and although the Seljuk sultan Kilijarslan I tried to stop the progress of the Crusaders there, he was unsuccessful, and the Crusaders from Marmara and Western Anatolia, which is estimated to include Kütahya, it came under Byzantine rule again, having allied with the Anatolian Seljuk. The second conquest of Kütahya by the Seljuks coincides with the Battle of Miryakefolon. It is generally accepted that the third conquest took place during the reign of Ala al-Din Kayqubad I, based on the construction inscription of the Yoncalı Bath built outside the city center, dated 1233. It is known that Kütahya, which constantly changed hands between Byzantine and Seljuk rule, was an important fringe city under Seljuk rule from the early 1230s. The information about this period in Kütahya is quite limited and the fact that the number&nbsp;of buildings that are known from the inscriptions that they were built in this period or that have survived until today is low is insufficient to shed light on the Seljuk period of the city of Kütahya. However, in the light of available data, it is possible to make some determinations about the urban settlement and structures of the period. The earliest known building built during the Seljuk period in the city center dates back to May 1237. This date is one of the years when the Anatolian Seljuks were in their heyday before the 1243 Kösedağ War. For this reason, the possibility that Kütahya, which was a commercial production site of important export materials such as alum and silver, was conquered at this time remains somewhat slim. Kütahya which was on the route followed by the Anatolian Seljuks to conquer Iznik, their first capital, should have been conquered in these years. Karacaviran (Karacaören) Ribat, which was found not in the city center but in settlements close to the center, is the earliest of the Seljuk period works and dates back to 1210. Although this indicates that the Turkish settlement in the city center dates back to the 1230s, considering the construction dates of the existing buildings, it is possible to talk about the existence of a Seljuk settlement around Kütahya before that. However, there is no record or trace of Seljuk settlement in the city center yet. Of the four buildings known to have been built during the Seljuk period, one of them is located where it was built, and the locations of the others are known, although they have lost their original state. The first of the two buildings in the city dated to the Anatolian Seljuk period due to construction inscriptions is Balıklı Mosque, dated 1237. However, since the building was later rebuilt, it lost its original form. The other building is the Hıdırlık Masjid, dated 1243-1244. The building was introduced as a masjid in the construction inscription, and it shows that it has similar features to the masjids of the Seljuks, which had an entrance unit, especially in the capital Konya. However, since the entrance section of the Hıdırlık Masjid was built with an iwan, it has been associated with the tombs with iwan built after it.There are two other masjids in the city center of Kütahya, the dates of which are unknown, but it is generally accepted that they were built by Imad al-Din Hezâr Dînârî. One of them constitutes the tomb part of the Dönenler Mosque today, and it is known that the Sadettin Mosque was built in its place. In addition, these structures with their current names; are located in Balıklı, Hamidiye, Börekciler and Pirler Districts. Among these neighborhood names, the names of Börekciler, Balıklı and Pirler neighborhoods were also mentioned by Evliya Çelebi. The fact that they are still called by the same name even today shows that the names of the neighborhoods have not changed since the Seljuk period and that settlements exist in these neighborhoods.The identity of Imad al-Din Hezâr Dînârî, whose name is mentioned as the patron in the works of the Seljuk period in the city center of Kütahya, has not been determined. It is assumed that he lived in Kütahya in the 1230-1240s due to the dates of the buildings he built, and it is accepted that he played an important role in the conquest&nbsp;of Kütahya by the Seljuks in this period and that he was one of the statesmen of the Anatolian Seljuks due to his patron status. The fact that the building, which was the Kütahya Mevlevi Lodge before being converted into the Dönenler Mosque in the city center, was built adjacent to the mosque built by Hezâr Dînârî under his name, caused him to be seen as one of Mevlana’s disciples and a representative of a Mevlevi order that had not yet been institutionalized in Kütahya. However, there is no record of Hezâr Dînârî in the works of Mevlâna and Sultan Veled, and his name is not recorded in the primary sources of this period, Ariflerin Menkıbeleri and İbn Bibi’s memoir.It is known that the Kütahya Ulu Mosque was built in the Ottoman period due to its inscriptions, Evliya Çelebi’s depiction of the building with wooden poles and E. H. Ayverdi’s publication of a sketch plan of the mosque based on these depictions allowed it to be evaluated within the group of wooden pole mosques built in the Seljuk Period. A mosque with wooden pillars built both during the Early Ottoman period and before that during the Germiyanids period is not yet known. In addition, due to the location where the building was built, it is close to the Seljuk period structures. Therefore, it is probable that a Seljuk mosque featuring wooden columns was constructed where the present-day Ulu Mosque stands. When we look at the architectural works in Kütahya during the Anatolian Seljuk period, it is seen that there are structures built only in the religious architectural group. Of course, it is unthinkable that works from other building groups were not built. It is inevitable that the trade route connecting the capital Konya to Istanbul passes through Kütahya and that structures such as inns and bridges were built on this route. It is only known that there are Eğret, Çakırsaz and Yeniceköy Caravanserais and Üçgöz, Altıntaş and Hacı Hamza Bridges on the road between Afyonkarahisar and Kütahya. In addition, it is said that the water of the sakahane, which is located on the lower floor of the Sadettin Mosque today, was brought by Hezâr Dînârî and that he had a masjid built here. Although it is stated in the construction inscription of the mosque that he was buried here after his death, there is no document or record to prove the accuracy of this information. The fact that the Sakhane continues to operate today strengthens the possibility of the existence of a water system built by Hezâr Dînârî.&nbsp;As a result, due to its geopolitical location, Kütahya was both a frontier city and was located on the trade routes connecting from Konya, the capital of the Anatolian Seljuks, to Istanbul and the Aegean Region. An attempt was made to describe the city of the period through the existing structures and the structures known to have been built during the Seljuk period.&nbsp;

Some Determinations on Anatolian Seljuk Architecture in Kütahya

The definition and scope of conservation have evolved in parallel with the period, geography, country, and circumstances, and it finally took its current form. In the broadest general sense, conservation can be defined as all the efforts made to ensure that the changes and transformations that occur over time do not damage the authentic and historical identity of the cultural heritage assets. In the 19th century, the concept of authenticity entered the conservation agenda, laying the foundations of the understanding of authenticity in conservation by prominent theorists of the time. In the 20th century, the concept of authenticity, first addressed in Carta Del Restauro, emphasized the importance of preserving all valuable elements of buildings in their restorations and function choices, regardless of the era. These characteristics were also mentioned in the restoration articles of the Venice Charter, which is considered fundamental to conservation, emphasizing the need for restoration to be based on authentic and reliable documentation and for the respect of different era additions attributed to the monument. The criteria of authenticity and integrity have been elaborated upon in detail in the Operational Guidelines for the World Heritage Convention, published by UNESCO in 1977. The 1994 Nara Document on Authenticity is the most significant work on the subject, stating that the concept of authenticity consists of various criteria such as design, material, use, function, tradition, method, location and setting, spirit and meaning, and historical evolution. The concept of authenticity has subsequently been addressed in many texts by UNESCO and ICOMOS and information about the criteria for authenticity has been provided.&nbsp;The development process of the concepts of originality and authenticity in our country has changed and evolved parallel to the historical process of the understanding of preservation and has been established on a conscious basis. In the Ottoman Classical Period, it is seen that foundations had an important role in the field of conservation, while the actual operational and implementation period started in the 19th century. The process of conscious participation in the conceptual discussions on conservation in Europe was realised only in the Republican Period. Although there were important works of the experts of the period, the Venice Charter of 1964 for the protection of cultural assets in our country was adopted in 1967 and the international legal process started to be followed.The concept of authenticity has gone through various stages in the historical process and today it is defined by many different criteria. Authenticity, which was initially included in the conservation discourse as historical document value and historical authenticity, has expanded over time to include not only the appearance of the building but also elements such as form, material, structural system and craftsmanship. The fundamental principles of the concept of authenticity have increasingly included criteria such as function, period additions, environmental components, color, tone,&nbsp;and texture over time. It has reached its final form with the inclusion of spiritual, emotional, and sensory values, as well as the concepts of integrity. In this context, the authenticity status of the Sahabiye Madrasah, selected as the subject of study, was examined after the restorations; material, form, construction technique, function, location, and environmental originality were determined as the main criteria. Evaluations and inquiries were conducted accordingly.Sahabiye Madrasah, built by Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali during the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III in 1267-1268, is one of the significant Middle Age structures of the Seljuk period. Located at the intersection of busy streets in the city center today, the madrasah is single-storey, four-iwan, porticoed, and built of cut stone, following a rectangular plan typology. It was designed around an open rectangular courtyard, with an entrance iwan featuring niches opening to the right and left walls, a large central iwan to the north, porticoes supported by four square columns on three sides, lateral iwans, and cells adjacent to the lateral iwans. There are massive corner towers at the corners of the building, which are designed with a simple form in the Anatolian Seljuk tradition, and the entrance to the building is provided by the monumental crown gate on the south facade. The monumental portal, which protrudes forward in a rectangular shape and exceeds the height of the facade, is the most ornate element of the building with its mass movement and height, and its upper part was renewed during the maintenance and repairs it underwent in the process.The fact that this important Seljuk structure dating back to the 13th century exists today is undoubtedly due to the maintenance and restoration processes it underwent throughout its historical journey. Considering these studies, knowing the history of restoration of a structure became essential to make informed decisions about conservation and to ensure the preservation of the authentic features of the building. Knowing the restoration history of the building enables the evaluation of both the conservation activities during the process and the current condition of the structure in terms of authenticity. Comprehensive research and archive surveys have been conducted for the restoration history of the structure, and information has been gathered from numerous written and visual sources. In the data obtained, it is observed that there is limited information regarding repair work from the Seljuk Period when the madrasah was constructed. It was determined that the structure underwent repairs during the Ottoman Period, although limited details about these repairs are available. According to records, the building underwent repairs in 1726 and 1909 during the Ottoman Period. Although repair documents were accessed from the Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry, specific details about the repairs are not available.Efforts and works related to the restoration of Sahabiye Madrasa progressed slowly during the early years of the Republic due to the difficult conditions prevailing in the country at that time, and it had to wait until the 1970s for comprehensive maintenance&nbsp;and restoration to be carried out. Work on the structure began in the early 1900s, with various research and small-scale repair efforts conducted by prominent figures of the era, including Albert Gabriel, Ali Saim Ülgen, and Mahmut Akok. During these works, the existing condition of the building was documented, drawings were made, photographs were taken, and simple repairs were carried out. In 1970, comprehensive repairs were carried out under the supervision of Erol Yurdakul, the director of the General Directorate of Foundations, by the General Directorate of Foundations and many sections of the building were reconstructed. In these applications, many interventions were made using cement and reinforced concrete materials in line with the conservation principles of the time. Another significant and comprehensive restoration of the building took place in 2010. During these efforts, even though it was aimed at rectifying practices that had damaged the authentic features of the structure, contradictory practices were also implemented. Following the section that describes the repairs the building underwent throughout its history; an evaluation section was created to assess the repairs in terms of their impact on the authenticity of the structure. The repairs to the building were scrutinized according to the fundamental criteria established for authenticity in international texts.&nbsp;This article aims to question the state of authenticity during the changes and repairs undergone by the structure over time and afterwards. In this context, the preservation activities of Kayseri Sahabiye Madrasah throughout its historical process were examined, and the changes and transformations were studied and presented chronologically. The interventions for the restoration of the structure during its long historical timeline were questioned within the framework of main criteria such as Material Authenticity, Formal Authenticity, Construction Technique Authenticity, Usage and Function Authenticity, and Location and Environmental Authenticity. These aspects were evaluated within the conditions created by the possibilities and perspectives of each period. In this scope, the development of the concept of authenticity in conservation was discussed first, and general information was provided about Sahabiye Madrasah, an important madrasah built in the Seljuk tradition. The maintenance and repair works carried out on the building from its construction period to the present day were narrated, and through the conservation efforts at Sahabiye Madrasah, an in-depth analysis of Turkey’s conservation history in terms of legal, administrative, organizational, and theoretical aspects was conducted. Important milestones in our country’s conservation history and the efforts made on the Madrasah by leading actors at various historical intervals were conveyed. In the evaluation section, the repairs the structure underwent over time were analyzed within the framework of authenticity criteria. Although there are numerous studies carried out on Kayseri Sahabiye Madrasah, the fact that there is no detailed research conducted on the repairs has been one of the most important reasons for the lack of attention to this topic. In this study focusing on the concept of authenticity during the maintenance and restoration process, repairs were evaluated by the international definition of authenticity, taking into account the conditions of the relevant period. The authenticity issues of the building and its status were assessed. The interventions in the Madrasah’s repair process were expressed through analytical narration on drawings obtained from archives and a timeline was prepared for the conservation and repair of the Madrasah and an intervention analysis for the repairs.When examining the restoration process of Sahabiye Madrasah, it is evident that the interventions made during the Ottoman and Seljuk periods were not conducted according to modern conservation principles. In these periods, the main purpose of conservation was to ensure the continuity of functionality and utility rather than the original qualities of the building. During the Republican period, the madrasah underwent two major restorations, with significant reintegration occurring particularly during the interventions of the 1970s. The various conservation practices carried out during these repairs reflect the conditions and perspective of the period. In particular, the frequent use of reinforced concrete has changed the details of the material and construction technique of the building and violated the principle of reversibility, one of the basic principles of conservation. Such practices have caused the building to lose its authenticity. When changing the function of monumental buildings, the building should be able to carry its new function and its original plan layout and spatial features should be mostly preserved a great extent. As a result, it is of great importance to preserve monumental buildings with their original components following international conservation standards and to pay attention to authenticity criteria in repair works. The subsequent conservation of buildings such as the Sahabiye Madrasah, which are fundamental elements of collective memory and urban identity, should be carried out meticulously and the practices should not cause the loss of the original features of the building and damage the cultural heritage.&nbsp;

Investigating the Concept of Authenticity in Restoration in Light of Archive Documents: Kayseri Sahabiye Madrasah

Esra

Within the scope of the study, the Halil Dede Tomb in Aktepe Village of Ürgüp District of Nevşehir, which has not been included in the architecture and art history literature before, was analyzed in detail and described. The fact that the structure built in the Seljuk period was not recognized within the scope of architecture and art history and that it had not been subject to a scientific aspect before was seen as a deficiency in the field. In the study, the tomb of Halil Dede, one of the Khorasan saints of the Seljuk era, was tried to be explained in detail in terms of plan, material and ornamentation features; the origin and dating of the building, which has no information about it other than a repair inscription from the 19th century, it has been opened to scientific debate.As is known, although it is not welcomed in Islam, the Turks did not give up on building monumental tombs after the deaths of people who were at important positions in the state or believed to have high spirituality, and they continued these practices throughout the ages. Grave monuments, which were started to be built as a reflection of the pre-Islamic beliefs of the Turks, were built traditionally for centuries in every period and region. Within the scope of architectural actions that develop in direct proportion to the raw materials offered by geography with the arrival of the Turks in Anatolia, the stone was included first in the material list, which also affected the design and ornament processes; on the one hand building plans have diversified, and on the other hand, monumental tombs have constructed depending on the rank of the deceased. Grave monuments, built with various plan types in every period and region, on a scale ranging from the simplest to the monumental, have become one of the building types that determine the architectural face of Anatolia.Before explaining the technical and artistic features of Halil Dede Tomb, we need to briefly focus on the identity of Halil Dede; it is known that certain figures came to Anatolia in the 12th and 14th centuries to work for the spread of Islam in the region, in short, to carry out their duties as dervishes, and they were popularly called Khorasan Saints. It is believed that Halil Dede lived during the Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities period and that he was one of the seven brothers who came to Anatolia from Khorasan. There are different legends told among the public about Halil Dede. Even today, different legends glorifying the spiritual personality of Halil Dede are told among the public.Halil Dede Tomb, which is the subject of the study, is in the Ürgüp district of Nevşehir. The tomb is located on a slope overlooking the valley in Aktepe. The building covers a rectangular area extending in the north-south direction. The tomb, built with the masonry construction technique, has a plan consisting of two parts. The building consists of an entrance with an iwan, which can also be called a preparation area, and an interior space with a sarcophagus in the middle. In the iwan section located in the&nbsp;north direction, the iwan opening faces the east direction. The iwan consists of three round arches, and two of the arches have a ribbed form, slightly protruding from the mass. The main space is reached through the rectangular opening under the middle arch of the iwan. The lintel stone at the top of the opening, which has flat jambs on the sides, hides the segmented arch form on the portal. The opening at the entrance from the iwan to the interior space is designed on a very small scale and emphasizes the spatial difference between the iwan and the interior space with the elevation of a row of stones at the ground level. The main space has a rectangular scheme, almost square. There is an earthen grave under the sarcophagus in the tomb, which does not have a crypt on the lower floor. There are inscription stones at the head and foot parts of the sarcophagus. “Mihail bin Halil” is written on the headstone of the sarcophagus. In the interior, there is a small window opened on the east and south walls. The upper cover of the tomb is a round-arched vault on the inside in the iwan section, and an oval vault close to the dome in the main space, while both sections are covered with a flat roof on the outside. The cover system in the main space is a unique practice. The eight-arched upper cover, formed by partially placing thinner arches between the thick arches that intersect each other from four directions at the top, covers a rectangular area close to a square with a dome-like vault cover. One of the main elements that support the vault to create such a dome-like effect is that the arches covering the main space, which is not perfect square, have a very wide round form, that is, close to an oval. In this way, the feeling of a flat but very wide opening covering a small area creates the feeling of a space covered by a dome. At the same time, the fact that the rows of arches, emphasized by a relief at the top, continue uninterruptedly from the ground to the level of two rows of stones supports this feeling.In the tomb, which was built entirely with stone material, smoot-cut stone was used in the exterior corners of the façade, the entire southern facade and the interior, and rubble stone and rough-cut stone were used in other parts. The stone used in the construction of the building is a local material. The building material is described as soft and easy to process due to its volcanic character. Unlike the interior, which is in very good condition, the exterior of the building is in a very dilapidated state due to weather conditions. There is a lot of material loss and collapse, especially on the upper cover and on the façade walls along the western direction. The construction material shed from the building is piled up next to the building mass. It can be easily said that the Tomb of Halil Dede has a very unadorned exterior, generally devoid of any ornamental details. The only ornament that can be observed on the facade of the building is the inscription engraved on the stone inside the three-segmented arch on the entrance lintel. “Sahib-ül hayrat vel hasenat Hacı Mehmed 1254” is written on the entrance. This inscription, which is most likely to be a repair inscription indicating the repair of the building, indicates Rumi’s 1254 and therefore the Gregorian year 1838. It is noteworthy that there is more effective content regarding ornamentation practice in interior spaces. It has been possible to create a monumental impression in an area small enough to fit only the sarcophagus and for a single person to stand in front of the footstone. This monumentality is undoubtedly made possible by the eight-arched vault that descends almost uninterrupted along the body to the floor. Both the arch emphasis and the high-relief eight-segmented semicircular rosette placed at the intersection in the center have been increasing the lively appearance of the ceiling.There are no strict rules regarding the construction of grave monuments, which are created by the combination of the aesthetic understanding of the region where they are built and the local materials. Also, the fact that they are structures only for visiting purposes has provided them with a free application area and allowed the grave monuments to show such diversity. As in all building types, some plan types in grave monuments were applied specifically to a certain period and region, some plan types were applied in a limited number and abandoned, and some plans even took their place in the architectural literature as unique examples. In light of all this, even if there is no clear information regarding the identity of Halil Dede and the dating of his tomb, it is thought that it is possible to evaluate the issue, open it to discussion and reach a conclusion based on tangible information.At this point, it is thought that the first element that needs to be examined about the Halil Dede Tomb is related to dating. Rather than indicating the construction date of the building, the number 1838 is written on the inscription at the entrance to the main space; it is most likely that it is related to the repairs made by a charitable person during the 19th-century Ottoman period. The line “Sahib-ül hayrat vel hasenat”, which was written by mentioning the name of the benefactor Hacı Mehmed before the date specified in the inscription, is written on the buildings built to serve the common use of the people. This phrase, which means “the owner of goodness”, can be seen in the repair inscriptions placed after the restoration of damaged buildings, and it appears almost without exception, especially in fountains built for public use. The second element is related to the plan type and architectural details of the building. The scheme, which is composed of the iwan observed in the Halil Dede Tomb and an adjacent closed visiting area, brings to mind the tomb monuments of the Dehistan region, which include a preparation space, built by the Turks in pre-Anatolia. When the plan of the Halil Dede Tomb is examined, it is possible to say that the dual plan layout consisting of a tomb and iwan is one of the rare examples that are not repeated frequently within the scope of Turkish architecture developing in Anatolia. In the tomb, which refers to the Seljuk tradition with its cover as well as its plan, it is seen that the vault covering the main space is in a form that we can call unique, and unprecedented in the Ottoman architectural tradition. The eight-segmented vault covering, which covers the structure in the form of a continuous shell, has reminded us of pre-Anatolian Turkish tents as if referring to Seljuk architecture.&nbsp;As a result, when the plan, material and ornamentation details of the Halil Dede Tomb in Ürgüp Aktepe, which are discussed within the scope of the study, and the identity of Halil Dede are evaluated together; It has become clear that the tomb exhibits Seljuk characteristics in terms of structure and scheme, and that it was repaired in the 19th century after the destruction it suffered. As a result of the examinations, it can be seen that the repairs made in previous periods were based on materials and reinforcement. As a matter of fact, in the tomb, which has a very simple identity on the exterior, the main factors reflecting the Seljuk character are the plan, space setup and the covering system of the interior. Therefore, it is obvious that the Tomb of Halil Dede, a Seljuk period tomb monument, has preserved its Seljuk character despite the interventions it has seen over time.

A Grave Monument From The Seljuk Era: Halil Dede Tomb

Yunus

Words and concepts such as icon, symbol, stamp, sign, insignia, indicator, brand, symbol, emblem and trademark, basically have the same meaning. It is the concrete depiction of an idea or concept that cannot be perceived by the senses, having the common denominator of conventional meaning. In addition to symbols that can be defined as abstract signs, objects that replace something or depict it themselves also function as symbols.The work of art and the general art style are influenced by many factors such as the social environment, material supply, geographical variables, temporal changes, the government, the wishes of the ruling powers, the artistic understanding and style of the period, ancient and neighboring state cultures, religion and sacred elements, the experiences and inner world of the artist. It is affected by many variables. In addition to these, conditions such as the technology of the period, tools and construction techniques also have an impact. In Turkish art and symbolism, where the powers of state, religion and society come to the fore, these mentioned elements are the dominant and guiding force.&nbsp;Firstly, it is necessary to mention some concrete artistic symbol contents in Turkish art. For example, in terms of building architecture, “mosque” symbolizes Islam. While the mosque is one of the art symbols that have a concrete function, the symbol and decoration content included in the mosque has abstract features. On the other hand, “arrow” and “bow” are concrete war tools as objects, but the “bow-arrow” form engraved on the surfaces has become an abstract and artistic symbol. In this context, meaningful abstract symbols are sometimes based on meanings attributed to objects that have equivalents in nature, and sometimes on mental productions that have no equivalents in nature. In the second case, geometric shapes are widely preferred as tools for new and original symbols in Turkish art. While vegetal forms are generally transferred verbatim or stylized from similar examples in nature; It is abstract based on geometric forms and there is no need for stylization in practice.Figural decorations were used in two types: fantastic and natural. New species resulting from fantastic combinations of different species and figures encountered in nature have been symbolized through art and different meanings have been attributed to them. Predatory and powerful animals representing political power can be given as an example of this symbolization. Stylization can be seen in figural symbols and ornaments to the point of almost turning into vegetal ornaments. Although fantastic figures are not visible, they are not considered in the category of abstract art because they are created by the combination of two animal (or sometimes human and animal) figures existing in nature.Arts based on symbols and decoration continued through various evolutions until the end of the reign of the Great Seljuk and later Anatolian Seljuk states. Ornamentation maintained its importance in portable arts as well as in architecture. “Ornament”, as it is understood in our language today, refers to the compositions created by decorative elements on any surface or each of these elements. However, in the first sense of the word that comes to mind, the purpose here is not to fill the surface meaninglessly. The motifs, symbols and figures applied to the surface are carefully selected and applied as parts of an established tradition and the general style that was being created during the period.Geometric arrangements, one of the main types of decoration, are the preferred tools for reflecting abstract symbolic art content in a certain order. Geometric ornaments were used in early Islamic arts in the Umayyad Period and mostly in the Abbasid Period; In Turkish art, it started to develop together with the Karakhanids. Subsequently, the Ghaznavid and Great Seljuk states used rich geometric arrangements in almost every field. This tradition was transferred and continued to Anatolia through the Anatolian Seljuks. It is also known that indigenous ancient civilizations in Anatolia used geometric arrangements in both architecture and pottery. Unlike decoration, the origin of symbolic geometric forms can be traced in rock painting regions such as Kyrgyzstan Saymalitas, Kazakhstan Tamgalısay and Azerbaijan Qobustan, which is among the Central Asian cultural regions. Examples that are the continuation of rock paintings start from the east of Anatolia and extend to the central and western regions.If “Stamp-Tamga” is defined in a classically, it is the tool used to print a mark or insignia on something, and the sign itself is printed with this tool. Certain concrete and abstract shapes symbolically remind every community, nation, and state. These shapes are generally meaningful forms specific to that culture. Stamps are special signs that are used mostly by societies of Turkish origin, meaning the expression of belonging, membership, independence element, tribe-lineage unity, national membership and holiness.Stamps that turned into motifs, which is a phase in the transformation of stamps are a concept that emerged over time when the symbolic meanings in the background of the stamps were not recognized or known by the viewers. These elements, which are placed as symbols by the maker, are considered motifs and compositions for decorative purposes only. When taking step back and the symbolic aspect of geometric arrangements is investigated, the abstract symbolic content of the Turks is reached.Geometric arrangements whose meanings are not yet known cannot be considered in the symbol category. Stamps are created by stylizing objects that have counterparts in nature. As a result of this stylization, the art viewer cannot know from which object the symbol was originally derived. This situation makes the symbol abstract.&nbsp;Symbols are not always encountered as artistic content in terms of purpose. In this regard, for symbol to be defined as art, its functional aspect must be put in the background and its artistic aspect must be prioritized. If a symbol is presented in different forms in the public domain, without being part of mass production, this makes it part of art. This subject, which is like the difference in meaning between art and craft, can be interpreted as a work of art that displays unique features each time, as well as uniform elements, produced dozens of times. “Symbol” alone is not the subject of art. However, the symbol transformed into a work or included in the content of the work is the subject of art.Abstract symbolic content in Turkish art is mainly formed by Oghuz tribal stamps that signify national identity. In an artwork, stamps from different tribes are carefully placed by the artist, varying in number, size, and material. In addition to the tribal stamps found in Turkish culture and art, there are also more general sacred-common (superior) stamps that express common meanings. These common stamps are widely used in Turkish art. Unlike tribal stamps that convey belonging, common stamps are abstract symbols representing beliefs and sacred meanings. It is known that after the original purpose of stamps was fulfilled, they transformed into letters and writings as a means of communication. Initially known as stamps, these letters, with some modifications or directly turned into letters were put together to form words. However, at their core, they are all stamps. These letters, stylized as motifs, are repeatedly used in almost every element of Turkish art with an abstract meaning.&nbsp;Abstract symbols in Turkish art can be classified (in an open-ended manner) as national identity stamps, common identity stamps, sacred stamps, and letter stamps that have been transformed into the alphabet, based on existing data. Nearly all these symbols have geometric and angular lines and are characterized by abstract forms that do not refer to real objects. These symbols, applied with fine craftsmanship, are essentially messages and are reused in works of art by being stylized as motifs.&nbsp;These rich types of stamps found in every corner of Anatolia are important artistic contents in terms of Turkish abstract symbolic style. Abstract symbols are original products of the imagination. Understanding and examining the abstract symbolic language of a nation is essential for its art and symbolic history. After decoding the original meanings of these symbols, which are both abstract and concrete sources, they should be further examined for their effects and reflections on the art object.As a result, according to the available data, it can be said that there is an “abstract symbolic art style” that takes shape depending on the ancient Turkish culture and art and derives from Turkish stamps. This style indirectly penetrated art in terms of meaning during its period. Turkish art, which emerged because of the shaping of many political, religious and social factors emphasized in the relevant section, also includes&nbsp;the abstract symbolic style as a subheading. This style reveals the richness of mental and abstract thinking of Turkish states and communities.This study mentions the existence of the “abstract symbolic style” in Turkish art, which has not been brought to the fore sufficiently before. The “Abstract Symbolic Turkish Art Style”, which was introduced to the scientific world for the first time with this publication, should be examined with the methods and classifications that are the basis of science and should be developed with more symbolic and iconographic studies.&nbsp;

Can We Mention About an Idea Called “Abstract Symbolic Style” in Turkish Art?

Sahure

Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Seljuk Period Gate Lions in Diyarbakır Archaeological Museum

Zülal

Susuz Inn, constructed in the 13th century during the Seljuk period, stands as a remarkable example of Seljuk architecture. It exemplifies the distinctive characteristics of Seljuk caravanserais, which served as roadside inns providing safe havens for travelers and their animals along trade routes. Located on a crucial trade route of its time, Susuz Inn is now positioned along a major highway towards to the southern coast of Turkey, ending in the city of Antalya. This strategic placement underlines its historical importance in facilitating commerce and cultural exchange during the Seljuk era.Geographically, Susuz Inn is situated 76 kilometers from Antalya and 54 kilometers from Burdur, the province to which it is administratively affiliated. Its proximity to these significant urban centers underscores its role in the network of trade and travel that connected various parts of the Seljuk Empire.&nbsp;Despite the absence of a definitive inscription, the architectural and decorative features of Susuz Inn provide valuable clues about its origins. Based on stylistic and decorative comparisons with other contemporaneous caravanserais, researchers have attributed its construction to the period of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw, specifically between the years 1239 and 1240. This dating is not arbitrary but is derived from detailed studies of similar structures with known construction dates.Further speculation suggests that Susuz Inn may have been built during the reign of Ala al-Din Kayqubad I. This hypothesis is supported by stylistic similarities in the architectural elements and decorative motifs that align with other buildings from his reign. It is plausible that the same group of architects and stonemasons, who were active during the reigns of both sultans, might have been responsible for the construction of Susuz Inn.Susuz Inn’s architectural integrity has been preserved to a significant extent, particularly in its closed section, which retains its primary structural mass. However, the courtyard section did not withstand the ravages of time and did not survive to the present day. The most striking aspect of Susuz Inn is its portal, which is richly adorned with intricate decorations. In contrast, the interior and exterior walls of the structure are devoid of any embellishments, emphasizing the portal as the focal point of artistic expression.The decorative elements on the portal can be categorized into floral motifs, geometric patterns, text, and figures. These elements are meticulously carved into stone, showcasing the high level of craftsmanship that was prevalent during the Seljuk period. The main entrance gate, made of marble, is the most impressive part of the building, drawing attention to its ornate portal.The focus of this research is on five distinct geometric patterns and the main muqarnas found on the portal. These geometric patterns and the muqarnas are analyzed to understand their design principles and to propose methods for accurately redrawing them.First Border: The outermost border features an intricate composition of circular knots that develop around a central diamond-shaped motif. This motif is framed by broken lines that intersect repeatedly, creating a complex and visually engaging pattern. The meticulous arrangement of these elements demonstrates the Seljuk artisans’ proficiency in geometric design. Second Border: The second border consists of half-sixarmed star motifs. These stars are formed by breaking the lines at specific intervals and intertwining them in a harmonious arrangement. This border exemplifies the Seljuks’ ability to create dynamic and interconnected geometric patterns. Third Border: The third border, which is the most elaborately decorated, features a central ten-pointed star. From this star, broken lines intersect at various angles, forming a swastika and an intricate composition of irregular polygons. This border showcases the Seljuks’ mastery in combining geometric shapes to create intricate and meaningful designs. Fourth Border: The fourth border displays intricate geometric patterns that form hexagons and quadrilaterals. These shapes are created through the interlocking of broken lines, resulting in a visually complex and harmonious design. Fifth Border: The fifth border has the structure of octagonal patterns based on the gridal system. It consists of the intersection of segments surrounding octagonal forms. Main Muqarnas: The main muqarnas has a conical structure composed of seven layers arranged in a five-order sequence. This element is a prime example of the Seljuks’ skill in creating three-dimensional decorative elements that are both visually stunning and structurally functional.Seljuk stonemasonry represents a unique artistic tradition that emerged with the Turks’ adoption of Islam. The migration of Turkish communities from Central Asia to Anatolia brought about a fusion of artistic influences. The Anatolian Seljuk culture, influenced by both Islamic principles and indigenous Anatolian traditions, created a distinctive and rich ornamental style. This style is characterized by a blend of geometric precision and elaborate decorative motifs.The 11th to 13th centuries of the Anatolian Seljuk period witnessed a remarkable diversity in architectural surface decoration. This period is noted for its innovative use of various decorative techniques and materials. The geometric patterns and floral motifs used in Seljuk architecture often reflect Sufi concepts such as limitlessness, infinity, and diversity. These motifs transcend spatial boundaries, creating dynamic and interconnected designs that symbolize the infinite nature of the divine.The geometric and floral motifs in Seljuk decorations are not mere embellishments but are imbued with symbolic meanings. These motifs often reflect Sufi philosophical concepts, such as the idea of the infinite nature of the universe and the continuous&nbsp;renewal and transformation of life. The repetitive and interconnected patterns suggest a sense of order and harmony, which is a reflection of the divine order.The geometric shapes used in Seljuk ornamentation include circles, polygons, squares, rectangles, and triangles. These shapes are arranged within rectangular and square frames, adhering to the principle of surface filling, a common feature in Islamic art. This principle involves covering surfaces with intricate patterns, leaving no empty spaces, thus creating a sense of completeness and unity.The creation of geometric patterns in Anatolian Seljuk ornamentation involved meticulous planning and execution. The process began with the identification of the main pattern through projective photography and sketching. The centers of stars and circles were determined to establish the system networks. These networks were then constructed using the compass-ruler method, a traditional technique that does not rely on measurements but on the intersections of circles.This method involves creating patterns by dividing lines equally, drawing perpendicular lines, and extending lines with the help of a ruler. Secondary and tertiary networks are added by introducing new segments from intersecting points on the primary network. These networks are then coded with different colors to distinguish between various geometric arrangements.Muqarnas is a distinctive type of decoration in Islamic architecture, characterized by its three-dimensional, prismatic elements. Although primarily decorative, muqarnas also serves a structural function by transforming architectural elements into geometric forms. This transformation creates a visually complex and harmonious design that enhances the architectural space.The muqarnas at Susuz Inn exemplifies the Seljuks’ expertise in creating such intricate decorations. The conical structure of the muqarnas, with its seven layers arranged in a five-order sequence, demonstrates the complexity and precision of Seljuk stonemasonry. The use of muqarnas in Susuz Inn not only adds to the aesthetic appeal of the structure but also highlights the architectural ingenuity of the Seljuk artisans.Geometric orders are fundamental to Islamic art and architecture. These orders are defined by the spatial relationships and angles of lines, creating a grid system that allows for precise and systematic geometric arrangements. This grid method divides surfaces into equal units, enabling the creation of complex and harmonious patterns.In the case of Susuz Inn, the geometric patterns on the portal are established within a grid system. The limits of these geometric arrangements are clearly defined, and the relationship between the geometric units and the overall design is meticulously planned. This approach ensures that the patterns are not only aesthetically pleasing but also structurally sound.The analysis of geometric patterns in Susuz Inn involves a systematic methodology. The first step is to identify the main pattern through projective photography and sketching. The centers of stars and circles are marked to establish the system networks. These networks are then constructed using the compass-ruler method, which involves creating patterns without measurements.The process continues by dividing lines equally, drawing perpendicular lines, and extending lines with the help of a ruler. Secondary and tertiary networks are added by introducing new segments from intersecting points on the primary network. These networks are coded with different colors to distinguish between various geometric arrangements.Susuz Inn stands as a testament to the rich architectural and artistic heritage of the Seljuk period. Its intricate decorations, particularly the geometric patterns and muqarnas, reflect the Seljuks’ mastery in stonemasonry and their ability to blend diverse cultural influences into a cohesive artistic expression. Through meticulous analysis and reconstruction of these patterns, this research contributes to the preservation and appreciation of this architectural marvel.The detailed examination of the geometric patterns and muqarnas at Susuz Inn provides valuable insights into the design principles and techniques used by Seljuk artisans. The proposed methods for redrawing these patterns not only enhance our understanding of Seljuk art but also offer practical guidelines for preserving and replicating these intricate designs.In summary, Susuz Inn is more than just a historical structure; it is a symbol of the Seljuk Empire’s architectural and artistic achievements. Its intricate decorations and geometric patterns are a testament to the Seljuks’ ingenuity and craftsmanship. By studying and preserving these elements, we ensure that the legacy of the Seljuk period continues to inspire and inform future generations.&nbsp;

Analysis and Construction of Geometric Patterns of Stone Ornaments of Susuz Inn

Mine

İnce Minareli Madrasah is one of the important historical monuments of Konya. The stone, brick and tile decorations in the İnce Minareli Madrasah reflect the general architectural features of the Anatolian Seljuk period. It was built by a Seljuk vizier and is located to the west of Alaeddin Hill. The madrasah has a closed courtyard and a single iwan. There used to be a mosque next to the madrasah, but its minaret was destroyed. The minaret on the front façade of the masjid, which was built adjacent to the madrasah, was demolished in the past years. It is one of the three madrasahs in Konya whose courtyard is covered with a dome. The plan of the building, which has a uniform stone and brick workmanship, has a closed courtyard and belongs to the group of madrasahs with a single iwan. The symmetrical planned building is entered through the portal in the east. There is a pool in the courtyard in the center of the building. There are four student cells in the north and south, and the main iwan between two domed rooms in the west.The madrasah is decorated with tiles both inside and outside. It is believed that tiles were also used in the construction of its minaret. When the tile decorations in İnce Minareli Madrasah are examined, it is seen that the main iwan arches, window corners and pediments, the dome drum, the transition triangles to the dome and the interior of the dome are decorated with monochromatic glazed bricks and mosaic tiles. Although some tiles of the madrasah could not reach the present day, it is possible to find some information about them. This information obtained from various sources is also included in our research.The research focused on examining the tile decorations of the İnce Minareli Madrasah through field and space studies. We also documented the necessary photographs and conducted studies in the Konya Karatay Madrasah Museum warehouse where the tiles were kept. The aim was to take photographs and measurements of the tile pieces found during the excavations of the İnce Minareli Madrasah area, which is our research subject. All the findings obtained from the studies were documented and it was observed that there was a total of thirty-seven pieces of tiles, and that these works were registered in the inventory documents of the museum. These documents contain information such as the inventory number of the tile pieces, their location, and the periods they belong to. We obtained all the necessary information from these documents and used them in our research.Information about the tiles of the madrasah, which are not available today, was found from some sources. Similarly, old photographs of the architectural structure found in the sources allow us to have information about our research subject. The tiles of the madrasah architecture that are present in today’s structure have also important data from which we can obtain information about the tile pieces unearthed by excavations.Our research topic has been thoroughly examined with the help of the report prepared by the expert archaeologists of the Konya Museum Directorate and the information obtained from relevant sources. After analyzing the tiles found in the İnce Minareli Madrasah and those obtained from excavations, it is evident that some of the tiles found during excavations belong to the architectural structure, while it is uncertain whether some of them belong to the building. The tiles of the İnce Minareli Madrasah, which were unearthed by excavations, were identified based on the tiles found in the madrasah, and the research revealed the similarities of the tiles through photographs.&nbsp;When the general characteristics of the tiles unearthed during the excavations around the İnce Minareli Madrasah are examined, it is revealed that they are mostly damaged and broken. It can be seen that some tile pieces were later put on gypsum boards. It can also be seen that the tiles, which are glazed in monochromatic shades of eggplant purple and turquoise, are examples of both mosaic and monochromatic glazing techniques. No ornamentation was painted with a brush on the tile surfaces. It is clear that the tiles discovered during the excavation have geometrical forms and shapes.When we look at the tiles with mosaic technique, it is understood that they were made by creating a composition with geometric motifs. Star, triangle, rectangle, bow tie, square and hexagonal shaped tiles were used. Besides, it was determined that there were no ornaments with floral motifs. Single color glazed tiles are generally turquoise glazed pieces. While the use of hexagonal form is clearly seen in these tiles consisting of geometric forms; it can be said that forms such as star, square, triangle, rectangle, etc. were used, as the other pieces are broken. The cream-colored paste tiles were applied individually in the architecture or as part of an ongoing composition.These tiles are believed to have been added to the surface of the architecture by arranging tiles into various geometric compositions. The research includes photographs that illustrate similar tiled applications that can be found in some architectural structures from the Anatolian Seljuk period. Therefore, it was assumed that some of the tiles found had been used for the mosque’s mihrab, the madrasah’s minaret, and the madrasah’s wall surface. It was understood that some of the tiles were part of the border because of their continuous composition, even though some of them were applied to the architecture’s surface as a single piece. Photographs show those with similar compositions, which are identified in the research. There are also examples of tiles in various sizes that are different from one another in form and shape.&nbsp;Since not all the tiles of the madrasah are available today, it is not possible to determine the exact location of the tiles unearthed during the excavations. The form, shape and techniques of the tiles unearthed during the excavations are important elements that help us to determine the architectural element they were used for. The geometrical compositions of the mosaic technique tile fragments give us direction about their use in architecture. They indicate that they are part of an ongoing ornamentation or composition. The monochrome glazed pieces, on the other hand, indicate their use in architecture according to their form and shape. The tile fragments found consist of geometrically shaped pieces formed by combining geometrically shaped small tile fragments. No floral motif ornamentation is observed on their surfaces.&nbsp;The tile fragments, which are presumed to belong to the İnce Minareli Madrasah and the masjid, were marked in red on the plan of the architectural structure in order to understand where they belong. While the locations of some of the tile fragments could be determined with the information obtained from the relevant sources, visuals and photographs taken, predictions were made about some of them. Some of them were questioned whether they belonged to the madrasah or not. The form, composition and dimensions of the tile fragments allow us to make predictions about the places where they may have been applied. The iwan walls of the madrasah, cells, minaret, mihrab section and side walls of the masjid were identified as architectural sections where tile fragments could have been used.During the excavation, various tile pieces were discovered and given identifying names such as artifact 1, artifact 2, and artifact 3. Photographs were taken up to art 17 for documentation purposes. The tile pieces were analyzed in detail and categorized by inventory number, name, technique, location, dimensions, and definition under the title of the Artifact. The tiles made with the techniques frequently used in Turkish tile art, single-color glazed and mosaic techniques, are examined under the titles of artifact 1 and artifact 17. Tiles with mosaic technique are seen in; artifact 3, artifact 6, artifact 7, artifact 8, artifact 9, artifact 10, artifact 11, artifact 12, artifact 13, artifact 17, while tiles with single color glaze are seen in; artifact 1, artifact 2, artifact 4, artifact 5, artifact 14, artifact 15, and artifact 16.&nbsp;&nbsp;In this research, the excavated tiles from the İnce Minareli Madrasah, which is an architectural structure from the Anatolian Seljuk period, were studied to determine their corresponding architectural element by comparing them with similar tiled samples. The study aims to contribute to the preservation of tile art and cultural artifacts. The tiles found were documented with photographs and thoroughly described to add value to science and the art of tiles. This study is expected to inspire similar research and bring new knowledge to the field.This research, which is defined as the examination of the tiles belonging to the İnce Minareli Madrasah registered in the inventory of Konya Karatay Museum, deals with the tile fragments found as a result of the excavations. The tiles were analyzed in detail under the subheadings of “inventory number, work name and technique, location, dimensions and description”. This research, which was prepared by collecting sources and documents related to the subject, was prepared with the available information obtained. In this research, which is a long and laborious study; on-site studies, photographs taken, measurements taken, collection of sources and comparisons with similar tiles were made in order to examine the tile pieces. It is aimed to contribute to science and art with this original and qualified research.&nbsp;

Investigation of Tiles of Ince Minareli Madrasah Listed in the Inventory of Konya Karatay Museum

Mürüvet

Mehmet

Throughout human history, graves have been given great importance. This is in keeping with the beliefs and rituals that developed around the cult of death. However, in the case of inhumation burials, special attention was paid to the tombstones placed on the ground to identify the location of the deceased. There is a rich appearance in the tombstones that are made in different shapes and sizes. The writings and decorations on the surfaces of the tombstones also contribute to this. Tombstones with these features naturally contain cultural, social and religious data. It also reflects to us the periodic changes, tastes, and interactions. In this context, the decorated tombstones produced in Anatolia in the Middle Ages, especially during the Anatolian Selcuk period, deserve the attention they attract. In addition to being magnificent documents about the religious, cultural and artistic environment of the period in which they were produced, they also shed light on death-oriented beliefs. In particular, the figurative decorations on the tombstones are the best example of this situation. For this reason, a sarcophagus that is now in the Eskişehir Eti Archaeology Museum was taken to the center of the study.The sarcophagus, which is the focus of the study, is currently exhibited in the stone artifacts section of Eskişehir Eti Archeology Museum. While the work was previously located in Seyyid Battal Gazi Complex, it was transferred to Eskişehir Eti Archeology Museum between 31.06.1968 and 30.11.1981, according to the museum catalogue record. The sarcophagus is made of solid limestone and it has dimensions of 60x120x147 cm. On the sarcophagus without a pedestal; the entire prismatic cover part is decorated with text. According to the information in the text, the sarcophagus belongs to Mahmud bin Muhammed. The tombstone was made in 1311. There is a grooved strip just below the cover. This strip goes around all four sides of the sarcophagus. There is a figurative decoration made with the scraping technique on only one side of the sarcophagus. There is a deer with long antlers with its head turned backwards, a lion on either side of it with its front legs in the air, mouths open as if lunging and a rabbit in the corner. The tombstone, which has fine workmanship, does not have a head or footstone.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The figures and composition on one side of the work were the focus of attention for some researchers. In the evaluations, the scene in question was described as a hunting or fighting scene. Again, each figure is interpreted individually. In particular, the lion and the deer are discussed in terms of their struggle, oppositional principles, and various symbolic aspects. However, there have not been many comments on the rabbit. Again, most research focuses on style and origin. Especially, the connection of the figures with Central Asia has been frequently examined. It has also generally been the subject of study along with similar figures in other tomb structures of the&nbsp;period. However, the relationship between these creatures and the scene itself with death remains in the dark.First of all, the work was produced in the Anatolian Seljuk period. It is known that figurative decorations, including lions, dear and rabbits, were used in many dears from architecture to handicrafts during this period. There is, however, a different world of meaning in each of these works. Nevertheless, the figures mentioned also found a place in works related to the death cult, from monumental tomb structures to tombstones. It can be seen that different compositions have been created in each of them. There are many figured sarcophagi and tombstones produced in the 13th and 14th centuries. Again, in the 15th century, the use of figures on gravestones continued, albeit in small numbers. These works, located in Afyonkarahisar, Kırşehir, Tokat, Malatya, Kırşehir and Konya, show that the use of figures was especially common in Central Anatolia. In general, figurative decorations are seen on tombstones on the side surfaces, covers or headstones. On ach tombstone, the deer, the lion, and the rabbit are brought together in a variety of compositions. Another point of interest is the appearance of the deer on sarcophagus-shaped tombstones produced in the Balkans in almost the same period. However, the exact scene in the work does not appear anywhere else. So the scene is unique. Therefore, in order to interpret the scene in the work, it is necessary to study each character individually and then evaluate the composition as a whole.Although the deer in the center of the composition is a hunting animal, it has different meanings in many cultures and religions. However, interestingly, it is a creature that has been directly associated with death from prehistoric times to the present day. The available findings show that deer skulls or antlers were placed in and on the graves. This reveals his direct relationship with death and the afterlife. Again, in the context of soul, underground spirit, and hunter-prey narratives, it turns into a metaphor for death. Especially in hunter- prey narratives, it is indirectly associated with fate, that is, life itself. Due to the double lions on the sarcophagus, the lion figure is one of the most frequently used figures in the Anatolian Seljuks. The lion, which is generally considered in connection with power, protection, frightening, talisman and astrological/cosmic, is also the symbol of light and illumination. Tomb structures are generally considered in two contexts. In the first one, lions, which are the symbols of light and the sun, were mostly seen as assistant spirits or spirits in the journey of the dead to the sky, guard spirits, and, together with various tree of life symbols, as vehicles for the soul’s transfer to the afterlife. It has also been interpreted as the symbol of caliph Ali and the symbol of sovereignty. In other words, it has been claimed that the owner of the tomb was a member of an order or a ruler. The rabbit located in the upper corner of the stage also has multiple meanings, such as deer and lion. Rabbit as god, taboo, sacred, substance or prey animal; it also appears in the context of underground spirits&nbsp;or life in the afterlife. Again, in medieval works, it refers to heaven-sky and eschatology with accompanying plants or celestial bodies. However, especially when written sources of the same period are considered, it is seen that the rabbit is a symbol of soul and heaven. In some societies, it is also accepted as death or a harbinger of death. This situation continues to this day. For example, among Tahtaci people living in Anatolia, seeing a rabbit while walking on the road is interpreted as death. Especially in the “Twelve Animal Calendar”, it is stated that there will be many deaths in the year of the rabbit and that this year represents hardship, cold and losses. Considering all this information, it is understood that the rabbit has a close connection with death.&nbsp;As a result of all this information, it seems correct to interpret the figures on the sarcophagus in Eskişehir Eti Archaeological Museum from a different perspective. First of all, the work is a very important example in terms of reflecting the culture, art and belief environment of Medieval Anatolia. Because the figures are in a work that directly reflects beliefs about death and the afterlife. Naturally, these should be evaluated with a focus on death rather than their general symbolic features. Again, it would be correct to name the entire scene, which is described as the hunting scene, differently. In particular, the deer between two lions directly refers to death, the soul, that is, the deceased person himself. Lions, the symbol of light, are positioned to illuminate the path of the soul, protect it, guide it, and even surround the soul by taking it between them, without attacking the deer, but attacking it. The rabbit, which is shown running to get out of the frame, has been added to the scene as a harbinger of death, bad luck (which is also bad luck), or death itself. Despite this scene, which is unique among the tombstones, the presence of the lion, deer and rabbit on contemporary or successive tombstones and in tombs and tombs also reveals the relationship of these figures with death. Although other works have different compositional setups in each unit- and each work should be examined on its own- the use of common figures strengthens this. An important question to ask here is " why the use of figures in tomb structures in a certain period and geography?”.As it is known, Medieval Anatolia; it is fed from three different sources: the Iranian-Sassanid environment, the indigenous cultures of Anatolia and Central Asia. Especially Central Anatolia and its surroundings, under the rule of the Anatolian Seljuk State, became an area where this rich artistic and architectural production could be directly applied. Naturally, it is not uncommon for such tombstones to appear in this geography where different tastes meet and are synthesized. Again, the fact that these are the result of cultural and artistic interaction should not be overlooked. As a result, even though the tomb owners were Muslims, they did not forget the beliefs they brought from Central Asia and were able to synthesize them with Islam.

A Sarcophagus and its Iconography from the Seljuk Period in Eskişehir Eti Archaeological Museum

Betül

Öğretim Görevlisi

Analysis of Konya Alaeddin Mosque Seljuk Period Inscriptions in Terms of Calligraphy

Berrin

Emine

Res. Assist.

Konya Karatay Madrasah was built by Emir Celaleddin Karatay in 649 [1251] during the reign of Sultan Izz al-Din Kaykaus II as it is understood from the construction inscription on the crown gate. The architect of the madrasah, which is a monumental structure with its crown gate, domed rooms next to the large iwan and the dome covering the central courtyard, is unknown. The interior decoration of the walls covered with mosaic tile ornaments and the dome make it stand out among the Anatolian Seljuk period buildings. The most magnificent part of the madrasah is the domed central space, including the large iwan. The eye-catching tiles using turquoise, dark blue and eggplant purple colors were made in mosaic technique. The madrasah is also an important building in terms of calligraphy with the variety of inscriptions. It is impressive to see a combination of inscriptions in jali thuluth as well as inscriptions in ma’kıli, braided and knotted kufic calligraphy, especially in kufic calligraphy. Among these inscriptions, the knotted kufic inscription on the skirt of the dome pulley of the building is a remarkable example with its design, letters and knots.&nbsp;There are general studies examining the architectural features and inscriptions of Konya Karatay Madrasah. However, there is no study that examines the structure of the letters and nodes in detail by making drawings of the sash inscription on the dome pulley and that will enable the application of this typeface, which was used in the 13th century, today. For this reason, this study focuses only on the knotted kufic sash inscription on the skirt of the dome pulley of the Karatay Madrasah in Konya.The knotted kufic calligraphy, which is the subject of the study, is one of the varieties of kufic calligraphy in architecture and created by drawing with drawing tools. Knotted kūfī is formed by twisting the vertical, diagonal and horizontal extensions of the letters on the line with circular or angular lines like a rope and forming knots within the letter. The spaces outside the text of knotted kufic inscriptions are often decorated with floral or rûmî motifs.When the history of knotted kufic is researched, it is widely believed that it developed in the Eastern Iranian region and developed as it spread westward. This type of writing, which was mostly used in architecture, intensified after the 11th century and was applied with materials such as stone, brick, plaster and tile mosaic. Kufic calligraphy is frequently seen in the inscriptions found in Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities period buildings. In addition to intense geometric ornamentation, kufic calligraphy with geometric principles is among the characteristics of the period. In some buildings of this period, an inscription showing similarities with the knotted kufic calligraphy in the Karatay Madrasah sash script was identified. Of these, the mihrab inscription of the Konya Alâeddin Mosque is identical in terms of design layout, lettering, knot, zulfa and decoration features on the inscription background. Another building with a font similar to the sash inscription of the Konya Karatay Madrasah is the Afyon Mısri Mosque. The sash inscription of the madrasah and the mihrab inscription of Afyon Mısri Mosque have the same font and features. However, since the letters in the inscription of the Mısri Mosque do not contain a meaningful text and the letters at the beginning and end are cut and placed, they cannot be read and it is not possible to trace a text. These two examples, which are similar to the sash inscription of the Karatay Madrasah in terms of type and ornamentation, do not have as wide a variety of letters and knots as the Karatay Madrasah sash inscription because they are shorter in terms of the area where they were written. In addition, the Kayseri Gülük Mosque mihrab inscription is also written in knotted kufic calligraphy. It is a beautiful work in terms of writing. When this work is compared with the Karatay Madrasah sash script, although it shows similar characteristics in terms of design layout, color and technique, it differs in terms of letters, knots, zulfa and background ornaments.&nbsp;The kufic script types, which were among the preferred inscriptions in the works of the Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities Period, were replaced by the developing jali thuluth calligraphy after this period. Jali thuluth calligraphy started to be preferred in the inscriptions in the buildings. For this reason, the sash inscription of Konya Karatay Madrasah attracted attention with its unique character in the knotted kufic calligraphy in the following periods.&nbsp;The knotted kufic sash inscription on the dome pulley of the Konya Karatay Madrasah is unique among its counterparts with its rich variety of knots. As is the case throughout the madrasah, the sash script is also composed of tiles. The letters of the sash lettering made with glaze engraving technique are eggplant purple, and the ornaments on the ground are decorated with turquoise colored rûmî composition. The dome diameter of the madrasah is 12 meters and the length of the inscription sash on the pulley of the dome is approximately 37.5 meters and its height is 91 cm. The text of the sash consists of the Basmala and the 255th and 256th verses of Surat al-Baqarah.In this study, qualitative research method and document analysis were used. First of all, the length and height of the sash was determined and then photographs were taken. The images taken were arranged together with the text readings and sorted side by side with the Adobe Photoshop program. Vector drawings were made in Adobe Illustrator program and transferred to digital media. The drawings were dimensioned in 1/10 ratio of 37.5 x 9.1 cm with a letter thickness of 2.2 mm.The design scheme of the sash script consists of three parts, the letters in the bottom line, the knots in the middle, and the zulfas at the top. The compositional shape consists of a horizontal, vertical and partly diagonal structure. Vertical lines were created by making connections to the letters other than the vertical letters, and a block image was created by balancing the gaps with the knots made to each letter. The ground of the text is also decorated with turquoise-colored ornaments in the form of a rûmî composition on sixty circular spirals lined up side by side.&nbsp;The individual, initial, middle and final forms of the letters in the sash script were identified one by one, and an alphabet table was created from the selected letters. Letters that are not in the text are left blank in the table. Kufic calligraphy inscriptions generally do not use periods. There is also no dot in the dotted letters in the sash inscription in the Karatay Madrasah.&nbsp;In the Arabic alphabet, letters such as alif, ṭa, ẓa, kaf, lām and lāmalif are composed of verticals. For this reason, their vertical parts are very suitable for making knots, and knots are most common in these letters in the kufic calligraphy. In addition, the letters cim, ḥa, ḫa, ḫā, dal, and zal in the kufic calligraphy have structures suitable for creating vertical or diagonal extensions. Therefore, extensions can be made to form nodes. The letters ba, ta, s̱̱a, ra, za, mim, nun, wāw, qāf, ya do not have a vertical or diagonal structure. However, in the Karatay Madrasah sash script, vertical/diagonal extensions were also made in these letters. The ends of these letters are mostly made to form an inverted rumi crest facing downwards.In the sash script, there are letters that can be perceived as knots as they are composed entirely of knots. Among these letters, knots in letters composed of verticals such as alif and lāmalif can be seen in every writing type of the kufic calligraphy. However, it is surprising that the letters sad and dat, which have a horizontal structure, are made in a form consisting of dense knots on two verticals. At the same time, these knots, which represent the letters sad/dat, also represented the letter lāmalif in the text. It was also determined that the same knots were also used in the writing of the word Allah for non-spelling ornamental purposes, and it was determined that these knots were used for multiple purposes in different places.It has been determined that the knots in the Karatay Madrasah sash script are independent of the letter on which they are located, and that the same knot can also be located on different letters. It was found that 93 different knots were made in sash script. Some of these knots also represent letters. In the design layout of the sash script, the knots are located on the vertical and diagonal extensions emerging from the letters. There are examples on a single vertical, on double verticals side by side, on a single diagonal extension, between two verticals with a distance between them, and on diagonal lines. The knots selected from the sash script were evaluated by categorizing and coloring them according to the stage of construction. It was also determined that the knots in the sash script of the madrasah contain various forms. They were analyzed by dividing them into groups as circle, cross, star and knots in the middle of two verticals with a distance between them. In order to ensure the repetition of vertical knots in the design construct of the sash script, it was seen that there were knots that did not have the quality of letters, but were made only to fill the gaps in the writing of the verse, and examples were given.In the Karatay Madrasah sash script, which is a unique example with its variety of knots, almost all knots are different. In the analysis of the knots, it was determined that a simple knot was developed and elaborated and transformed into different knots, and two different examples are given in the knot development table. This study also intends to make a methodological contribution to the new knot studies to be created by examining the knot systems detailed from lean movements.In calligraphy, the hooked part at the end of the letters is called zulfa. The upper end of the vertical or diagonal extensions of the letters in the Karatay Madrasah sash script, i.e. the zulfa, was made in different ways. Symmetrical zulfas on two verticals side by side, zulfas where two verticals meet at the top, zulfas used in right and left directions on a single vertical, and diagonal zulfas are listed as follows. The main characteristic of the zulfas in the sash script is that they are composed of rûmî motifs and end with crests in different shapes. The zulfas found in the sash script of the ma-u drasah were evaluated by dividing them into A-B-C-D groups.As a result of all these studies and analyses, a measured and regular font was created with the typographic arrangement made with the basic shapes of the knotted kufic letters in Konya Karatay Madrasah. In the light of all the data, a new design proposal was created and presented. Yunus Emre, one of the greatest poets of Anatolia, who was born during the construction years of the Karatay Madrasah, selected the couplet “Sevelim sevilelim, bu dünya kimseye kalmaz (Let’s love and be loved, no one is eternal on this world)” and prepared a plate in lines. With this study, the 13th century Karatay Madrasah knotted kufic font has been brought to the present day and a source has been created for the designs to be made with this type of writing in calligraphy. It is our hope that today’s calligraphers will produce new works by making use of this data.

Analysis of Konya Karatay Madrasah Knotted Kufic Sash Script in terms of Calligraphy and Knot Properties

Sara

Assist. Prof.

Tasarım, geçmişten günümüze sanat eserleri ile kültürel mirasa olan ilgiyi ve etkiyi yansıtan önemli bir disiplindir. Günümüzde, tasarımcılar, geçmişin sanat eserlerinden ilham alarak yeni ve yenilikçi tasarımlar ortaya koymaktadır. Tasarım eylemi, belirli bir sonuca ulaşmak için tanımlanan bir süreçtir ve aynı zamanda yaratıcı, yenilikçi, katılımcı ve eleştirel bir yaklaşımı hedeflemektedir. Tasarım eğitimi, öğrencilere problem çözme tekniklerini öğretmeyi ve çok yönlü düşünme becerilerini geliştirmeyi amaçlayan teorik bir çerçeveye dayanmaktadır. Sanat eğitimi, diğer disiplinlerden belirgin bir şekilde ayrılmış ve özgün bir pedagojik yaklaşım geliştirmiştir. Bu da tasarım atölyelerinin öğrenci ile öğretmen arasındaki diyalog ve değerlendirme türlerine odaklanmasını sağlamıştır. Öğrenciler, sanat atölyelerinde belirsizlikle ve öğrenme süreciyle karşılaşırken çevre ile kurdukları kavramsal ilişkiyi farklı seviyelere taşımak ve yeni eğitim ortamının gereksinimlerini karşılayacak şekilde dönüştürmek için çaba gösterirler. Sanat eğitimi, soyut düşünme ve kavram üretme üzerine odaklanan tasarım dersleri tarafından oluşturulmakta ve yaratıcılığın gelişimine olanak tanımaktadır. Ayrıca, sanat dersleri, problem çözme ve öğrencilere değerlendirme yapma sürecinde de önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Atölyeler, öğrencilere tasarım hakkında öğrenme ve tasarım eylemi hakkında bilgi edinme fırsatı sunmaktadır. Sanat eğitim süreci ilerledikçe, öğrenciler tasarım süreci ve entelektüel hareketlerle ilgili yöntemleri öğrenmeye çalışmaktadır. Temel sanat eğitimi, öğrencilere sanatın temel prensiplerini, tekniklerini ve kavramlarını öğreten kapsamlı bir eğitim programıdır. Bu program, resim, heykel, grafik tasarım, fotoğrafçılık, seramik ve tekstil sanatları gibi çeşitli sanat disiplinlerini ihtiva etmektedir. Ayrıca, temel sanat eğitimi, sanat tarihini, sanat teorisini, felsefeyi, estetik kavramları ile beraber sanat eleştirisini de kapsamaktadır. Bu eğitim, öğrencilerin yaratıcı düşünme becerilerini, problem çözme yeteneklerini ve özgüvenlerini geliştirmelerine yardımcı olmaktadır. Temel sanat eğitimi, öğrencilere sanatın farklı yönlerini tanıtarak onların sanatsal ifadelerini ve yeteneklerini genişletmeyi amaçlamaktadır.&nbsp;Bu makale, Trabzon Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar ve Tasarım Fakültesi’nde 2023- 2024 eğitim öğretim yılında Resim Bölümü’nde verilen temel sanat eğitimi dersinde, Selçuklu Dönemi eseri olan Varka ve Gülşah mesnevisinin minyatürlerinin kullanımını ele almaktadır. Bu minyatürler, öğrencilere temel tasarım öğelerini anlamaları ve Gestalt kuramlarını uygulamaları için zengin bir kaynak sunmaktadır. Öğrenciler, bu tarihî eserleri analiz ederek ve yeniden üreterek hem Selçuklu sanatının estetik değerlerini hem de kendi yaratıcılıklarını geliştirme fırsatı bulmuşlardır. Öğrencilerin çalışmaları genel olarak çeşitli tarzları ve teknikleri içermektedir. Çalışmalar detaylara ve gerçekçi dokulara önem vererek doğanın güzelliklerini yakalamış, soyut düşünce ve duygulara yönlendirmiştir. Aynı zamanda hikâye anlatımı ve karakter gelişimi açısından da dikkat çekmiştir. Öğrencilerin çalışmalarındaki çeşitlilik, sanatın farklı&nbsp;yönlerini anlamalarına ve kişisel tarzlarını geliştirmelerine yardımcı olmuştur. Her bir öğrencinin kendine özgü bir yaklaşımı ve ifade tarzı olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Genel olarak, öğrencilerin çalışmaları yaratıcı ve çeşitli bir perspektif sunmaktadır.&nbsp;Selçuklu Dönemi resim sanatı, İslam Öncesi Dönem ile Orta Asya’ya özgü sanat formlarıyla ilişkilidir. Selçuklu okulu, İran’da Selçukluların hâkimiyet döneminde ortaya çıkan bir resim akımının parçasıdır ve aynı zamanda insan figürleri ile çiçekler gibi unsurların sıkça kullanımı ile bilinmektedir. Renklerin yoğun ve dikkat çekici kullanımı, özellikle kırmızının hâkimiyeti, bu sanat akımının en belirgin özelliklerindendir. Abdü’l-Mü’min İbn Muhammed El-Hoyi gibi önemli sanatçılar, Varka ve Gülşah gibi klasik eserleri resmetmişlerdir. Hoyî’nin eserleri, Anadolu Selçuklu Dönemi’nin özelliklerini taşırken canlı renkleri ve detaylı işçilikleriyle dikkat çekmektedir. Ayyukî, 11. yüzyılın başlarında yaşamıştır ve ünü, aşk temasını ele aldığı Varka ve Gülşah adlı mesnevisiyle duyulmuştur. Varka ve Gülşah, Farsça bir aşk mesnevisi olup yaklaşık iki bin beyitten meydana gelmiştir. Bu eser, Fars edebiyatındaki ilk hikâye manzumelerinden biridir ve 10. yüzyılın sonları ile 11. yüzyılın başları arasında yazılmıştır. Hikâye Arapça kaynaklardan esinlenmiş olup Ferhad ve Şirin gibi aşk hikâyelerine de benzemektedir. Eserde, aşık ve sevgilinin hikâyesi basit ve sade bir dille anlatılmıştır.&nbsp;Trabzon Üniversitesinde gerçekleştirilen eğitim sürecinde, birinci sınıf resim bölümü öğrencileri, Selçuklu Dönemi minyatürlerini inceleyerek ve yeniden üreterek sanatsal becerilerini geliştirme fırsatı bulmuşlardır. Öğrencilere ders kapsamında, Varka ve Gülşah mesnevisinin hikâyesi ile tarihi anlatılmış ve minyatürler detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Daha sonra, yeniden üretim kavramı örneklerle açıklanmış ve öğrenciler bu minyatürlerden ilham alarak kendi eserlerini oluşturmuşlardır. Bu süreçte, öğrenciler temel sanat ögeleri (nokta, çizgi, renk, biçim, yön, ölçü, aralık ve doku) ve Gestalt kuramlarını (yakınlık, tamamlama, benzerlik, süreklilik ve şekil-zemin) aktif bir şekilde kullanarak minyatürleri yeniden ele almışlardır. Bu süreçte öğrenciler, günümüz olaylarıyla harmanlayarak yeniden ürettikleri eserleri analiz etmişlerdir. Öğrencilerin ortaya koymuş oldukları eserleri yan yana koymak suretiyle yapılan analizlerde, minyatürlerin sağladığı görsel ögelerin kullanımı ve kompozisyon üzerindeki etkisi derinlemesine incelenmiştir. Öğrencilerin yapmış oldukları çalışmalar, çeşitli tarzları ve teknikleri içermesiyle dikkat çekmektedir. Her öğrenci, sanatın farklı yönlerini anlamak ve kişisel tarzını geliştirmek için farklı yaklaşımlar benimsemiştir. Bu çalışmalar hem teknik hem de estetik açıdan zengin bir çeşitlilik sunmaktadır. Her bir öğrencinin kendine özgü yaklaşımı ve ifade tarzı olduğu gözlemlenmiş olup bu da çalışmaların bireysel yaratıcılığı ve özgünlüğünü vurgulamaktadır. Genel olarak, öğrencilerin eserleri, yaratıcı bir perspektif sunmakla kalmayıp sanatın çok yönlü doğasını da sergilemektedir. Bu çeşitlilik, öğrencilerin sanatsal ifadelerini genişletirken, onların özgüvenlerini ve problem çözme yeteneklerini geliştirmelerine de katkı sağlamıştır.&nbsp;Her bir çalışma, öğrencilerin Selçuklu Dönemi minyatürlerinden ilham alarak yarattığı yeni eserleri tanımlamaktadır. Temel bileşenler, kullanılan renk paleti, kompozisyon elemanları ve semboller gibi detaylar her çalışmada belirtilmiştir. Bu açıklamalar, öğrencilerin sanatsal süreçlerini ve tercihlerini daha iyi anlamamıza yardımcı olmaktadır. Öğrencilerin sanatsal tercihleri ve yaratıcı yaklaşımları, eserlerin özgünlüğünü vurgulamaktadır. Minyatürlerin temel unsurlarını ve kompozisyonlarını anlamak için farklı yaklaşımlar kullanılmıştır: Çalışmalarda kullanılan semboller ve figürler, zengin anlam katmanları sunmaktadır. Örneğin, nar ağacının dalları bereketi ve yaşamın devamlılığını simgelerken farklı renklerdeki atlar tutku, güç, cesaret, dinginlik ve sakinliği temsil etmektedir. Kuşlar özgürlüğü, ruhsal yükselişi ve huzuru; yeşil ağaç figürü doğayla olan bağlantıyı, büyümeyi ve yenilenmeyi simgelemektedir. Ayrıca, çadır ve cenaze töreni gibi sahneler, soyutlama ve semboller aracılığıyla yeniden yorumlanarak derin anlamlar kazanmıştır. Öğrenciler, geometrik şekiller ve soyut figürlerle minyatürlerden ilham alarak yeni kompozisyonlar oluşturmuşlardır. Bu çalışmalarda, renk paletlerinin genişliği dikkat çekmektedir. Lacivert, kırmızı, pembe, sarı, turuncu, yeşil, mavi ve altın gibi renkler, eserlerde canlılık ve dinamizm sağlamıştır. Renklerin sembolik anlamları da çalışmalarda önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Kırmızı genellikle tutku ve enerjiyi; mavi dinginlik ve derinliği; yeşil doğayı ve yaşamı; sarı neşe ve iyimserliği temsil etmektedir. Bu sembolik renkler, eserlerdeki duygusal ve tematik katmanları zenginleştirmiştir. Gestalt prensipleri, öğrenci çalışmalarında önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Şekil-zemin ilişkisi kullanılarak kompozisyonlara derinlik ve bütünlük kazandırılmıştır. Özellikle üst üste binme ve çevre kapanması teknikleri, figürler ve unsurlar arasında görsel bir ilişki kurarak eserin anlatmak istediği duygusal ve sembolik mesajları güçlendirmiştir. Öğrenci çalışmalarında doku, kompozisyona derinlik ve gerçekçilik katmak için önemli bir unsur olarak kullanılmıştır. Lacivert boya (lapis lazuli) gibi değerli malzemeler zemin kaplamasında tercih edilmiştir. Mat dokular, izleyicinin eseri daha yakından hissetmesine olanak tanımaktadır. Fırça darbeleriyle zemine doku hissi verilmiş ve bu şekilde şekil-zemin ilişkisi vurgulanmıştır. Çalışmalarda hem yatay hem de dikey yönlerin baskın olduğu görülmektedir. Dikey yönlerin baskın olduğu eserlerde, figürler ve diğer unsurlar yukarı doğru hareket hissi verirken yatay yönlerin baskın olduğu çalışmalarda denge ve düzen hissi ön plandadır. Simetri, öğrenci çalışmalarında sıkça kullanılan bir ögedir. Kompozisyonlarda simetrik düzenlemeler, denge ve uyum hissi yaratmaktadır. Simetrik biçimlerin kullanımı, eserlere estetik bir bütünlük kazandırırken, izleyicinin dikkatini merkezi noktalara çekmektedir.&nbsp;Trabzon Üniversitesi öğrencilerinin aldığı temel sanat eğitimi dersleri, Selçuklu sanatını analiz etmek ve çağdaş sanatın temel kavramlarına değinmek açısından önemli bir katkı sağlamıştır. Bu dersler, öğrencilere sanatın evrensel dilini kullanma ve anlama becerilerini geliştirme fırsatı sunmuştur. Ayrıca, kültürel mirasın ve sanatın evrenselliğinin önemini vurgulamış ve öğrencilere benzersiz bir bakış açısı kazandırmıştır. Bu makale, öğrencilerin sanat yoluyla öğrenmeyi temel alan bir öğretme/ öğrenme modeliyle yeni bir yaklaşım getirdiğini ve bu yaklaşımın Selçuklu sanatını uluslararası alanda tanıtmak için önemli bir araç olduğunu belirtmektedir.Öğrencilerin yeniden kompozisyon yapma ve değerlendirme süreçlerinde minyatürler temel bir kaynak olarak kullanılmış olup eserlerinde özgünlük ve yaratıcılık ön planda tutulmuştur. Minyatürlerden esinlenerek ortaya koydukları yeni eserlerle, sanatın evrensel dili aracılığıyla toplumsal bağlar kurulmuş ve kültürel mirasa olan katkılar açıkça ortaya konmuştur. Bu süreç, öğrencilerin estetik değerlendirme becerilerini geliştirmelerine yardımcı olmuş ve yeniden üretim yöntemi, ikili karşıtlıkları kullanarak anlamı sorgulamanın önemli bir aracı olarak ele alınmıştır. Bu yaklaşım, öğrencilerin sanatı anlama ve ifade etme yeteneklerini geliştirirken kültürel mirasın ve sanatın evrensel niteliğini vurgulamaktadır.&nbsp;Yeniden üretim, metin malzemelerine dayanarak geliştirilen bir taktiktir ve egemen anlamın var olmadığını savunmaktadır. Bu süreç, kültürel ürünlerin ve sanat eserlerinin mekanik yeniden üretimin etkisi altında nasıl değiştiğini ve yayıldığını vurgulamaktadır. Bu bağlamda, yeniden üretim, orijinal eserlerin otantikliğini ve eşsizliğini sorgularken aynı zamanda sanatın ve kültürün demokratikleşmesine katkıda bulunmaktadır. Mekanik yeniden üretim, sanat eserlerini daha geniş kitlelere ulaştırarak onların erişilebilirliğini arttırmaktadır. Ancak bu durum, eserin orijinal bağlamından koparılmasına ve anlamının dönüşmesine de sebep olabilir. Bu dinamik, kültürel ürünlerin sürekli bir dönüşüm ve yeniden yorumlama sürecine tabi olduğunu ve tek bir doğru veya egemen anlamın var olamayacağını göstermektedir. Bu sebeple yeniden üretim süreci hem sanatın hem de kültürel ürünlerin evrimine ve yayılımına dair önemli içgörüler sunmaktadır. Yeniden üretim, bilgiyi tersine çevirme amacıyla kullanılmakta ve anlamı sorgulamanın bir aracı olmaktadır. Bu makale, resim eğitiminde yeniden üretimin önemini vurgulamakta ve Trabzon Üniversitesinde gerçekleştirilen “Temel Sanat Selçuklu” atölyesinde yapılan çalışmalara odaklanmaktadır. Bu çalışmalar, Selçuklu sanatını bir araç olarak kullanmakta, yeniden üretim yöntemini benimseyerek çizgi, biçim, yönelim, doku, renk ve Gestalt kuramı gibi konuları sorgulamaktadır. Öğrenciler, verilen ikili karşıtlıklar aracılığıyla benzersiz sonuçlar ortaya koymuştur. Tasarım aracı olarak Selçuklu sanatı kullanılarak Varka ve Gülşah minyatürleri soyut terimlerde yaratıcı eserler olarak yeniden tasarlanmıştır. Her bir öğrencinin eseri, benzersiz bir hikâye anlatımını ve sanatsal ifadeyi temsil etmektedir. Bu temsil aynı zamanda sanat eğitiminin Temel Sanat Dersi için özel olarak uygulanan yeni bir bakış açısı sunabileceğini göstermektedir. Verilen problemler aracılığıyla üretilen eserlerin çeşitliliği, öğrencilerin entelektüel becerilerini geliştirdiğini ve kendilerini daha rahat ifade edebileceklerini göstermektedir. Öğrencilerin bu temel sanat eğitimi dersleri, sadece Selçuklu Dönemi sanatına değil, aynı zamanda çağdaş sanatın temel kavramlarına da değerli bir katkı sağlamaktadır.&nbsp;Sonuç olarak, sanatı tasarım sürecinde bir araç olarak görmek ve ondan yararlanmak, sanat eğitimi açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Temel Sanat Dersleri, sanat yoluyla öğrenmeyi temel alan öğretme/öğrenme modeli sayesinde öğrencilerin yaratıcı düşünme becerilerini, estetik duyarlılıklarını ve teknik yeteneklerini geliştirmelerine olanak tanımaktadır. Bu yaklaşım, sadece bireysel yaratıcılığı teşvik etmekle kalmaz, aynı zamanda öğrencilere benzersiz ve yerel değerlere yeni bir bakış açısı kazandırmaktadır. Bu yeni eğitim modeli, Selçuklu sanatının derinlemesine analiz edilmesi ve uluslararası alanda tanıtımının yapılması açısından da büyük önem taşımaktadır. Selçuklu sanatının estetik ve kültürel mirasını günümüz sanat pratiğine entegre etmek hem tarihsel farkındalığı arttırmakta hem de bu mirası çağdaş sanatla buluşturarak yeni ve ilham verici perspektifler sunmaktadır. Böylelikle, sanat eğitimi yalnızca geçmişin bir yansıması olmaktan çıkmakta aynı zamanda da geleceğin sanatsal ve kültürel biçimlerini şekillendiren dinamik bir süreç hâline gelmektedir.

Reproduction of Warqa wa Gulshah Miniatures in a Basic Design Workshop

Sevcan

Res. Assist. Dr.

In this study, an evaluation was made on the forms due to the problems in terminology in ceramic art. This research, which is limited to the Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities Periods, aims to make a correct explanation of the jugs, which are among the ceramics produced in countless forms, but are generally not studied and constitute only one group, and to create a typology. In order to create a typology of jugs, firstly the concept of jug was emphasized and detailed information about the conceptual confusion was given. The inconsistencies in the publications on jugs, ewers and carafes were pointed out, and then the typology was created and information was given about the Seljuk and Principalities Period jug forms. Various sources were scanned to determine and find the form types used in the works in which we investigated the test forms of the Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities periods. During the research, it was understood that the carafe and ewer forms found in some sources, which were not defined as jugs but were jugs, were considered as jugs. Therefore, first of all, a detailed form evaluation was carried out to clarify the names of these parts.At the beginning of the study, it was understood that there were problems in the naming and form details of the jugs, which have always had an important place in ceramic art and history, like other ceramic vessels. Elements of the human body are used in the naming of vessel parts (mouth, lips, neck, shoulders, abdomen/body, feet, etc.). However, it is noteworthy that local and foreign researchers generally do not use a common language regarding ceramic forms. When discussing ceramic vessels in terms of form, different names are used for all the details starting from the mouth to the foot, i.e. the base. For this reason, many terms and concepts have emerged in ceramic art. In addition, the common use of some concepts in contemporary ceramic art and handicrafts in the field of ceramics has increased the confusion in naming and form descriptions in these fields. However, in some publications, examples that we know as jugs or mugs are referred to as jugs, while those we know as jugs are referred to as pitchers/ewers or carafes.When we examine the examples of closed-form vessels and jugs illustrated in books, articles, papers and theses written in the field of Islamic and especially Seljuk period ceramics, one of the problems we encounter is that there are different names for the same type of vessels. The main problem arises when these vessels with various functions are used interchangeably. For example, a similarly shaped jug may be called a jug, ewer or jug in different publications. This leads to serious confusion in form and function. However, due to the differences in the ceramic jargon of archaeology and art history, art historians mostly prioritize function. For this purpose, a study has been prepared to draw attention to the functional confusion as well as to the form types of the jugs, which are the main subject of this study.When typologizing vessels, many common characteristics must be brought together and arranged in order of priority. The most important criteria for differentiating the main forms are size and proportion, followed by body and rim form, and attachments (handles, lugs, spouts, feet, bases, etc.). Once the vessel repertoire has been divided into main groups, attachments should play a role in the subgroups. Although the main vessel forms can be classified under different names according to their various attachments, the skeleton of the typology should be formed without going beyond this grouping. Accordingly, a jug should be classified according to the characteristics of the main vessel type, even if it is called beak-mouthed or double-handled under the narrow-mouthed pottery group. Vessel forms arranged according to a certain principle are the most important factor in establishing a correct typology.Although at first glance one might think that there is a great variety in the forms of jugs, ewers and carafes, it can be accepted that they are period-appropriate variations of certain forms whose origins go back to very ancient times. Considering their relationship with water as well as their construction techniques and form details, it is understood that these designations were made according to certain characteristics of the vessels. The main similarity between the jug and the pitcher in terms of function is that water and similar liquids are poured through a protruding spout. The main difference between them is that the liquid is poured from the spout on the jug and from the spout on the ewer.The most important feature of the jugs is that they are cooked at a low temperature, so they remain porous and sweat by slightly leaking water, thus keeping the water cool. Since the jugs are directly related to water, there is no need to call them water jugs. However, they are sometimes named after honey, molasses, oil and various other liquids. In some publications, jugs are included in closed-form ceramics, as mentioned above, and sometimes they are analyzed under the name of beverage serving vessels. For example, beverage serving vessels consist of large jugs, ewers, bottles and flasks used for transferring liquids. The smaller ones are glasses and mugs. The fact that jugs are not generally included among beverage serving vessels, or that these vessels are called jugs or mashrapa instead of jugs, may be due to their different intended use. The jug has a wider mouth and a beak, making it suitable for use at the table. The jug, on the other hand, is convenient to carry and has a large volume to increase the liquid capacity. In general use, the jug serves to serve individual vessels (cups and mugs). The jug is both hand-carried and can be passed from hand to hand to drink from. The pitcher serves to slow down and control the flow of liquid, whether for cleaning hands and bodies or for serving drinks. In bottles, this controlled flow is realized thanks to the thin long necks. The bottles also have neck collars that prevent slipping from the hand.The jugs may be of different heights, but when they are typified according to their body forms, their rim diameters and heights are consistent based on certain measurements. Thus, clearer conclusions can be drawn based on their heights and rim diameters under different groups. According to the dimensions given in various publications, the average height of the jugs ranges between 15 cm and 40 cm and the average rim diameter between 4 cm and 10 cm regardless of their base, body, neck and rim forms. These vessels do not have spouts, have variable body and neck forms, and have as many handles as desired. The form details of the jugs found in our study and grouped according to their body forms are given under subheadings. Glazed or unglazed jugs were produced in different forms for various purposes during the Seljuk Period. These are products with various forms, usually with bulging bodies, with or without necks, with narrow or wide rims, of medium height and in sizes that can be carried by hand, with one or two handles, sometimes without handles and spouts. In some regions that have reached the mass production stage, it is possible to further diversify the forms of jugs beyond the detailed characteristics described above.In order to create a form typology of the Seljuk and Principalities Period jugs, this study is based on the jug drawings in various publications of the period. Forms of the same type, which are defined differently from each other, have been grouped under suggested headings and generalizations have been attempted. The publications reviewed and the drawings and decorative features of the examples in many studies were carefully analyzed and grouped under specific form headings. The jugs, analyzed only according to their body forms, vary according to their rim and base forms. Since creating a typology of the jugs in such a way that the rim and base parts of the jugs are also integrated with the body parts would further complicate the already existing form typology, only the bodies were taken as the basis for the typology. Accordingly, two types of jugs with mold-made and wheel-made bodies were produced. Molded jugs with two-piece bodies have three different body forms. They are grouped as two-piece spherical body jugs, two-piece conical-spherical body jugs and two-piece conical body jugs. Wheel-made jugs have spherical, flattened conical, ovoid and oval bodies.Most of the two-part globular jugs found in Anatolia were recovered from sites dating to the Seljuk, Principalities and Early Ottoman periods. During the research, it was possible to compare the jugs dated to the Seljuk period of the 12th and 13th centuries with those dated to the 14th-15th centuries of the Principalities period. Thus, it was found that the Seljuk period jugs with the same technique were found frequently, and that the bodies were produced in various forms such as two-part spherical or flattened spherical form, conical at the bottom and spherical at the top, or vice versa. In addition, it was found that the bases were generally in the form of low ring bases and high bases in the form of goblet feet, and the necks were in the form of conical or cylindrical shapes opening from the body to the mouth.It is understood that the Anatolian Principalities and the Ottomans, the successors of the Seljuks, were the successors of each other in ceramic works as in many other artifacts, but they continuously improved their production within their periods by making innovations. Therefore, considering these changes over time, we can say that the jugs were stable in their main form, i.e. the body form, but managed to create diversity in the form of add-ons, i.e. the base, handle and neck forms.

Jug: A Conceptual and Typological Approach to Examples of the Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities Period

Abdül

Ala al-Din Kayqubad I, who was considered the most successful sultan of the Anatolian Seljuk State, appointed his younger son Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan as the heir before his death. However, after his death, his eldest son Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II, who was the malik of Erzincan, was declared sultan with the efforts of prominent statesmen. In his early years, Kaykhusraw II tended to continue his father’s policies and to this end he engaged in diplomatic relations with other states as his father had done. Accordingly, he received the ambassadors of foreign countries who had come to Kayseri during his father’s lifetime and sent an envoy to Mongolia. Afterwards, he renewed the treaties of allegiance with the Ayyubid rulers of Damascus and Aleppo, which had been concluded during his father’s reign. Soon other Ayyubid kings and Artuqid emirs also became his subjects. Thus, he formed a strong front against the Ayyubid dynastry of Egypt. However, in the same years, he remained under the influence of Sâdeddin Köpek and his negative attitude towards significant statesmen who had served for years caused the state to be in a difficult situation in overcoming the challenges in the following years. During this period, the elimination of experienced statesmen such as Kayırhan, Kemâleddin Kâmyâr, Şemseddin Altun-aba, Hüsâmeddin Kaymerî, and Tâceddin Pervâne paved the way for the emergence of the Baba Ishak rebellion. Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II, who lost power after the rebellion, suffered a heavy defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ when the Mongols arrived in Anatolia while he was striving to ensure political unity in Anatolia. The plundering of important cities by the Mongols after the battle caused the Seljuks to lose their sovereignty in Anatolia. While efforts were being made to reestablish sovereignty, the sudden death of the sultan at a young age increased the chaos within the Seljuk State, contributing to its collapse.&nbsp;Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II’s private life has been the subject of controversy among historians. His marriages, fondness for women, alcohol, and entertainment have been emphasized, focusing on his failures in state governance. It is even suggested that the sultan died as a result of an attack by one of the wild animals he kept. Despite these controversies, architectural works during this period are noteworthy. It is seen that the commercial, religious and social structures built in parallel with the development of the state during the reign of his father Ala al-Din Kay-Qubad I continued uninterruptedly during the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II. The Sultan’s works in the field of art are also observed through the coins he minted. Particularly, the intensive minting of coins featuring the composition known as the lion and sunface is an example of this situation.By our study, 99 coins belonging to the period of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II have been identified in the inventory of the Bursa Archaeology Museum. Excluding&nbsp;duplicates, a catalogue has been created from 46 pieces. Although there are tarnishes and abrasions on the surfaces of the coins, they have survived to the present day in their general condition. However, it is not possible to say the same for the copper-based coins. The coins were minted between 634 AH (1237 AD) and 644 AH (1246–47 AD). The years 639 and 640 AH are the most common, appearing on half of the works. In 18 works, the date could not be determined. However, 10 of them could be dated according to the caliph’s name and order in the front inscription lines. All coins were produced using the minting technique. The coins were produced using silver and copper metals. Silver material was more commonly preferred compared to copper. An example of gold material, which is known to have been used in the coins of this period through publications, is not found in the inventory of the Bursa Archaeology Museum. The average weight of silver coins is 2.84 grams, while copper pieces weigh 3.65 grams on average. The average diameter of silver coins is 22.2 mm, while for copper pieces, it is 22.9 mm. Among the coins, 55 were minted in Sivas, 33 in Konya, and 1 in Ankara. The minting location of 10 coins could not be determined. Kufic calligraphy was used in the inscriptions of 80 coins, while Seljuk cursive script was used in 19 coins.The ornamentation program of the coins includes geometric, botanical, and figural elements. Among these, the pearl series border, one of the most common geometric decorative elements, is used in almost all coins. Additionally, stars, circles, three dots, reverse S, crescents, and knot motifs are other geometric ornamentation elements. Botanical elements consist of curved branches, rumi, and tulip motifs. The most frequently used curved branch motif is created by extending the last letter of the inscription lines.&nbsp;The lion and sun-face elements are seen as figural ornamental elements. The composition, typically supported by geometric elements such as stars, circles, and S-curves, repeats itself with minor variations. Religious and astrological approaches play an important role in the composition. The sun cult, adopted by many societies for thousands of years, has created richness in its depictions over time. At times, the composition is depicted in a purely abstract form, while at other times it is represented anthropomorphically or directly in the form of a human figure. The lion, on the other hand, is associated with astrology or depicted as an element of power. The earliest examples of compositions bringing together the two most powerful elements of earth and sky can be found in the Persian and Mesopotamian regions. Influenced by Zoroastrian beliefs, the composition developed in these regions has been shaped within the framework of different symbolic narratives over time. In Turkish art, the composition is found before and after Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II. There are different views on the symbolic expression in the lion and sun-face composition. The most prominent of these is the symbolism of love, based on the identification of the sun with the woman&nbsp;and the lion with the man. The other view is related to the astrological symbolism that Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II was the symbol of rulership. In another view, the composition is interpreted as a representation of the victory won as a result of the Babai Rebellion during the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II. Similarly, the composition has also been associated with the conquest of Samsat and Diyarbakır and the suppression of the Babai Rebellion. These views are interrupted by the composition’s depiction of a double lion. The fact that the usage of lion and sun elements to symbolize power and dominance in artistic depictions and societal narratives for thousands of years makes it a valid and reasonable interpretation for the artworks of this period. Additionally, the moustache detail seen in the depiction of the sun-face on the coins of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II suggests that it symbolizes a man. Therefore, it is likely that the sun-face figure symbolizes Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II or the Islamic caliph of that period mentioned just above the depiction. This interpretation is supported by the lion or lions standing just in front of the sun-face, representing the army (military power). In addition, when the radial arms of the sun in the sunface figure in the composition and the points between them are examined, 3 different types are seen. It is understood that the die of type A was used in Konya and Sivas, the die of type B was used only in Sivas, and the die of type C was used only in Konya. Therefore, the types must indicate the place of minting of the coin.The ornamentation and inscription elements in the coins that constitute our subject have 4 different arrangements. The date of minting is determined in this grouping. The 1st Type belongs to the years 634-636 AH, the 2nd Type to 638-641 AH, the 3rd Type to 641 AH, and the 4th Type to 642-644 AH. While the 1st group has a simpler arrangement, in the 2nd Type, where more than half of the coins are seen, the obverse is decorated with a lion and sun-face composition. The place of printing on the reverse causes the group to be divided into sub-groups. The years 638 AH (1240 AD) and 641 AH (1243 AD), which constitute the date range of the 2nd Type, are significant due to the occurrences of the Baba İshak Rebellion and the Battle of Köse Dağ. The 3rd Type can be considered as a transition between the 2nd and 4th Types. While the obverse repeats the 2nd Type, the reverse is a preparatory frame for the pearl-strung square frame seen in the 4th Type. The 4th Type repeats almost the same layout on the obverse and reverse. The absence of figural decoration and the increased use of religious expressions in the inscriptions on this group’s coins are noteworthy. This situation can be associated with the transition of the caliphate from Mustansır-Billâh to Musta‘sım-Billâh, and thus, the personal attitude of the new caliph.&nbsp;The coins from the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II period, which we examined within the scope of our study, are important in terms of representing continuity in Turkish art as well as constituting a distinctive group with examples featuring the lion and sun-face compositions.

Coins of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II Period in Bursa Archeology Museum

İbrahim

Prof. Dr.

Rabia

Elif

We can define figurines as three-dimensional works of art, typically representing living beings, which are crafted from easily portable materials such as baked clay, stone, wood, metal, and bone. They constitute small archeological finds, and are among the important materials of the excavated settlements. They offer valuable insights into the daily life, belief systems, and artistic expressions of prehistoric communities. They are generally designed in different types such as human beings, animal, and stylized forms of both. It is evident that the purposes behind producing figurines, which symbolize living beings, varied significantly. Figurines are human-made plastic works of art belonging to settled life, shaped by the influence of the natural environment in which people live. Both human-shaped and animal-shaped figurines reveal aspects of belief and sanctity. In particular, animal-shaped figurines are considered a reflection of the importance of animal husbandry as a primary economic activity. Accordingly, this study focuses on the typological classification of animal figurines unearthed in early Karaz culture excavations in Erzurum Province. Furthermore, it compares these figurines with contemporaneous examples from other regions and explores the social interactions of the Karaz culture communities. The Karaz culture, which flourished in Eastern Anatolia, is dated to the period between the Late Chalcolithic Age and Middle Bronze Age II (3500–1500 BCE), as evidenced by the excavations at Sos Höyük. Scientific excavations indicate that the earliest traces of Karaz culture settlements in the Eastern Anatolia Region were found in the Erzurum Province. Archeological research in this region began in the first half of the 20th century, revealing the earliest evidence of settled life. Data from key settlements, including Karaz Höyüğü, Pulur Höyüğü, Güzelova Höyüğü, and Sos Höyük, have enabled the identification of defining features of the Karaz culture, such as architecture and ceramics. The communities of the Karaz culture, often described as organized nomadic and semi-nomadic groups, sustained their livelihoods through animal husbandry and agriculture. Within these rural settlements, people produced tools and other items from various materials to meet their needs. Animal figurines are among these artifacts, offering significant insights into the economic and cultural practices of the Karaz communities.The methodology adopted in this study involved a detailed typological analysis of 20 baked clay figurines from the Karaz culture, registered in the Erzurum Archeological Museum. Photographs and technical drawings of the figurines were produced and incorporated into the study. The museum records and excavation inventory data were carefully examined to establish the dating of the figurines. A comparative analysis was conducted to identify similarities with figurines from other excavation sites, while emphasizing the general characteristics of the Karaz culture baked clay animal figurines. The figurines analyzed in this study were recovered from three key sites: two examples from Pulur, five from Güzelova, and thirteen from Sos. Excavations at Pulur, located west of Erzurum, were conducted in 1960 under the direction of Hamit Zübeyr Koşay, following an invitation by Ataturk University. The excavation team included Hermann Vary and several students from Ataturk University, who participated as assistants. During these excavations, four stratigraphic building levels associated with the Karaz culture, dating to the 4th millennium BCE, were identified. The characteristics of the third building level at Pulur were determined by the stone foundation structures and hearths. At a depth of 4.8 m from the excavation’s starting point, a stylized baked clay bird figurine was uncovered beneath a hearth associated with this level. Additionally, a bull figurine, crafted from baked clay, was discovered on the fire floor within Hearth T.Excavations at Güzelova were undertaken in 1961 and were also led by Hamit Zübeyr Koşay and Hermann Vary on behalf of Ataturk University. Among the animal figurines recovered from this site were representations of bulls, goats, birds, and other unidentified animals. A goat figurine attributed to the Karaz culture was found in the second building level. Of the two bird figurines unearthed, the first was located at a depth of 4 m during a trench excavation, while the exact context of the second specimen was not specified. Similarly, two baked clay bull figurines were recovered; the first was discovered in Pit A of the fourth building level at a depth of 6.5 m, whereas the location of the second remains undocumented. An additional unidentified terracotta animal figurine was also identified at Güzelova.Antonio Sagona of Melbourne University conducted excavations at Sos, located approximately 24 km east of Erzurum, between 1994 and 2000. Radiocarbon dating of the site identified five stratigraphic layers, spanning from the Late Chalcolithic Age to the Middle Ages. Sos yielded most animal figurines recovered during early excavations in the Erzurum region. A total of 13 baked clay animal figurines were documented, representing rams, sheep, birds, and unidentified animals. One unidentified animal figurine was discovered near the edge of the hearth fill at the southeastern end of a structure associated with the Early Bronze Age. Two additional unidentified figurines, along with a thin baked clay crucible, were recovered from the upper section of a refuse pit that cut through a wall dated to the Late Chalcolithic Age. The ram and sheep figurines exhibit features characteristic of Karaz culture artifacts. While some figurines were recovered with precise contextual information, such as their location within the mound, others were documented in the excavation inventory sheets with only trench and level details.&nbsp;An examination of the production techniques and ware characteristics revealed that the figurines were hand-shaped from baked clay, well-fired, and demonstrated high-quality craftsmanship. Their lengths range from approximately 2.8 cm to 7 cm. The figurines are predominantly brown and gray in color, with the surface textures reflecting the natural color of the clay. The surfaces of the figurines containing sand and grit additives are often mottled due to firing.&nbsp;The figurines were classified into five typological categories: bull, ram, sheep, bird, and undefined. The bull figurines share common characteristics, including horn protrusions, plump bodies, and short, thick legs that taper into triangular forms. One bull figurine from Pulur Höyüğü is depicted in a standing position with short, stubby legs and a thick tail that is partially separated from the body. Its face extends forward, and its body is short and plump. Another bull figurine from Güzelova Höyüğü features short, triangular horns that protrude upwards from the head. Although the facial details are damaged, its short, thick legs and distinct tail taper at the tip, and the body remains plump. A third bull figurine, also from Güzelova Höyüğü, has one horn that is slightly curved and extends forward but is broken at the tip, while the other horn is missing. Its short leg taper into triangular forms, and the downward-extending tail is attached to the body. The ram figurines were all recovered from Sos Höyük. The consistent and compact style of those figurines are typified and emphasized by their distinct, curved horns and short legs, which taper at the ends. Smilarly, one sheep figurine, also from Sos Höyük, draws attention with its thick (fat) tail, which serves as its most defining feature. The bird figurines consist of one example from Pulur Höyüğü, two from Güzelova Höyüğü, and one from Sos Höyük. The characteristics of these figurines were affected by their emphasized head parts, particularly the protruding beaks. In one example, the body remains plain with minimal detailing, while in another, vertical relief lines on the back of the head appear to depict feathers. This typological and comparative analysis highlights the diversity and craftsmanship of baked clay animal figurines within the Karaz culture. These artifacts not only reflect the technical skills of their creators but also provide insights into the symbolic and functional roles of animal imagery within the cultural and economic context of the Karaz communities.Figurines recovered within the Karaz culture area provide important information about the interactions and communication of different human communities that formed this culture in a wide area of spread, both within themselves and with other communities. Although there are inconclusive data regarding the stratification of the early period excavations in Pulur and Güzelova, the artifacts recovered from the Sos Höyük excavations have been both stratigraphically defined and have radiocarbon dating results. Accordingly, the 20 animal figurine samples discussed within the scope of the study are dated to the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age.The 20 animal figurines found in the Erzurum Archeological Museum show that they had an important place in the belief system of the culture. They stylized domesticated animals such as bulls, rams and sheep, as well as animals they observed in nature such as birds. Animal husbandry and agriculture constituted the main sources of income for the people of the Karaz culture, who adopted a rural life. Fertility, sustaining production and the continuity of the lineage were very important issues for the people of this culture. They must not have neglected to bless their animals, which were important to them, in their religious ceremonies. The fact that the figurines have high-quality and a mottled surface proposes the idea that they were used in religious ceremonies related to fire.It is understood from the findings in the study that domesticated animal species such as rams, sheep and bulls had an important place in the belief system in connection with animal husbandry, which was one of the livelihoods of the people of the period. It can be interpreted that animal figurines found a place in the religious worships of the Karaz people, whose livelihood was based on cattle and sheep breeding, in connection with the cult of fertility. The pitchers-depicting the face of a bird found in the temple area in the Pulur-Sakyol Höyüğü excavations are noteworthy. The bird figure is a subject that has not been addressed much in archeological studies. There is not much evidence to say what the bird image symbolized or what it meant religiously in the Karaz society. However, it is thought that the bird images used in Paleolithic Age rock painting and on Neolithic Age temple walls mostly represented the soul and were related to the renewal of life. As a result, the similarities found among the figurines recovered within the Karaz culture distribution area revealed that animal figurines had an important place in the belief system of the human communities that formed this culture and that there was cultural interaction between them.Baked clay animal figurines from the Karaz culture have not been collectively discussed in other publications. It is expected that the baked clay animal figurines from the Karaz culture, which are discussed and compared for the first time in this article, will lead to further studies.&nbsp;

Erzurum Arkeoloji Müzesinde Bulunan ve Erken Dönem Kazılardan Ele Geçen Karaz Kültürüne Ait Pişmiş Toprak Hayvan Figürinleri

In the ancient world, the tools used by people to keep their clothes on their bodies were called fibulae. The earliest examples of fibulae were produced in Southeastern Europe at the end of the Bronze Age. Fibula production spread throughout Anatolia and the Near East during the Iron Age. Fibula production increased in Anatolia during the Phrygian Kingdom Period. During the Phrygian Kingdom Period, fibulae became objects used for ornamental purposes and as an element of prestige rather than necessities. In addition to the widespread use of bronze in the production of fibula, examples are made of silver, gold, and electrons. Apart from daily use, fibulae were used as objects that tied the sacks containing ornaments, grave gifts, cult items and cremation remains. The depiction of dresses with Phrygian=style ornaments and Phrygian=style belts on the figures in the Late Hittite reliefs, in addition to the fibulae, indicates that Phrygian=style clothing became fashionable in this period.In this article, fifteen fibulae in the collection of the Hierapolis Archeology Museum are published. The artifacts came to the Museum between 1977 and 2012. The fibulae were purchased by the museum and recorded in the inventory. The fibulae are all made of bronze.Previously, E. Laflı and M. Buora, in their joint publication, provided information about the types of fibulae with catalog numbers 4, 7, and 10, which are displayed in the museum. Along with 3 artifacts for which we received scientific study and publication permission, scientific publication of twelve fibulae were realized through our work. In our study, information about the characteristics of the fibulae and the types to which they belong is given. The works of E. Caner and O.W. Muscarella were used regarding the types of fibulae.According to the mold samples recovered during the excavations, fibulae are produced by pouring the metal alloy into a pre=prepared mold. Phrygian fibulae are classified according to their body forms, body ornaments, and needle holders. Phrygian fibulae have U, D, bow and horseshoe=shaped body forms. Phrygian fibulae are distinguished from other types of fibulae by their spiral bow and needle holder with a sword handle.&nbsp;The artifacts with catalog numbers 1, 2, 4, and 8 are U=shaped fibulae. From their circular bodies, the curved artifacts with catalog numbers 3, 6, 11, 12, and 14 are fibulae with a D=shaped body. Fibulae with catalog numbers 5, 7, 10, and 15 are artifacts with a horseshoe bodied. The artifacts numbered 9 and 13 are fibulae with arc=shaped bodies. Fibulae with catalog numbers 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, and 14 are small. Considering their small size, it can be assumed that they were produced for daily use. It is noteworthy that the fibulae with catalog numbers 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, and 15 were produced in large sizes. Considering the large size of the six fibulae, it is highly probable that they were used as votive gifts.&nbsp;According to the museum inventory records, fibulae with catalog numbers 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 originate from Çivril District of Denizli Province. The fibulae with catalog numbers 2, 7 are from Işıklı Town, Çivril District, Denizli Province. Catalog numbers 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are of uncertain origin.The fibulae of the Hierapolis Archeology Museum were classified by comparing them with fibulae that were found previously. They are is classified as C II / XII, 5 with catalog number 1; fibula H II, 3 / XII, 13 with catalog number 2; fibula A IV, 4 / XII, 9 with catalog number 3; fibula H II, 2 with catalog number 4; fibula A III, I / XII, 7 with catalog number 5; fibula F, 3 / XII, 5 with catalog number 6; fibula A I, 2 / XII, 7 with catalog number 7; fibula N II, 2 / XII, 13 with catalog number 8; fibula type Theselia and The Islands with catalog number 9; fibula A I, I / XII, 7A with catalog number 10; fibula J I, I / XII, 14 with catalog number 11; fibula type L I / XII, 14 with catalog number 12; fibula type IV with catalog number 13; fibula A III, 1 / XII, 7 with catalog number 14; The fibula A I, 2 / XII, 7 with catalog number 15.The southern borders of classical Phrygia extend to the south of Lake Tatta (Salt) (Strabo, XII, VI, 4). In the southwest, it forms the borders of the Kibyratis Phrygians. The Kibyratis extends from Acıpayam (Denizli) to Tefenni (Burdur) and Söğüt Lake (Burdur).We can say that the borders of classical Phrygia and the Phrygian Kingdom are not the same. With archeological studies, the borders of the Phrygian Kingdom are better understood. Starting from the east, the upper watercourse of the Kızılırmak forms the south=eastern borders of the Phrygian Kingdom. The presence of many Late Hittite stone artifacts in the south of the eastward section of the Kızılırmak River supports the idea that Kızılırmak formed the border between the Phrygian and Late Hittite Kingdoms. In the west, in the south of Salt Lake, similar Phrygian ceramics were found in Alaaddin Hill at the provincial center of Konya. The stepped structure found on the Payallar Plateau between the mountainous parts of Hadim and Alanya are artifacts related to Phrygian beliefs, which were found in the south of Central Anatolia.&nbsp;In 2019, a stone block with hieroglyphics was found near Türkmen=Karahöyük (Konya). The inscription is dated to the second half of the 8th century BC. The Hartapuš, King of the Late Hittite Period, gives information in a hieroglyphic inscription stating that he conquered the Land of Mušku. According to the information given by Hartapuš, the borders of the Late Hittite Period expanded toward the Salt Lake. The recently published Insuyu Stele (Konya) proves that the Late Hittite dominance extended west of the Salt Lake. The Daydalı Stele found in Emirdağı, Afyon has been evaluated as an artifact produced in Phrygian lands in the past. The Daydalı Stele is likely to have been produced by the Late Hittites. During this period, the Phrygian borders seem to have narrowed from the Salt Lake and the south of Afyon toward Gordion, prompting the Phrygian peoples in the region to migrate in that direction.&nbsp;It is understood from the ruins of Çavuş Village that the southern borders of the Phrygian Kingdom extended to the north of Beyşehir Lake in the Lakes Region. A Phrygian inscription was found in Çepni (Afyon). Further south, Phrygian=style roof tiles were found to the east of Lake Yarışlı (Burdur). Because of excavations in Tumulus D (in the ending of 8th century and in the 7th century BC) in the Elmalı Plain in southwestern Anatolia, artifacts with Phrygian inscriptions were unearthed. According to the inventory records of the Hierapolis Archeology Museum, seven of the fibulae (Catalog No. 1=7) were found in Çivril District. Because of archeological surveys, Phrygian ceramics dating back to the 7th century BC were found in the mounds around Çivril. It is thought that there was a Phrygian settlement in the region during this period. The presence of the open=air sanctuary of Kybele near the ancient city of Eumeneia in Çivril reveals that Phrygian beliefs continued in the region during the post=Phrygian period. Seven Phrygian fibulae of Çivril origin were dated to the end of the 8th century BC and the 7th century BC in our study. Phrygian ceramics and fibulae found around Çivril are artifacts of the same age. The fibulae support the idea that the inhabitants of Çivril and its surroundings in the 7th century BC were Phrygians. Starting from the end of the 8th century BC, the Phrygian borders have been narrowing from the south of the Salt Lake to the direction of Gordion, while the Çivril District of Denizli has been included in the Phrygian cultural borders. There is no solid evidence to support the Phrygian migration to the northeast of Denizli around Çivril and Işıklı at the end of the 8th century BC. However, there is evidence that the region in question was included within the Phrygian cultural boundaries at the end of the 8th century BC.Thirteen of the fibulae (Catalog No. 1=8, 10=12, 14, 15) have Phrygian=style needle holders in the form of sword hilts. The sword=hilted pin holder is characteristic of the Phrygian fibulae. Catalog No. 9 and 13 have flattened needle holders. The body shape of the fibula with catalog number 13 is similar to that of the Phrygian fibulae. Catalog number 9 fibula with a flattened needle holder has disc=shaped ornaments at the ends of the curved body. Catalog number 9 resembles the Thessalian and island=type fibulae. It was evaluated that fourteen fibulae were Phrygian fibulae and one fibula was imported. The fibulae recovered in the study were dated to the 8th−7th centuries BC.Fibulae of Çivril origin may be produced for daily needs. Apart from this, they can be considered as cult objects, indicating that the open=air sanctuary of Kybele near Eumeneia was also considered to be sacred during the Phrygian Period.&nbsp;

Hierapolis Arkeoloji Müzesinden Bir Grup Demir Çağı Fibulası

Umut

The settlement, known as Spilos Magnesia or Magnesia ad Sipylum in ancient sources, was located on the slopes of Mount Spil, which rises south of today’s Manisa city center. The Topkale Slope, one of the natural slopes extending from the mountain toward the Gediz Plain, harbors the remains of the ancient settlement. Sandikkale Hill, the summit of the slope, was the acropolis of the ancient city.Until recently, Sipylos Magnesia was a city first founded in the Hellenistic Period. Recent research has proved that the history of the city on the Topkale Slope dates back to the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The most important source of this new information was the small amount of surface ceramics found on the Topkale Slope.The three pieces of cultural artifacts examined in this article reinforce the fact that there is a cultural trace of the Archaic Period in the center of Sipylos Magnesia and its immediate vicinity. One of them is a bichrome Lydian pottery with a concentric circle patterned paint decoration. It is a small sherd of a plate or a bowl and was found on the surface of the Topkale Slope.This sherd is one of the two main types of the bichrome ceramic group, which was popular in Lydia during the Archaic Period. The sherd was fired at high temperatures, has a red (2.5 YR&lt;5/6), slightly micaceous paste, and is decorated with a dark reddish brown (2.5 YR&lt;2.5/4) decoration over a reddish brown (2.5 YR&lt;4/4) slip. It is known that this material type is represented by locally produced or imported examples in a wide geography including almost all of Western Anatolia and the Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Levant and Palestine cultures except Lydia.It is possible to find stylistic and analogical similarities of the concentric circle&lt;decorated pottery both in terms of paste, slip and decoration in nearby cultures. Based on these examples, the sherd found at Topkale was produced in the 7th century BC.Two other unpublished finds that may shed light on the cultural structure of Sipylos Magnesia during the Archaic Period are a complete terracotta lekythos and two rim fragments of a terracotta sarcophagus.The Lekythos and two fragments of a terracotta sarcophagus were discovered by chance in 2008 in Topçuasım Quarter, Topçuasım Quarter, Yunusemre District, Manisa Province, located on parcel 1509, block 3 (F. 2) according to the land registry records. During the construction works carried out on the property in question, these cultural assets were excavated from the excavation section and handed over to the Manisa Museum authorities.The Lekythos was found in two pieces, broken at the neck, and was restored and made whole. The lekythos has a reddish yellow (5 YR&lt;7/8) paste fired at high temperature and is slipped in a light yellowish brown (10 YR&lt;6/4) color. There is no decoration on the surface. The rim has a mushroom&lt;shaped, concave form. The neck is cylindrical and short with a horizontal groove running around the center. After the neck, the lekythos has a broad shoulder section and the body extends in a slightly inverted "S" profile from top to bottom. It rises on a conical foot. It has a single small handle with a rounded cross&lt;section rising between the neck and shoulder.In terms of form, the find is classified as a Samian or Lydian lekythos with its conical base and broad shoulder, and is close to the examples known from the excavations in the Lydian region. This type is widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean in the mid&lt;6th century BC with examples of high&lt;quality production. The specimen analyzed here, with its simpler workmanship without any decoration, can be dated to the end of the third quarter or the fourth quarter of the same century (ca. 530&lt;510 BC). The fact that the conical base, which is frequently seen on the lydions, the original cosmetic vessel of Lydia, is also preferred on this lekythos, and other similarly shaped examples suggest that this artifact may have been produced in Lydia.

Sipylos Magnesiası’nın Arkaik Dönemi’ne Işık Tutan Birkaç Yeni Buluntu

Hüseyin

Mardin’in 30 km güneyine konumlanan Dara (Anastasiopolis) Bizans İmparatoru I. Anastisius (MS 491A518) isteği ile Sasanilere karşı doğu sınırlarını koruyan garnizon kenti olarak 503A507 yılları arasında tahkim edilmiştir. BizansASasani sınırlarının kesiştiği bir konumda olmasından dolayı güneyde MS 6. yüzyılın en önemli askerî ve siyasi merkezlerinden birisi durumuna gelmiştir. Dara’nın kurulduğu lokasyonun MS 6. yüzyıl öncesi ile ilgili arkeolojik bulgular sınırlıdır. Bununla birlikte, 2021 yılı kazı sezonunda güney batı surlarının hemen bitişiğinde bulunan bir alanda (Aba Höyük) yapılan incelemeler sonucunda Erken Tunç Çağ’a ait seramikler tespit edilmiş ve Dara’nın beş bin yıllık tarihî geçmişe sahip olduğu belgelenmiştir. Kentin kurulum aşaması I. Justinianus (MS 527A565) döneminde de devam etmiştir. Kazı buluntuları, I. Justinianus döneminde surların güçlendirilmesinin yanı sıra, kent içerisinde kamusal yapılarda düzenA lemeler yapıldığını göstermiştir. Dara’daki agora köprüsü ve çevresindeki düzenlemeler I. Justinianus’un kentteki bayındırlık faaliyetlerini I. Anastasius’tan sonra devam ettirdiğini doğrulamaktadır. Kent stratejik durumundan dolayı sürekli kuşatmalara maruz kalmış ve sık sık el değiştirmiştir. Dara (Anastasiopolis), MS 577A591 ve MS 606A620 yılları arasında Sasani hâkimiyetine girmiştir. MS 620 tarihinde tekrar Bizans’ın eline geçen Dara, yaklaşık MS 639 yıllarında Kuzey Mezopotamya’nın büyük bir bölümüne sahip olan Arapların kontrolüne geçmiştir. Uzun süre Arapların yönetimi altından varlığını sürdürmüştür. Emevi ve Abbasi Dönemleri'nden sonra Dara (Anastasiopolis), MS 12. yüzyılın ortaA larında Emir Timurtaş tarafından Mardin Artuklu Beyliği’ne bağlı bir kent hâline getirilmiştir. Kısa bir süre Eyyûbîler egemenliğinde kalan kent, bu dönemden sonra eski önemini kaybetmiş, İbn Battûta’nın aktarımlarına göre MS 14. yüzyılda küçük bir köy yerleşimine dönüşmüştür. Bugünkü Mardin ili, Artuklu ilçesi sınırları içerisindede bulunan Dara köyü yerleşiminin kökeni MS 18. yüzyılın sonlarına dayanmaktadır.Bu çalışmada ele alınan Geç Antik Çağ’a özgün bir form olan ampulla, içerisine sıvı konan minyatür matara tipi kaplara verilen genel isimdir. Ampullalarda boyuna asılması için omuzun iki yanında açılmış küçük delikler ya da sonradan gövdeye eklenmiş kulplar karakteristiktir. Pişmiş toprak örnekleri yaygın olmakla beraber, cam ve metalden yapılmış ampullalara da rastlanmaktadır. Kalıp yapımı bir ampulla üretmek için ilk önce “patris” olarak adlandırılan pişmiş toprak veya ahşap gibi başka tür malzemeden biçimlendirilmiş bir model gereklidir. Daha sonra patristen beğeniye göre üretimleri için “matris” olarak adlandırılan model kalıp oluşturulmaktadır. Seramik hamuru henüz kurumamışken bu kalıp içerisine bastırılarak şekillendirilmekte ve kurumaya bırakılmaktadır. İki ayrı kalıp içerisinden çıkarılan hamur birleştirilirmektedir. Birleşim yerleri bir alet yardımıyla düzeltilmektedir. Kulplar kalıptan çıkarıldıkA tan sonra aplike edilerek ampullalar fırınlanmaktadır. Aynı kalıp defalarca kullanıldığı için fabrikasyon üretim söz konusudur.Ampullalar Hristiyanlıkta dinî törenlerde şarap ve suyun yanı sıra hastalara ayrılan ya da vaftiz törenlerinde kullanılan kutsanmış aromatik yağları koymak için kullanılmıştır. Geç Antik Çağ en yaygın kullanıldıkları evredir. Bu dönemde hacılar tarafından kutsal yerlerden alınan hac hatıraları arasında hacı madalyonları/pulları ve hacı mataraları yaygındır. Söz konusu kaplar mucize gösteren su kaynakları ya da başta Hz. İsa olmak üzere kutsal sayılan kişilere ait mezarlarda yanan kandillerden alınan yağa temas ederek kutsal olan sıvıyı koymak için kullanılmış ve matara formlu hacı ampullaları olarak adlandırılmıştır. Kutsal topraklardan dönen hacılar yaşadıkları kentlere kutsadığı, kötülükA lerden koruduğu, şifa verdiğine inanıldığı için ampullalar içerisinde kutsal su götürmüşlerdir. Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi’nde de ampullalar bu işlevlerini devam ettirmiş olmalıdır.&nbsp;Genel olarak iki tip ampulla formu bulunmaktadır. Birincisi bu çalışmanın da konusu olan Menas ampullaları, ikincisi Anadolu ampullalarıdır. İlk tip, ikinci tipe göre daha yassıdır ve gövdesi daireseldir (lentoid). Gövdesine sonradan eklenmiş kulpları vardır. Üzerinde genellikle Aziz Menas’ın tasviri görülmektedir. İkinci tip yassı, oval formlu, kısa boyunlu ve küçük kulpludur. Üzerinde hayvan betimlemeleri, aziz figürleri, haçlar görülmektedir. Anadolu ampulA lalarının Ephesos’ta üretildiği ve dış piyasaya satıldığı düşünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte Anadolu ampullalarının üretimini tek bir merkeze bağlamanın doğru olmadığı da öngörülmektedir. Nitekim Batı Anadolu’da yapılan kazıların birçoğunda ampulla örnekleri çıkarılmaktadır.&nbsp;Ephesos, Laodikeia, Hierapolis, Knidos, Kibyra gibi Batı Anadolu’da kentlerinde ele geçen ampullalar Anadolu etkileşimli olup Anadolu ampullaları olarak isimlendirilmektedir. Oysa Dara kazılarında bulunan Aziz Menas ampulA lası doğrudan Abu Mina’daki örneklerle benzerlik sergilemektedir. Bu bağlamda Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi’nde İskenderiye yakınlarındaki Abu MinaADara bağlantısı ortaya çıkmaktadır. Dolayısıyla Dara’dan Abu Mina’daki Aziz Menas’ın kompleksini ziyaret edip bu vesile ile kutsal topraklarda hac vazifesini yapmış olan Daralı vatandaşlar tarafından ampullanın hatıra olarak alındığı söylenebilir. Diğer yandan kazı buluntusu olan ampulla, kentteki henüz ortaya çıkarılmamış bir kiliseye ait liturjik eser de olabilir.&nbsp;Dara, MS 6. yüzyılda Kuzey Mezopotamya’nın en büyük garnizon kenti olmasının yanında dinî ve siyasi bir merkezdir. Bu sebeple dinî anlam içeren Menas ampullasının kentin Abu Mina ile olan dinî bağlantısının somut bir kanıtı olduğu ileri sürülebilir. Ampullanın boyutları ve üzerindeki betimlemelerin Abu Mina’daki ampullalarda görülen ortada Aziz Menas, iki yanında diz çökmüş deve figürleriyle olan birebir benzerliği dikkati çekmektedir. Dara’daki örnekte olduğu gibi Aziz Menas’ın orans duruşu ve iki yanındaki deve figürleri Menas ampullalarında karakteristik özellik olup, yukarıda belirtilen form yapıları da standarttır.Aziz Menas, İmparator Diocletianus (MS 284A305) döneminde yaşamış Mısırlı bir Hristiyan’dır. Roma ordusunda asker olan ve zamanla rütbe alan Menas, Frigya sınırları içerisindeki Cotyaeum’da (Kütahya) İmparator Diocletianus ve Maximianus’un (MS 286A305) Hristiyanlar aleyhine verilen ceza ve emirleri dolayısıyla Hristiyan olduğunu açıklayarak ordudan ayrılmış ve tek başına bir dağda inzivaya çekilerek Tanrı’ya ibadet etmeye başlamıştır. Ancak imparator Diocletianus döneminde sürdürülen Hristiyan katliamları sonucu MS 295 yılında öldürülmüştür. Rivayete göre cesedi ilk olarak yakılmak istenmiş, uzun uğraşlar sonunda yanmadığı için gemiyle ilk olarak Mısır’a, sonrasındaysa develere yüklenerek doğduğu yer olan İskenderiye’ye götürülmek istenmiştir. Fakat develer Abu Mina denen yerde durarak diz çökmüşler ve daha fazla ilerlemek istememişlerdir. Bundan dolayı azizin cesedi develerin durduğu yere gömülmüş ve İmparator Arcadius (MS 395A408) tarafından mezarının olduğu yere bazilika, manastır, hamam ve sarnıçtan oluşan bir kompleks yaptırılarak dinî bir kimlik kazanması sağlanmıştır. Böylece Abu Mina’da yer alan bu dinî kompleks Geç Antik Çağ ve sonrasında hacı olmak üzere kutsal topraklara giden Hristiyanlarca sıklıkla ziyaret edilen önemli hac merkezlerinden biri hâline gelmiştir. Çalışma konusunu oluşturan Menas ampullaları Abu Mina’daki Aziz Menas kompleksini ziyeret eden hacıların yolculuk sonrasında buradan aldıkları kutsal su veya yağı taşımaları için yapılmıştır. Böylelikle Abu Mina’da standart bir formda üretilmiş ve üzerlerinde Aziz Menas’ın betimlerinin olduğu ampullalar ortaya çıkmıştır. Yukarıda özet olarak verilen hayat hikayesi ile bağlantılı şekilde Aziz Menas betimlemeleri için Bizans tasvir sanatında bir modelleme oluşturulmuştur. Buna göre merkezde orans duruşta Aziz Menas, iki yanında diz çökmüş develer değişmez bir kalıptır. Bunun dışında tasvire eklenen diğer sembol veya bezemelerde herhangi bir standart form aranmamaktadır.Bu çalışmada, Dara’daki Agora kazılarında ele geçen bir Menas ampulası ele alınmıştır. Daha önceki sezonlarda Dara’da gerçekleştirilen kazılarda bu tipte bir ampullaya rastlanmadığı için Dara kazı buluntusu olarak tekildir. Öte yandan 1986 yılında başlayan ve aralıklarla devam eden kazıların özellikle kentin nekropolisinde ve sarnıçlarında yoğunlaştığı dikkate alındığında buluntu olarak kayıt altına alınmaması normal karşılanabilir. Dara’da Agora ve çevresinde 2020 yılı itibarıyla başlayan sivil mimariye yönelik çalışmalarla bu sayının artacağı düşünülmektedir. Değerlendirme konusu Menas ampullası 2021 Agora kazılarında 1C100 açmasında CYNA05 kodunda dükkânların arkasındaki 6 No.lu mekânda (6M) ele geçmiştir. Çok az bir bölümü ortaya çıkarılan 6 No.lu mekânın hem batı hem de kuzey yönde devam ettiği görülmüştür. Söz konusu mekânda yapılan çalışmalarda, evrensel ölçülerle bağlaşık 555.13 m seviyesinde büyük blok taşlar kullanılarak inşa edilmiş bir zemin tespit edilmiştir. Bu zemin 554.03 m olan agora seviyesinden yaklaşık 1.10 m daha yüksektedir. Oldukça sağlam bir şekilde izlenen zemin, düzgün işlenmiş büyük boyutlu taşların birbirine bitişik hâlde dizilmesiyle oluşturulmuştur. Mekânın batı kısmında, zeminde çökme olduğu görülmüştür. Çökmenin olduğu alandaki döşeme taşlarının da yerinde olmadığı izlenmiştir. Bu taşların sonraki dönemlerde farklı yapılarda kullanılmış olması muhtemeldir. Mekânın kuzeybatısında gerçekleştirilen kazı çalışmalarında, üzerinde birkaç harften oluşan yazıtlı blok taş ve korkuluklar ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Yazıtın hemen önünde küçük bir haç sembolü ve yanında XMГ (Meryem’in Oğlu İsa) yazısı bulunmaktadır. Taşın kısa kenarına yazılmış olan bu kısaltma Hz. İsa’yı sembolize etmektedir. Gerek korkuluklar ve gerekse Hz. İsa’nın kısaltmasını sembolize eden yazıtlı taş, 6 No.lu mekân ve çevresinde dinî bir yapının olabileceğini düşündürmektedir. Antik Dönem yazarlarının eserlerinde kentte birden fazla kilise olduğu aktarımından yola çıkılarak burada bir kilise yapısından söz edilebilir. Ancak bu çıkarımın doğrulanması için daha fazla veriye gereksinim duyulmaktadır.Yaklaşık 7.3 cm çapında, 1.3 cm kalınlığında olan buluntu ampullanın kulpları ve gövdesinin üst bölümü kırık ve eksiktir. Munsell renk kataloğuna göre 6 YR 6/6 kırmızımsı sarı hamur yapısına sahiptir. Birinci sınıf kalıpla üretildiği için figür ayrıntıları oldukça belirgindir. Aziz Menas’ı konu edinen betimleme her iki yüzde kendini tekrar etmektedir. Ampullanın yuvarlak halka içine alınmış bölümünde ortada orans duruştaki Aziz Menas betimlenmiştir. Aziz Menas kısa bir tunik giymekte ve uzun pelerini arkasından sarkmaktadır. Aziz’in iki yanında diz çökmüş deve figürleri resmedilmiştir. Her ne kadar ampullanın üst bölümünde eksik bölümler olsa da benzer örnekler yardımıyla Aziz Menas’ın omuz hizasında iki yanda Malta haçının işlenmiş olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu haç sağlam olan parçalarda A yüzde sağda, B yüzde ise solda görülmektedir. Betimi çevreleyen bordürde ise nokta kabartma dizisine yer verilmiştir.Elde edilen veriler Dara Agora kazılarında ele geçen ve şu an için tekil örnek oluşturan Menas ampullasının tarihA lendirilmesi konusunda yeterlidir. Ampulla stratigrafik olarak kazılan Agoranın ilk evresi olan MS 6. yüzyıl başlarına ait tabakada değil, üst dolgu tabakasında bulunmuştur. Bir başka ifadeyle buluntu MS 7. yüzyıl tabakasında ele geçmiştir. Bu tabakada erken dönem yapılarına ilave ekler yapılmış olup mekânlarda fonksiyon değişikliği tespit edilmiştir. Dara, MS 606A620 yılları arasında Sasanilerin, MS 639 yılından sonra ise Arap hâkimiyeti altına girmiştir. MS 7. yüzyıldaki Bizans hâkimiyeti MS 620A639 arasındadır. Bu verilerden hareketle her ne kadar üretimleri MS 5A7. yüzyıllar arasında popüler olsa da Dara buluntusu bir adet Menas ampullasının üretiminin MS 620A640 arasına tarihlendirilmesi önerilmektedir.

Dara’dan (Anastasiopolis) Bir Aziz Menas Ampullası

Merve

Şerife

Anadolu toprakları, yüzyıllar boyunca birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış ve bu medeniyetler, yaşamları boyunca inşa ettikleri tarihî yapılarla Türkiye'nin kültürel zenginliğine büyük katkılarda bulunmuştur. Bu yapılar, geçmiş ve gelecek arasında bir köprü kurarak toplumsal ve sosyal hafızanın oluşumuna destek olmuş, kültürel mirasın sürekliliğini sağlamıştır. Bu bağlamda, tarihî yapıların korunması, 21. yüzyılın en önemli mimarlık sorunlarından biri haline gelmiştir. Tarihî yapıların korunması, önceden yapılmış araştırma ve analizlerin kapsamı ve derinliği ile doğrudan ilişkilidir. Detaylı analizler, korunması gereken yapıların anlaşılmasını ve doğru restorasyon müdahalelerinin yapılmasını sağlayarak, bu yapıların gelecek kuşaklara aktarılmasına katkıda bulunur. Bu nedenlerle, Kırşehir-Merkez ilçesine bağlı Taburoğlu köyü yakınlarında bulunan ve Kültür Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Müdürlüğü tarafından tescillenen Bizans Dönemi'ne ait tarihî Üç Ayak Kilisesi'nin korunması amacıyla kapsamlı mimari ve malzeme analiz çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu analizler, kilisenin özgün yapısal ve malzeme özelliklerinin detaylı bir şekilde incelenmesini sağlayarak, yapının korunması ve restorasyonu için gerekli bilgileri sunmaktadır. Bizans Dönemi'ne ait olup 11. yüzyılda inşa edildiği belirlenen Üç Ayak Kilisesi, özellikle son yıllarda hem antropojenik hem de doğal etmenler nedeniyle önemli ölçüde hasar görmüştür. Bu hasarların sonucunda, yapının bazı bölümleri tamamen yıkılmış ve yalnızca kalıntıları günümüze ulaşabilmiştir. Bu yapı, Bizans mimarisinin nadir ve özgün örneklerinden biri olarak dikkat çekmektedir. Özellikle simetrik çifte kilise planı, tamamen tuğladan inşa edilmiş olması ve yerleşim alanlarından uzak, açık bir düzlükte yer alması gibi özellikleriyle öne çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca, kilisenin hiçbir yapı kalıntısının bulunmadığı bir alanda inşa edilmesi, yapının mimari bağlamında belirsizlikler ve özgünlükler barındırmaktadır. Bu nedenle, Üç Ayak Kilisesi, Bizans mimarisinin araştırılması ve korunması açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır.Yaklaşık iki asırdır çeşitli şekillerde araştırmalara konu olan Üç Ayak Kilisesi, ilk kez 1842 yılında İngiliz seyyah W. I. Hamilton’un kitabında yer alarak bilim dünyasına tanıtılmıştır. Bu ilk referans, yapının tarihi ve kültürel önemi hakkında ilk izlenimleri sunmuş ve kilisenin bilimsel araştırmalara açılmasının kapılarını aralamıştır. Takip eden yıllarda, İngiliz araştırmacı W. Ainsworth, bu yapıyı ziyaret eden ilk kişi olarak kaydedilmiştir. Ainsworth, kısa bir tanımlama yaptıktan sonra kilisenin gravürünü çizmiş ve bu da yapının görsel belgelenmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. 1900'lerin başlarından itibaren, Üç Ayak Kilisesi, çeşitli araştırmacıların ilgisini çekmiştir. Bu dönemde, H. H. Graf Von Schweinitz, Hititolog H. H. von der Osten, R. Krautheimer, S. Curcic, Hild ve Reitle gibi isimler, yapının tarihî ve mimarî özelliklerini inceleyerek çeşitli çalışmalar yapmışlardır. Bu araştırmalar, kilisenin Bizans dönemi mimarisi ve dinî mimarisi açısından ne denli önemli olduğunu vurgulamış ve yapı hakkında çeşitli bilgiler sunmuştur. Türk sanat tarihçisi Semavi Eyice, 1968 yılında gerçekleştirdiği detaylı çalışmada, Üç Ayak Kilisesi’nin mimari yapısını ve tarihini kapsamlı bir şekilde ele almıştır. Eyice'nin bu kapsamlı araştırmaları sonucunda, kilisenin planı ayrıntılı bir şekilde ortaya konmuş ve yapı hakkında birçok önemli bilgi elde edilmiştir. Özellikle, Eyice'nin çalışmaları, kilisenin mimari özelliklerini ve tarihî bağlamını anlamada büyük bir katkı sağlamıştır. Son yıllarda da, çeşitli araştırmacılar Üç Ayak Kilisesi üzerinde detaylı incelemeler yaparak yeni ve önemli bulgular elde etmişlerdir. Bu çalışmalar, kilisenin hem Bizans mimarisi hem de dinî mimarisi açısından büyük bir öneme sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Yapının tarihi ve mimari değeri, bu tür bilimsel araştırmalar sayesinde daha iyi anlaşılmakta ve korunma çabalarına ışık tutmaktadır.Çalışmanın saha aşamasında, ilk olarak Üç Ayak Kilisesi'ne dair yapılan yerinde gözlemler ile geçmişte gerçekleştirilen araştırmalar bir araya getirilmiştir. Bu kapsamlı analizler sonucunda, kilisenin plan tipi, yapım tekniği ve kullanılan malzemeler detaylı bir şekilde belirlenmiştir. Bizans mimarisinde ikili, üçlü plan tipleri bulunmaktadır ancak bu yapılar sonradan eklenen parçalar ile ikili veya üçlü plan tipine dönüştürülmüştür. Yapımında ikiz olarak tasarlanan yapı ise bilinmemektedir. Bu bağlamda Üç Ayak Kilisesi tuğla yığma tekniğiyle oluşturulmuş türünün nadir örneğidir. Yapının çifte plan tipi ve gizli tuğla tekniği ile oluşturulduğu bilinmektedir. Apsis cephesinin çok yüzlü olduğu, narteksinin tek katlı olduğu, naos üstündeki kubbenin pandantiflerle taşındığı, cephelerdeki nişlerin ve niş içinde iç içe tasarlanmış pencerelerin varlığı tespit edilmiştir. Tuğla aralarından düşen üç farklı harçta yapılan deneyde harcın ortalama basınç dayanımı 3.6 MPa olarak tespit edilmiştir. Gözlemler, bu harcın dayanımının el ile kolayca ufalanabilecek kadar düşük olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, tuğla derzlerinde kullanılan özel derzleme harcı, dış etkilerden doğrudan koruma sağlayarak ve cephede estetik bir görünüm kazandırarak düşük dayanımlı harçların korunmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, 90 cm kalınlığındaki taşıyıcı duvarlarda tasarlanmış kemerlerin üst kısmında kalacak şekilde zeminden yaklaşık 380 cm yükseklikte çapı genelde 18 cm olan birer adet daire formlu ahşap hatıl bulunmaktadır. Boyutları yaklaşık 140x170 cm olan ayaklarda ise taşlarla oluşturulmuş 50 cm yüksekliğindeki subasman seviyesi üzerinden başlanarak yaklaşık 40 cm, 160 cm ve 300 cm yüksekliklerinde üçer adet 18x18 cm ebatlarında ahşap kare hatıl mevcuttur.Kullanılan yatay ahşap hatıllar taşıyıcı duvar narinliğini düşürmüş ve yapının depreme dayanıklılık performansını arttırmıştır. Tuğlaların yığında pişirme yöntemi ile oluşturulduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Bizans Dönemi'nde tuğla pişirmek için özel fırınların kullanıldığı bilinse de yapının yakın çevresinde buna dair herhangi bir kalıntı saptanmamıştır. Tuğlalar yığın hâlinde yakılarak da pişirilebilmektedir. Ancak yapıda kullanılan tuğlaların pişirme yöntemine dair kesin bilgi için yapı çevresinde kapsamlı kazı yapılması ve bu bilgiye dair veri sağlayacak olumlu ya da olumsuz kanıt aranması gerekmektedir. Tuğla işçiliğine bakılarak taşıyıcı duvarların Opus latericium tekniğiyle inşa edildiği saptanmıştır, ancak temelde ve bazı duvarların üzerinde kesme taşlar da bulunduğu için yapının genelinde hibrit yapıyı karakterize eden Opus mixtum tekniği kullanıldığı düşünülmektedir.&nbsp;Çalışmanın deneysel aşamasında, Üç Ayak Kilisesi'nden alınan harç ve tuğla numuneleri üzerinde detaylı karakterizasyon çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu süreçte, harç ve tuğla örneklerinde malzeme özelliklerini belirlemek için çeşitli analiz yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Özellikle, harç örneklerinde X-Işını Kırınımı (XRD) yöntemi kullanılarak malzemenin mineral bileşenleri ve kristal yapısı hakkında kapsamlı veriler elde edilmiştir. Ayrıca, tuğla örneklerinde X-Işını Floresansı (XRF) yöntemi uygulanmış ve tuğlanın kimyasal bileşimi hakkında bilgi toplanmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, Taramalı Elektron Mikroskobu Enerji Dağılım Spektroskopisi (SEM-EDS) tekniği ile tuğlaların mikro yapısı ve elementel kompozisyonu detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Bu analizler, malzemelerin fiziksel ve kimyasal özelliklerine dair kapsamlı veriler sağlamış ve yapı malzemelerinin karakterizasyonunu derinleştirmiştir. Sonuç olarak, elde edilen bu veriler, hem yapının mevcut durumunun anlaşılmasına hem de gelecekteki restorasyon ve korunma stratejilerinin belirlenmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. Tuğla ve harçta yapılan malzeme karakterizasyonu ile çoğunlukla alümino silikat mineralleri olmak üzere tuğlada koesit, hematit ve kalsit gibi mineraller de görülmüştür. Tuğlada yapılan ve XRF ile elde edilen oksit oranları da bu sonucu destekler niteliktedir. Harçta yapılan XRD deneyinde belirlenen mika ve bazı alümino silikat türleri harç içindeki kilin belirtisidir. Yoğun görülen kalsiyum pikleri ise kirecin göstergesidir. Buna göre harcın kireç harcı olduğu saptanmıştır. Ayrıca kil içeren XRD deseninde C-S-H piki görülse de bu pik çok zayıf olduğu için harcın hidrolik özelliğinin olmadığı düşünülmektedir. Harcın düşük basınç dayanımı (3.6 MPa) da harcın hidrolik olmadığı yönünde veri sağlamaktadır. Ancak harcın hidrolik olup olmadığını belirlemek için XRD ve basınç dayanımı deneyi tek başına yeterli değildir. Harcın niteliğine dair daha net sonuç elde etmek için Termogravimetrik ve Diferansiyel Termal (DTA-TG) analiz yapılması önerilmektedir. Tuğladaki mineral oluşum ve yok olma sıcaklıkları incelendiğinde, tuğlanın pişirilme sıcaklığının yaklaşık olarak 850-900 °C arasında olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu tespit, yapılan deneysel analizler ve elde edilen verilerle sınırlı kalmıştır. Tuğlanın pişirilme sıcaklığı hakkında daha kesin ve ayrıntılı bilgi elde etmek için Diferansiyel Termal Analiz (DTA) ve Termogravimetrik Analiz (TG) yöntemlerinin uygulanması önerilmektedir. Bu analizler, malzemenin termal özelliklerini daha hassas bir şekilde belirlemeye olanak tanır ve tuğlanın üretim süreci hakkında daha detaylı veriler sağlayabilir. DTA-TG analizleri, tuğlanın pişirilme sıcaklığının yanı sıra, pişirme sırasında meydana gelen kimyasal ve fiziksel değişimleri de ortaya koyarak, malzemenin karakterizasyonunu daha derinlemesine anlamamıza yardımcı olabilir. Bu tür kapsamlı analizler, restorasyon ve koruma süreçlerinde gerekli olan bilgilerin elde edilmesini destekleyecektir.Tuğlada yapılan SEM-EDS (Taramalı Elektron Mikroskobu Enerji Dağılım Spektroskopisi) analizi, malzemenin mikro yapısına dair önemli bulgular sunmuştur. Bu analiz sonucunda, tuğlanın içinde camsı bir yapı görülmemiş olup, heterojen bir mikro yapı ile karşılaşılmıştır. Bu durum, tuğlanın pişirilme derecesi aralığını belirlemek amacıyla yapılan XRD (X-Işını Kırınımı) analizleriyle tespit edilen pişirme sıcaklıklarıyla uyumlu olduğunu doğrulamıştır. SEMEDS analizi ayrıca, tuğlanın rengini veren demir (Fe) elementlerinin varlığını da teyit etmiştir. Kuvars 1050°C sıcaklıkta eridiği için 850-900°C’de pişirildiği tespit edilen tuğlanın iç yapısı heterojen kalmış, erime neticesinde oluşan camsı kristal bir iç yapı gözlemlenmemiştir. Daha geniş malzeme alanına dair veri elde edilmesi için mikroskobik inceleme de yapılabilir çünkü SEM_EDS analizi malzemenin çok kısıtlı bir alanında gerçekleştirilmektedir. Tuğla numunelerde gerçekleştirilen basınç deneyi neticesinde tuğlanın ortalama basınç dayanımı 9.8 MPa olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu özellikler ile malzemelerin mekanik ve fiziksel özelliklerinin açığa çıkarılması ve dayanıklılık deneylerinin yapılması bu verileri daha da kuvvetlendirecektir. Herhangi bir onarım veya restorasyon durumunda malzemelerin tespit edilen bu özellikleri yeni malzeme önerisi geliştirmeyi kolaylaştırıcı bir altyapı sunmaktadır. Mevcut durumda hasar oranı oldukça ileri seviyeye ulaşmış olan Üç Ayak Kilisesi gibi tarihî yapıların korunması ve muhafaza edilmesi, kültürel mirasın sürekliliği açısından hayati bir önem taşımaktadır. Bu yapılar, sadece kültürel ve tarihî değerlerinden dolayı değil, aynı zamanda yapıldıkları dönemin mimari ve teknolojik bilgilerini yansıttıkları için de korunmalıdır. Bizans dönemine ait bu tür yapıların korunması, sadece geçmişin izlerini korumakla kalmaz, aynı zamanda medeniyetimizin teknoloji ve sanat alanındaki gelişimlerini de belgeleyerek geleceğe aktarır. Dolayısıyla, bu tür tarihî yapıların korunması, medeniyetimizin kıymetli mirasını gelecekteki nesillere güvenilir ve sağlam bir şekilde ulaştırmak için vazgeçilmez bir yoldur. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışma aracılığıyla Üç Ayak Kilisesi ve benzeri tarihî yapıların korunmasına yönelik önemli veriler elde edilmiştir. Bu veriler hem mevcut yapıların korunmasını hem de insanlığın ortak mirasına katkıda bulunacak şekilde gelecekte benzer yapıların ayakta kalmasını sağlamaya yönelik bilimsel ve pratik yaklaşımları destekleyecektir

Bizans Dönemine Ait Tuğla Yığma Kilisenin Mimari İncelemesi ve Malzeme Karakterizasyonu: Üç Ayak Kilisesi Örneği

İsmail

Bracelets, which have an important place among ornaments or jewelry used since the Neolithic period, provide important information about the social, economic, artistic and cultural ties of the societies in the geography where they are found. Glass bracelets, which emerged approximately a thousand years after the discovery of glass in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC, can vary in design and color in many regions in different periods. During excavations in Anatolia, many glass bracelets from the Roman and Byzantine periods were found. Data from the Islamic period -especially from the Middle Ages- have only recently begun to be shared. Archeological excavations in Anatolia have always yielded various fragments showing the use of qualities of glass. When the glass products unearthed in the excavations are evaluated from past to present, they reveal the development of glass production techniques. Thanks to the excavations carried out in Harran, a critical settlement center in the Southeastern Anatolia Region, rich finds from the Islamic period are being unearthed every day. Harran has been home to many civilizations with a history dating back to 6000 BC and experienced its most powerful period in terms of religion, trade, culture, art and science during the Seljuk-Ayyubid period in the Middle Ages. In addition to the impressive architectural structures and numerous ceramic artifacts unearthed during excavations in the city, glass bracelets were recovered. Although there are several studies on architectural artifacts and ceramics, no study has yet been conducted on glass artifacts and glass bracelets. For this reason, a preliminary evaluation of the glass bracelets recovered between 2013 and 2023 belonging to the Harran Excavations conducted under the direction of Prof. Dr. Mehmet Önal was made in this study. These artifacts, which will be introduced to the scientific world for the first time by us and will contribute to the research on Seljuk-Ayyubid period glass art, are examined according to their production technique, color, size and ornamentation. By making comparisons with the glass bracelets found in the excavations of the Middle Ages, the period and its place in the period were tried to be determined, thus a new study that will help to understand Harran in particular or the cultures with which it interacted has emerged.&nbsp;Sumerian, Akkadian, Old Assyrian, Hurri, Mitanni, Hittite, Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, Median, Hellenic, Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Hamdanid, Fatimid, Numeyrid, Seljuk, Zengid, Crusaders and Ayyubids lived in and around Harran. Harran experienced its heyday during the Zengid and Ayyubid periods, was abandoned after the Mongol invasions between 1260 and 1272, came under the rule of the Mamluks in the first half of the 14th century and joined the Ottoman Empire in 1516.Harran remained under the rule of the Seljuks for about 40 years. In 1081, Sharaf al-Dawla Muslim bin Quraysh, an ally of the Seljuks, captured Harran and appointed Yahya bin al-Shatir as its governor. The city changed hands frequently in the hands of the Seljuks from 1086 until the Seljuk Sultan Mahmud appointed Imad al-Din Zengi as atabek of Mosul, Harran and Aleppo.&nbsp;Harran excavations yielded rich finds from various periods, especially from the Middle Ages. Among these finds, glass artifacts have a very important place. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Önal, the Head of the Archaeology Department at Harran University and the Director of the Harran Excavations, led the 2013-2023 Harran excavations, which were funded by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, and the Turkish Historical Society. During these years, excavations were carried out in the bazaar area to the east of the Great Mosque of Harran and in the Inner Castle of Harran. The bracelets analyzed were recovered from these two different excavation sites. No study has yet been conducted on the glass artifacts found in Harran. In this unique study, glass bracelets, the most qualified group of glass artifacts found in Harran, were examined. Information on the use of glass bracelets was obtained, the forms and decorations of the bracelets were classified, they were identified according to their colors and decorations, and they were dated according to the layers in which they were found and similar examples.The glass bracelets found at Harran were produced in both attached and unattached techniques. Although the bracelets found during the excavations at Harran 2013-2023 were generally found as broken pieces, they present different typologies. They are divided into different sub-groups according to their cross-sectional and ornamental features. The examples are mostly circular, rectangular, triangular, and square. While the forms of the bracelets were created, their ornamentation was also completed.The sections are mostly circular, square, triangular, and rectangular, shaped according to the construction technique. While these forms were being created, some examples were decorated at the same time. Bracelets with circular cross-sections appear as twisted bracelets with frequent or infrequent twisting, spiral thread wrapping, and plain undecorated bracelets. Most of the bracelets with square cross-sections are decorated with drops or dots in the appliqué technique. Triangular and rectangular bracelets have colored ornaments in the etching technique.The glass bracelets found in the Harran excavations were evaluated in different sub-groups in terms of their ornamental features as normal spiral-wrapped or twisted bracelets, spiral and parallel thread-wrapped bracelets, bracelets decorated with appliqué technique and bracelets with incised technique. The colors used in the spiral twisted bracelets are opaque black, shades of blue and green, and fuchsia. In spiral thread-wrapped bracelets, red, yellow, and blue colors predominate among the thread colors used on black. The bracelets in the feed and applique techniques are quite colorful. In the appliqué bracelets, appliqués surround the bracelets at certain intervals in the form of tiny drops. In some examples, the drops are the same color as the bracelet itself, while in others they are in a different shade. The most striking example is a bracelet with an evil eye bead decoration. On the bracelet, which is designed in yellow and red colors, tiny blue droplets are placed inside the white drops to give the appearance of an evil eye bead. Bracelets with blue drops on black, red drops on green and yellow drops on blue were also found. The colors of red, yellow, black, green, green and brown were predominantly used on the bracelets in the feeding technique. Among the colors used on the glass bracelets, i.e., the colors fed, yellow is dominant. The applied motifs generally consist of horizontal, diagonal stripes or irregular linear and point decorations.The spiral twisted bracelets in Harran are similar to the monochrome twisted bracelets in Amorium, Demre St. Nicholas, Mersin Yumuktepe Mound, Kuşadası Kadıkalesi samples, Beyşehir Kubad-Abad Palace samples, Samsat, Ani, Gevale Castle, Bergama, Kocaeli and Mardin Museums. Parallel fiber or thread-wrapped bracelets are in interaction with the examples from the Samsat and Ani excavations. Similar ones are located in Elazığ Museum. Examples of bracelets in which small glass bumps in the form of drops are applied to the surface in a single row are a bracelet in the Erzurum Museum and examples of El-Kadim, Tel Dan, El-Şir. These also interact with the Syrian and Egyptian examples. Similar bracelets in the impregnation technique can be found in Tel Dan, the Metropolitan Museum and the Erzurum Museum.Strong signs of a temporary glass workshop were also encountered in Harran, which is one of the most important excavations of the Seljuk-Ayyubid Period archeology in Anatolia. Because of the examination and research on glass artifacts, bracelets thought to be manufacturing errors and glass slags found in Harran Inner Castle were found. These are important clues that glass production was made in Harran. Additionally, a large number of glass artifacts unearthed in a shop in the Eastern Bazaar of the Harran Ulu Mosque and a building space related to glass found in the Harran Mound indicate that glass production may have been possible in Harran. During the research conducted in Harran, some data about glass finds were first obtained in 2014 from the bazaar area to the east of the Harran Ulu Mosque. In this area, a space with a stone floor was unearthed in the trench designated as 7h\e2. A brick-paved platform with a height of 0.50 m above the ground was encountered in the west of the place, and glass goblet fragments were found extensively in this part. This place, located in the bazaar area, can be considered a shop where glass works are sold, considering its plan and function.During the studies carried out in the Harran Höyük 8f-e5 East Trench in 2015, two cooking-related structures were unearthed. Among these buildings, the building called Cooking Area No. 2 is made of brick and has a barrel-vaulted upper cover and a triangular opening. It was observed that there was a channel at the front of the building. Assuming that the function of this channel is the area where the glass melting shovel is left to cool, this structure could be a glass furnace. Finally, during the Harran Inner Castle excavations carried out in 2023, glass bracelets and glass slags, which were understood to be production errors, were found in hall number 4 on the 2nd floor of the castle and in the vaulted room number 4. Additionally, many glass bracelet fragments were recovered from these areas.Fifty percent of the glass bracelets from Harran were unearthed during the excavations at the Harran citadel-palace. Most of these are fragments of colored and decorated glass bracelets. In this context, especially elaborately designed bracelets appealed to a higher economic level of society. The bracelet fragments recovered from the Great Mosque of Harran are simpler. These are also indicative of the economy of the local population living outside the castle. The Harran glass bracelet finds can be dated to the 12th-13th century based on stratigraphic data and comparisons with similar examples. This conclusion can also be reached by dating the other artifacts found in the layers where the glass bracelets were found, namely terracotta artifacts, coins, metallic artifacts and inscriptions. Although it is not yet clear whether the use of glass bracelets continued in the city after the Seljuk rule of Harran in the 12th century, it is quite possible that glass bracelets were produced in Harran, the most important settlement of the plain, considering the production data. Nevertheless, further research based on chemical analysis should be conducted to determine the geographical distribution and dating of the glass bracelets. Thus, the glass bracelet recovered during the excavations can be analyzed in more detail.&nbsp;

Harran Kazılarında Bulunan Cam Bilezikler (2013-2023)

Gökçen

Emre

Nurdan

The 1964 Venice Charter emphasized the importance of preserving cultural heritage in its historical context, underlining the need for continuous conservation in urban and rural areas. Conservation efforts preserve cultural assets for future generations and to use the knowledge accumulated over time. In rural areas, traditional architectural solutions reflect socio-cultural values, adapt to environmental factors such as climate and topography, and offer sustainable methods. The conservation of rural settlements and traditional building techniques has become a field of study for national and international researchers since the second half of the 20th century. Rural heritage, representing tangible and intangible cultural heritage, faces significant threats such as vandalism, abandonment, neglect, and loss of traditional handicrafts. This study describes the conservation problems of the architectural heritage, especially the mosques of the Principalities period, located in the rural areas of the Kastamonu Central district.&nbsp;When the traces of architectural heritage in rural Kastamonu are followed, it is seen that the traces of Turkish architecture date back to the 13th century. The first Turkish raids to the region started in 1081, and Kastamonu was annexed to Turkish lands in 1212 by Emir Hüsamettin Çoban Bey, one of the emirs of the Seljuk State. When the foundation records are examined, early architectural works belonging to the Çobanoğlu Principality can be seen in the rural areas. One of these structures is the Sheikh Ahmet Mosque, built in Gölköy Village. Another architectural heritage is the Akça-su Mosque, built in Şeyh Village.&nbsp;Çobanoğlu Principality ruled in the region for 97 years. With the Kösedağ War (1248), the Mongol influence in Anatolia and the political problems in the Anatolian Seljuk State enabled the establishment of the Candaroğlu Principality in the region in 1309. Candaroğulları also served as an end principality. The first known structure built by Candaroğulları in the countryside is the Halil Bey Mosque in Duruçay Village, built in 1363. In 1366, the Mahmut Bey Mosque was built in Kasaba Village, which is thought to have been used as the settlement of the Candaroğlu dynasty. With its construction technique and ornaments, this mosque is a cultural asset of high original value in the Kastamonu region.The study carried out archival research and field studies for the four important mosques mentioned. Within the scope of archival research, the records of the Kastamonu Regional Directorate of Foundations, district mufti registry books, and Ottoman state archives were analyzed. Field studies included an inventory of the mosques, measurements, photographic records, and user interviews.&nbsp;The Şeyh Ahmet Mosque in Gölköy is a rectangular building with stone walls. Its original elements include a mihrab, a wooden ceiling, and a porticoed entrance. Over time, cement plaster and modern interventions have altered the original structure. Conservation issues include damp damage and inappropriate modern additions. The historical significance of the mosque derives from its continuous use as a social and religious center. However, inappropriate interventions have affected its structural integrity and historical authenticity.The Akça-su Mosque in Sheikh Village dates back to the 13th century. It has a similar rectangular plan with stone walls and wooden elements. The original minaret was destroyed in an earthquake and was rebuilt using modern techniques and materials. The mosque’s importance stems from its use as a social center serving the surrounding villages during the Ottoman period. Modern interventions such as cement plaster and the replacement of original wooden elements with contemporary materials have created significant conservation challenges.&nbsp;The Halil Bey Mosque in Duruçay Village uses materials from early architectural works. The unique elements include an ornate wooden ceiling and reused Byzantine columns. Conservation strategies should prioritize the preservation of these unique historical features. The architectural significance of the mosque derives from its innovative use of different architectural traditions. However, environmental factors and inadequate maintenance have deteriorated these unique features and require urgent and careful conservation work.The Mahmut Bey Mosque, located in Kasaba Village, is famous for its wooden structure and detailed painted decorations. In 2023, it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under the title ‘Medieval Wooden Hypostyle Mosques of Anatolia’ together with the Great Mosque of Afyonkarahisar, the Arslanhane Mosque, the Sivrihisar Great Mosque and Eşrefoğlu Mosque. The detailed wooden architecture and ornamental elements represent the pinnacle of Beylik period craftsmanship. The rapid deterioration caused by visitor activities and environmental control requires a balanced conservation approach that includes managing touristic activities and environmental impacts.This study analyzed four mosques associated with the Beylik period by observation. With the information obtained from archive records and oral interviews with the users, the interventions that the buildings have undergone were determined. The deterioration of the buildings was identified through observation, and the causes of the deterioration were discussed. The factors that cause deterioration in historical buildings are divided into environmental (natural) and human-induced. Causes that may arise from the initial construction of the building are excluded because they also affect the architectural values of the buildings. Environmental factors are categorized as disasters, sun exposure, rain and wind erosion, vegetation, fungal and insect growth, and ground conditions, while artificial factors are categorized as abandonment, vandalism, and faulty repair.Surface losses due to rain and wind erosion were observed in the buildings. The spolia column capitals used in the last prayer hall of the Halil Bey Mosque in Duruçay Village have abrasion and fragment loss due to wind erosion. Since wood materials have an organic structure, they are exposed to insects and decay in case of insufficient drying during the construction phase or wear of the protective layer applied over time. The Mahmut Bey Mosque’s interior structure is made using the wooden interlocking technique. It was determined that the wooden materials of the mosque had blow holes and were exposed to dry rot due to fungus. The ground conditions on which the buildings are built caused some deterioration in the structure. For example, in the Duruçay Village Halil Bey Mosque, dampness was formed on the wall surfaces due to moisture from the ground. Another factor that causes deterioration in buildings is wrong interventions and faulty repairs. The continuity of use of the architectural heritage is important for the preservation of the building. Historical buildings face various risks, and as a result, deterioration and destruction occur. The unconscious application of relatively new materials and techniques, such as intervention with RC construction techniques, cement-based mortars, and replacing window openings with PVC material, damages the original values of mosques.In addition to the geography of rural Kastamonu, the dominance of the continental climate in the interior, transportation difficulties, and the changing understanding of comfort are among the factors that cause the emptying of village settlements. Another factor is the changes in agriculture and animal husbandry policies after 1980. For this reason, the loss of the productive village identity led to the dehumanization of villages that already consisted of a few households. The decrease in the number of households in the villages also affects the number of congregations. According to the information from the oral interviews, the Akça-su mosque in Şeyh Village also faces this risk. The fact that the Imam hatib of the Akça-su Mosque is still on duty offers a solution to prevent the abandonment of the building.Except for the Mahmut Bey Mosque, additional buildings were constructed for each mosque over time. This has resulted in new openings in the original body wall or existing openings' closures. Adapting historical buildings to today’s contemporary conditions and expanding them with additional structures is possible. However, in the mosques examined, some decisions were made that may harm the original condition of the building, and this situation affected the architectural and documentary values of the mosques. The intervention in the last prayer hall of the Halil Bey Mosque exemplifies this situation. For reasons such as ease of use and wind blocking, the PVC material with a wooden appearance was covered between the fluted columns with Corinthian capitals, and the perceptibility of the last prayer hall was reduced.Except for the Mahmut Bey Mosque, the other buildings were plastered with cement-based finishing. This method of intervention, which was carried out to prevent mortar discharge between the stones due to environmental influences, damages the natural structure of the stone and reduces its strength. Within the building, it is observed that the wooden materials are painted to protect them against insects and decay. This causes the loss of the decorations on the pediments of the cloisters and ceiling cores. Other external factors to which mosque buildings are exposed are deterioration due to material wear during historical processes, atmospheric events, and natural disasters. When these risk factors occur, it is necessary to develop the appropriate intervention methods within the framework of expert opinion. However, the benefactor who built the Akça-su Mosque, whose body wall collapsed due to an earthquake in the first half of the 20th century, had the minaret built similar to a minaret from the Hejaz region. In this way, even a minaret added later affects the authenticity of the mosque.Intervention and expert opinion in the conservation approach are important for the protection of buildings with original architectural value under registration. The buildings should be documented and evaluated in the context of their architectural history. However, this process alone does not offer a solution to a holistic conservation approach. Users need to be made aware of the protection of cultural assets and the values of the architectural heritage.The four mosques analyzed were used as divan/Friday mosques serving several villages and forming a common social and cultural space during the Ottoman period.These mosques have architectural, historical, documentary, spiritual, religious and esthetic&nbsp;value. All these values need to be transferred to the future. When conservation problems are evaluated, the main problems that cultural assets are exposed to can be listed as follows: Not having a holistic conservation plan, being exposed to environmental and human-induced deterioration, and unconscious intervention methods. In a holistic conservation approach, raising the conservation awareness of the local administration, the employees responsible for the mosque, and the village community is an important factor. Imams in charge of the mosque and villagers should be aware of their cultural heritage.To protect the rural architectural heritage, stakeholders such as state institutions, local administrations, non-governmental organizations, experts in the field, and professional chambers, especially local people, should come together during the project and create a participatory conservation approach. In areas where intangible architectural heritage needs to be protected, the ability of local governments and state institutions to reach out to communities, groups, and individuals and their experience in conducting joint activities with non-governmental organizations is important for cultural heritage conservation. Therefore, stakeholders responsible for conserving these mosques should develop a holistic approach to conserving the tangible and intangible cultural heritage with professional associations, civil society organizations, users, and local communities. To this end, official institutions in the hierarchy, starting from the level of ministries to village representatives, should play an active role in inventory, documentation, and archive work, as well as in the use of tools such as education, awareness raising, press, and social media.Mosques can be intervened with modern equipment against physical environmental conditions. Structural (reinforcement, ventilation, heating, lighting, etc.) evaluations should be made for these divan mosques with high architectural and historical value. Comprehensive analyses should be conducted for such interventions. For example, in interviews with the congregation of the Mahmut Bey Mosque in Kasaba Village, it was stated that the Friday and Eid prayers are performed collectively with the people living in the villages connected to the divan in the spring and summer months within the scope of the divan tradition. However, it was stated that the heating problem could not be solved in the winter months because the mosque had not intervened. It is important to prepare a comprehensive guide for the protection planning of the mosque where there is a fire risk.

Kastamonu Beylikler Dönemi Kırsal Camilerinin Mimari Koruma Bağlamında İncelenmesi

Murat

Tuba

Pınar

The Seljuk period represents a rich and deep-rooted historical process in which important examples of the TurkishIslamic architectural style are given. Residences and public buildings such as caravanserais, inns, baths and mosques, which are the products of this process, contain very diverse and unique qualities in terms of their architectural qualities and decoration elements. These qualities have been studied by many researchers from different disciplines for many years; Some of these qualities have inspired today’s designs. The Seljuk period holds an important place in the history of Turkish architecture. The architecture of the Seljuk period attracts attention with its unique design and esthetic approach. The Malatya Grand Mosque is one of the unique works of the Seljuk State in Anatolia in terms of its applied plan scheme, technical features, materials and ornaments.The Malatya Grand Mosque is a historical building that should be protected as a cultural heritage and transferred to the future with all its original qualities. In this sense, according to the regulation published by ICOMOS in 2003 and containing regulations on the documentation of architectural heritage, it should be treated both as a historical document and as a work of art. According to the Turkish Architectural Heritage Protection Declaration put forward by ICOMOS in 2013, it is essential to preserve the originality of the building in all its dimensions in the interventions to be made for the protection of historical buildings in our country. It is of great importance to examine the decorations, which contribute significantly to the originality of the Malatya Grand Mosque, in depth and to transfer them to the future accordinglyThe Malatya Grand Mosque is located in Meydanbaşı District of the Battalgazi district, 8 kilometers north of the city center. The structure covers a quadrangular area of 33x50 meters, centered on the Malatya city walls. The Malatya Grand Mosque has a shape that reflects the characteristics of the Seljuk period, with its rectangular shape in terms of plan features, a dome in front of the mihrab, four swans and a courtyard with porticoes in the east-west directions. In the Malatya Grand Mosque, stone and brick were used as building materials. The facade character of the building, which has three doors in the east, west and south directions, carries the characteristics of the period to the present day. Tile mosaics with different geometric patterns are embroidered on the facades. The use of various colors for different motifs attracts attention. In addition, the tile decorations in the courtyard of the building represent the decoration features of the Seljuk period. Decorations in the building; It reflects the characteristics of the period in a cultural, social and artistic context.The Great Mosque of Malatya, a prominent example of a Seljuk-era mosque that has survived to the present day, occupies a significant place in the cultural memory of the city due to its architectural characteristics and decorative elements. The transmission of this memory to future generations, its preservation in all its aspects, and its detailed documentation hold significant importance both in terms of the structure itself and in the context of the city and region. In particular, the presence of decorative elements in various forms across different parts of the structure reflects the fundamental characteristics of the Seljuk ornamentation and decorative traditions. Over the course of history, the mosque has been subjected to multifaceted academic studies by numerous researchers. However, the earthquakes of 2020 in Elazığ and 2023 in Kahramanmaraş have underscored the urgent need for comprehensive conservation efforts. A critical component of these efforts is the detailed analysis of the decorative elements distributed across different sections of the structure. Within this framework, a thorough investigation of these features and the subsequent evaluations will provide substantial contributions to the planned conservation initiatives.The aim of the study is that ornaments and decorations that reflect thousands of years of culture of people and societies appear as an important architectural element in shaping, diversifying and enriching the spaces and facades of buildings. In this context, analyzing the current state of ornamentation and decorative elements, which represent significant and unique details of architectural heritage, identifying their identity and artistic qualities, and ensuring their holistic transmission to future generations are among the primary objectives. This study aims to numerically reveal the fractal dimension values by analyzing the facade and interior decorations of the Malatya Grand Mosque, an important structure of the Seljuk period, using the fractal analysis method. Thus, we aimed to numerically compare the similarities and differences of these decorations, which bear the traces of the period and enrich the interior and facade structure of the building, by grouping them within themselves. In line with this study, the aim is to draw attention to the importance of a more holistic conservation by increasing awareness about the harmony and balance in the ornaments and decorations of historical buildings shaped according to the socio-cultural and physical norms of the period.Within the scope of the study, the tile and stone decorations in the Malatya Grand Mosque were discussed. The decorations were examined in terms of geometric qualities and evaluated accordingly by the morphological analysis method. In the study, the quantitative analysis method was used to obtain and evaluate data. The ornaments were examined in terms of their geometric qualities and handled with the “Fractal Analysis” method, which allows evaluation in terms of morphological qualities.In 1976, the Polish mathematician Mandelbrot derived the concept of a fractal from the Latin word “fraktus.” This concept means “fragmented, fractured.” A fractal can be defined as a scale-independent repetition of a given module. The fractal analysis method has found the opportunity to be used in the field of architecture as well as in many other fields. Fractal analysis is expressed as the visual richness created by repetition, self-similarity and characteristic forms in harmony. With the fractal analysis method, the visual complexity values of the architectural objects are calculated and interpreted.The fractal analysis method facilitates the understanding of the physical structure as well as the form. It is possible to observe fractal geometry in nature and artificially in many areas of the life cycle of living things. A fractal is formed by repeating the same module from unit to whole. It is contiguous from the smallest unit to the entire form, and differences can be seen in the fractal dimension values depending on the geometric structure of the form. Fractals reveal the existence of order in all situations containing “randomness.” The Fraclac plug-in of the fractal analysis Image-J program was used to calculate the fractal geometry values of the facades of the buildings evaluated within the scope of the study.The fractal dimension value varies between 1 and 2. A value approaching 1 indicates low visual complexity, and a value approaching 2 indicates high visual complexity. The fractal dimension values provide information about the visual complexity levels of architectural objects. It is possible to make comparisons with similarities and differences.Considering that there was a certain order and harmony in the plans, facades and decorations in the Seljuk period buildings; The morphological differences and densities seen in the crown door and interior decorations of the examined building are important data that should be taken into consideration in the context of conservation. In this sense, the fractal compositions of the decoration elements on a microscale and within themselves should be considered when protecting these elements and conservation practices should be developed accordingly. As a result, the study aims to provide a resource for similar research with the fractal analysis data obtained and to emphasize the importance of these analyses in terms of conservation.The intense fractal values of the crown doors require special study in the context of the conservation of the ornamental elements at these points. In this context, these artistic elements can be described as both historical documents and complex-shaped works of art according to the relevant regulations; According to its geometric analysis, it would be appropriate to examine it meticulously by architectural and art historians, conservation and materials experts, and to develop multidisciplinary conservation practices. The relatively simple ornaments and embellishments on the facade moldings are at least as important as the elements with an intense fractal value on the crown gates. In this context, it is important to preserve the simplicity of the moldings on the facade and transfer it to the future.&nbsp;In general, it can be stated that floral motifs with close fractal values and geometric interlockings and motifs are also well represented among the decorations in the building. Conservation efforts should be carried out in a balanced and sustainable manner, considering this harmony.Because of the study, the forms found in the decorations on the east and west crown gates, mihrab and courtyard of the Malatya Grand Mosque were classified under four separate headings. According to this classification, each decoration was examined morphologically on a microscale using the fractal analysis method. Accordingly, the results obtained show that the fractal values of the muqarnas on the crown gates are higher than those of the other decoration elements. These are followed by geometric interlaces and motifs, and vegetal motifs and moldings respectively. The fractal values of these three elements are very close to each other. These data show that the muqarnas on the crown gate have a more complex geometry than the other decoration elements.

Malatya Ulu Camii Bezemelerinin Morfolojik Analiz Yöntemiyle Değerlendirilmesi

Gülçin

Fatih

The term "Medrese" originates from Arabic and signifies "to read, comprehend, learn a text, and repetitively recite it for memorization." In Islamic nations, it denotes a structure characterized by its unique architecture, typically constructed around a spacious courtyard, either open or enclosed, where disciplines consistent with Islamic religious doctrines are taught, alongside accommodations for students’ residency and study. Madrasahs were first established in the 9th and 10th centuries. Some sources accept that the madrasahs started with "Suffe", which is a section of the Masjid9i Nabawi. The Masjid al9Nabawi is a mosque established under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad. This masjid consists of 3 sections: The section where the Prophet Muhammad and his family stayed, the worship area, and the place where students stayed and received education. The first truly established madrasah was founded in the 11th century in Nisabur, Iran. The first madrasah established in Anatolia was the Yağıbasan Madrasah, founded by the Danishmendids in Niksar, Tokat, where medicine was taught. The most comprehensive madrasah, which is an example for the later ones, is the Nizamiye Madrasah built during the Seljuk period. It was built by Nizamü'l9Mülk in Baghdad in 1057. Nizamiye Madrasah is considered to be the first and real university of Islam in terms of providing free education, scholarships to students, providing accommodation and meeting the social needs of students. When we look at the reasons for establishing madrasahs, many opinions are put forward. The difficulty of conducting worship and education at the same time in mosques, the need for an institution that would meet the needs of the educational institution and the students, the intensity of the lessons in mosques, the establishment as a continu9 ation of masjids and mosques, the training of clergymen, statesmen, members of justice, scholars and derris, The establishment of madrasahs as a continuation of institutions established for library purposes such as Dar al9hikme and Beytu'l9Hikme, known as Dar al9ilim, to prevent inter9sectarian propaganda, to support a jurisprudential sect, to educate poor and talented students and to bring them into society are seen as the purposes of the establishment of madrasahs. Madrasahs are divided into general madrasahs and specialized madrasahs. General madrasahs provide primary and secondary level education and many sciences such as the Qur'an, hadith, fiqh, jurisprudence, vocabulary, nah, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, history and geography are taught together in these madrasahs. Specialized madrasahs, on the other hand, provide higher level education and allow specialization in fields such as literature, theology, medicine, mathematics and natural sciences, such as dar al9qurra, dar al9hadith, dar al9tib (medical madrasah) etc. In addition to the cultural value they carry, madrasahs are important architectural elements both in terms of their architecture and their relationship with the city. When evaluated stylistically, they have a plan scheme consisting of cells, classrooms, a masjid and a mausoleum arranged around a courtyard and enriched with 194 iwan. The most important building elements of madrasah architecture are the portal, courtyard, iwan, winter classroom, tomb (masjid) and cells. The portal is the richly decorated, monumental entrance of the madrasahs. It emphasizes the entrance on the facade. The courtyard is an area in the center of the building, surrounded by walls or porticoes, gathering all the spaces and acting as a nodal point. The iwan is a space closed on three sides, with the open side facing the courtyard, raised by a few steps from the courtyard, and covered with a vault or dome. The winter classroom is a classroom space located to the right or left of the main iwan for use in cold weather. The mausoleum is a space covered with a dome, usually where the madrasah masters are buried, and can be located in different places according to the madrasah plan scheme. Cells, on the other hand, are the rooms lined around the courtyard and opening to the courtyard, which may have a portico in front of them according to the plan scheme, used by the students for sheltering and studying. When evaluated as an urban element, madrasahs are buildings that have the characteristics of "urban nucleus" in the words of Kevin Lynch with the relationship they establish with their surroundings and the meaning they carry. Urban nuclei are important nodes and focal points that are the nucleus of the region and create areas of gathering and activity. At the same time, some urban nuclei are signposts that create visual perception and reference for their surroundings. It would be appropriate to say that madrasahs are the product of interdisciplinary cooperation. The strategic perspectives of the states in making construction decisions, the mission of the madrasah, the foundation culture kept alive during the construction process, the esthetic and meaning value of its formal elements, and the architectural enrichment with other types of buildings built together make madrasahs important architectural elements with both physical and spiritual dimensions. Such structures naturally affect the city in both physical and spiritual dimensions. In the physical dimension, it has the power of influence that can determine the way of land use, the density of construction around it, building types, urban silhouette (storey height, material / texture selection, etc.), urban orientation and development, zoning decisions, and transportation network; while in the spiritual dimension, it is effective in the formation of urban identity, memory, culture, and brand value. The madrasahs built in Konya city center added cultural value to the city in the period they were built and served to create a brand value such as "capital of science and culture". In addition to this service, they have become a symbol of urban esthetics and richness in terms of architecture. Especially in the Seljuk Period, very magnificent madrasahs were built, and these madrasahs have become the icons of the city of Konya today. This study identifies medreses constructed in the Konya city center during the Seljuk, Karamanids, and Ottoman periods and investigates their contributions to subsequent regional developments. The names, construction dates, and present conditions of the identified medreses are tabulated. The locations of the madrasahs are expressed both in writing and cartographically, with reference to today’s urban texture. The existence of 25 madrasahs in the Seljuk Period, 17 in the Karamanids Period, and 44 in the Ottoman Period could be identified in the city center of Konya. The institutionalization of madrasahs in Konya and its surroundings occurred during the Seljuk period. This was a period when Konya shone in every sense, became a center of education and culture and had an important political and military power. Almost all of the valuable madrasahs that have survived to this day in Konya are the works of the Seljuk Period. The Karamanids, who came after the Seljuk Empire, built some madrasahs and tried to protect the cultural heritage inherited from the Seljuks. Toward the end of the 13th century, the Seljuks disintegrated and the conflicts and political problems between the principalities established in various regions in this period caused educational activities to slow down. Many madrasahs became unusable due to lack of maintenance. After the Karamanids, new educational structures were not established in Konya until the 18th century, but as of the 18th century, Konya started to rise again, and many madrasahs were built. In addition to madrasahs, lodges, mosques and zawiyas were built, libraries were established and many valuable works were endowed to these libraries. However, as the Ottoman Empire began to weaken, madrasahs began to lose their importance. The madrasahs built in Konya city center added cultural value to the city in the period they were built and served to create a brand value such as "capital of science and culture". In addition to this service, they have become a symbol of urban esthetics and richness in terms of architecture. Especially in the Seljuk Period, quite magnificent madrasahs were built and these madrasahs have become the icon of Konya today. On an urban scale, madrasahs have a relationship with urban development in the period in which they were built. Konya city center was first established on Alaaddin Hill and then developed to the north of the hill. It is seen that the Seljuk Period madrasahs were also concentrated in this direction. Afterwards, the city started to develop toward the east of the hill. In the Ottoman Period, it is seen that the madrasahs were concentrated on the Alaaddin9Mevlana axis in the east of the hill. In fact, this situation is not a coincidence. Madrasahs were generally built with the support of foundations, and in accordance with the foundation culture, other buildings that could meet the expenses of the madrasah were also endowed while the madrasah was being built. Endowing income9generating real estate is considered a part of the process of establishing a madrasah. The endowed buildings may be an existing structure or they may be built with the madrasah or for the madrasah in the close neighborhood of the madrasah. The areas where madrasahs are concentrated are also the areas where urban mobility and commercial activities are intense in the relevant period. Madrasahs not only bring mobility to the area where they are built, but also the places where they are built are usually located within the development area of the city. It is possible to observe this situation, especially on the Alaaddin9Mevlana axis, where the madrasahs of the Ottoman Period are concentrated. Madrasahs have contributed to this axis being an important trade axis throughout history. Today, this area is the area where cultural and commercial activity is the most intense and constitutes the historical city center of Konya.It has been observed that madrasahs also affect the functions of the buildings in their immediate surroundings in line with their area of specialization. Karatay Madrasah was an educational institution where fiqh was taught, equivalent to today’s law faculties, and the Konya Courthouse was located just behind the Karatay Madrasah. The area between Alâeddin Dârüşşifâsı (House of Healing), the medical madrasah of the period, and Kadi Izzeddin Maristan9ı Atik is now surrounded by buildings serving health9related functions. It is seen that the neighborhood of the building, which was used as the Provincial Public Library for many years and was demolished in 2012, was also neighbored by library buildings in the past. The "educational" identity of the areas where some madrasahs are located continues today. Finally, the madrasahs built in the city center of Konya, in addition to their impact on urban shaping, have given Konya the identity of a capital of science, science and culture since the Seljuks, played a role in the naming of the districts and left important spiritual traces where urban memory is preserved and reminded for centuries.&nbsp;

Konya’daki Medrese Yapılarının Günümüz Konya Kent Merkezinin Biçimlenmesi Üzerine Etkileri

Uğur

Mosques and tombs in Islamic societies are structures that are the center of social, political, cultural and artistic services. Zile’s historical past and cultural heritage dates back to the Roman period. Zile is a district rich in religious and civil architecture. One of the important building types of Turkish-Islamic architecture is mosques and tombs. One of these mosques and tombs is Sheikh Ethem Çelebi (Beyazıt Bestami) Mosque and the Musa Fakih Tomb located in the district center. The word “cami”, which comes from the root “cem” in Arabic and means “gathering, bringing together”, is an abbreviation of the definition of el-mescidü’l, which was first used for large mosques where only Friday prayers were performed. Over time, mosques where Friday prayers were performed and a pulpit was built for the imam to read the sermon were used as mosques, while small temples without a pulpit, i.e., where Friday prayers were not performed, were used only as masjids. Masjid is a building name meaning “place of prostration” from the root sücüd, which means “to bow, to put the forehead on the ground with humility” in Arabic. There are two types of plan schemes in the mosque architecture of the Turkish Islamic period. The first of these is the multi-supported, domed grand mosques where the naves developed parallel to the mihrab wall intersect with another nave in front of the mihrab. The second is the structures with open courtyards in the middle, swans, domes in front of the mihrab and multisupports. We can give examples of the first plan scheme as Diyarbakır Ulu Mosque and Bitlis Ulu Mosque. We can give examples of the second plan scheme as Malatya Ulu Mosque and Adana Ulu Mosque. The first structures in Ottoman architecture sit on dome body walls.In terms of cultural heritage located in the district center, Zile is one of the leading rich districts of Tokat. Historically, it has been an important center of many important states. Compared to other districts of Tokat, Zile, which has a historical past, has different types of structures built in different periods. One of these different types of structures consists of mosques, tombs and fountains. The structure gives the impression of a small social complex consisting of a mosque, tomb and fountain. The Sheikh Ethem Çelebi Mosque and Tomb located in the district center is also known as the Beyazıt Bestami Mosque and Tomb in sourcesThe mosque has a rectangular plan close to a square. The upper cover of the structure is inclined in three directions, covered with wood from below, covered with tiles from the outside and made in the form of a hipped roof. The eaves are wide toward the outside and covered with wood from below. The main walls of the structure supports the weight of the roof. The roof dominates the space where the mosque side is located. The decoration in the mosque is generally concentrated on the mihrab and ceilings. In particular, a border belt with plant decorations extends around the mihrab from three sides. These plant decorations are made in the form of gold gilding on a blue background. The plant decorations mostly include rosettes, peaches, curly branches and palmettes.The mosque is built on a single floor, but the upper cover is in the form of a roof. There are two windows on the south facade of the structure. The north facade opens to a garden. The east facade is blind. The entrance to the mosque is provided from the west facade. There is one window at the bottom and three windows at the top on the west facade of the mosque. The entrance door is made of wood with a single wing, the upper floor windows are made of wood and the lower floor windows are made of PVC. The lower floor windows have iron bars. There are no iron bars on the upper floor windows. The plaster on some parts of the walls of the structure has fallen off. The entrance to the tomb is made from inside the mosque, but it is also made from the south facade. The upper cover dome drum of the tomb is kept high. In addition, there are rectangular wooden windows on the dome drums. There is a door and two windows on the south facade of the structure. There are no windows on the east facade.&nbsp;The minaret is on the north side of the structure. It has a square base, a cylindrical body, a single balcony and is covered with a dome. The entrance to the tomb is barrel-arched and the door is made of wood. The entrance door has marble coating on three sides. The entrance section of the mosque is slightly lower due to the road level. The windows are made of wood and are undecorated. The dome of the tomb is octagonal. The dome is plastered from the inside and covered with tiles from the outside and covered with lead. There are windows made of wood on the dome drum. The eaves are wide to the outside and covered with wood from the bottom. There are deteriorations and flaking in the plasters of the walls. Similar situations are also seen on the dome drum. The ceiling part is flat with wooden slats in the middle and is made in square and rectangular shapes. The edges are made in the shape of a diamond and have geometric decorations. A blue tone is applied on a white background on the ceiling. The ceiling moldings are made in the shape of a diamond. The pulpit and the sermon podium were made without decoration. There are three panels on the west and east sides of the walls of the harim section and two panels on the south side. The interior walls are made of wooden paneling up to the basement level. The interior walls of the mosque are undecorated compared to the tomb.&nbsp;The tomb section has more decorations than the mosque. Especially on the interior walls of the tomb, there are intense plant decorations. There is a sunburst form in the middle of the dome. Motifs and decorations are usually in a form. There are plant decorations and panels on the dome skirts and drums. Palmette motifs are seen more frequently on the dome skirt, which is stylize and decorated with curved branches and rumi. Baroque medallions are placed in the triangular areas between the arches. Under the medallions, there is a large watermelon in a footed fruit plate. Information about the people whose graves are located is written on the walls of the tomb. There are weeping willows, cypresses and decorative plants on the arches of the tomb. There is a depiction of the city of Mecca and the Kaaba on the tomb wall. The fountain is built adjacent to the tomb wall and has a single facade. There is a long rectangular basin (trough) in front of the structure. There is no decorative element in the structure. There are deteriorations and separations in the basin part of the fountain. The basin part is divided into three parts with this deterioration. Intervention is necessary to protect the fountain. First, the reservoir part should be scrapped.&nbsp;In this study, the place and importance of the mosque, tomb and the wall paintings on the tomb in 19th century Turkish art were revealed and an attempt was made to determine their current status. First, the island, plot and parcel statuses, geographical location and history were examined. In the following section, the plan, facade and ornamental features of the structure are examined in detail. The study was evaluated on a single structure. The research was limited to the Sheikh Ethem Çelebi Mosque and Tomb. As a result of the studies conducted on the Sheikh Ethem Çelebi Mosque and Tomb, the architectural and ornamental features of the structure are similar to the structures belonging to the mosque and tomb architecture in the rural textures of the surrounding regions. The fact that the mosque and tomb are together shows the characteristics of a social complex. The fact that the mosque is built in a rectangular shape close to a square in plan is similar to the structures around it. If we were to give a few examples of these structures, we can give the Boyacı Hasanağa Mosque, Alacamescit Mosque, Alçılı Village Mosque, Karahoca Village Mosque and Cumapazarı Mosque.&nbsp;The mosque and tomb section are currently undergoing restoration interventions. The plaster debris on the walls of the structure should be scraped and cleaned. The windows and doors of the mosque have been replaced and similarly, the original windows and doors should be made from wood. The corroded window bars should be replaced. The interior walls of the tomb should be scraped and cleaned. The separations seen in the basin section of the fountain should be scraped, the joints should be filled, and the plaster should be applied. Today, the mosque and tomb structure are being restored with material and moral support by conducting surveys, restitution and restoration projects and obtaining permissions from the necessary places. It is important in terms of cultural heritage that such structures are restored and, protected and their sustainability is ensured. Geometric and plant decorations, which started to be seen in civil structures in the 18th century, have shown an increasing tendency until today. In particular, these decorations are not limited to civil structures only, but have also been seen in religious structures. However, depictions used in religious spaces are also encountered in mosques located in small district centers, far from the center, rather than in large cities.

Zile Şeyh Ethem Çelebi (Beyazıt Bestami) Camii ve (Musa Fakih) Türbesinin Mimari ve Bezeme Programı

Göksun

Orangeries, part of the longstanding and established culture surrounding the preservation and cultivation of delicate plants in Istanbul, gained a new status in the late nineteenth century through changing architectural features and usage patterns. This study primarily establishes a historical background regarding the role of orangeries, which served as new interior spaces accessible to people alongside the cultivation of specific plants, within the context of Istanbul’s palace and residential culture. By utilizing archival records and architectural drawings from the Ottoman Archives of the Presidency (BOA), photographs from the Yıldız Albums, and literary narratives, the research investigates the architectural characteristics of these structures during the nineteenth century, discussing the transformations in garden and landscape traditions and the consequent increase in their visibility. The orangeries evolved into greenhouses through an experimental process encompassing technological advancements that pioneered modern architecture in Europe and provided new spatial experiences with significant impacts in public domains. The potential of these structures to emerge as new public venues within the Ottoman capital was also examined in a comparative framework alongside their European counterparts. The final section of the text addresses the historical legacy of residential gardens and orangeries, which have largely disappeared, leaving minimal physical traces and with their documentation almost nonexistent, in light of the substantial transformations experienced by Istanbul’s urban landscape and housing culture in the twentieth century. Another aim of this part is to explore the place of this lost tradition within collective memory through literary narratives.&nbsp;Historically, the practice of cultivating plants beyond their native climates dates back to antiquity. Particularly aromatic plants such as oranges and lemons have been preserved in special structures across the Middle East and Europe for centuries. The first citrus trees were brought to the Mediterranean and Europe from India via Iran in the late thirteenth century. This geographical relationship is reflected in the similar nomenclature for lemons across Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and various European languages. The modern history of orangeries began in the sixteenth century in Europe, where they served as status symbols in the gardens of the nobility and wealthy merchants. Early examples were constructed in France and Italy to shelter citrus trees during the colder months, featuring wooden frames and transparent surfaces. In the succeeding centuries, these structures evolved into larger, more monumental masonry forms, distinguished by their expanded glazed surfaces. Similarly, orangeries in Istanbul also have a rich historical context, particularly in relation to the Ottoman cuisine and the palace’s demand for citrus products. Archival evidence from the sixteenth century indicates that lemons were transported to Istanbul from the southern regions while citrus trees were being grown in the gardens of the Topkapı Palace. Beginning in the late seventeenth century, the earliest references to orangery structures appear in repair records for the Tersane Gardens, Beylerbeyi, Beşiktaş, and Topkapı Palaces.&nbsp;In the nineteenth century, the plants to protect and grow inside them varied, including tropical and sub-tropical plants. The challenge of growing them in the inconvenient climates of Northern Europe brought innovation to these structures in terms of structural systems, materials, production methods, and acclimatization technologies. The new glasshouses of the mid-nineteenth century were new scientific grounds for botanical and horticultural research as well as architectural laboratories for testing new materials, tectonics, and spatial experiences, with a crucial impact on the advancement of modern architecture.The technological evolution and proliferation of orangeries and greenhouse structures in Europe, particularly in England, occurred through the possibilities provided by prefabrication and modularity. This process also facilitated their arrival in the Ottoman capital. An early example in Istanbul is Sultan Mahmud II’s order for a flour mill, which marked the beginning of the construction of prefabricated wrought iron structures in the capital. The introduction of new orangeries made from prefabricated wrought iron and glass, imported from England, accelerated these technological transfers.Notably, in the palatial gardens, new orangeries were designed with new tectonics and built as prefabricated iron and glass structures brought from England starting in the 1850s. Dolmabahçe Palace, with its monumental architectural design, opened toward the Bosporus while being separated from the city by a long, high wall at its western boundary. The Camlı Köşk (Glass Kiosk), a winter garden placed on the palace’s solid wall, was characterized by its transparent façade featuring various types of colorful and crystal-like glass, and it was described by the late Ottoman author Hâlit Ziya Uşaklıgil as a “spectacle” overlooking the city. Another intriguing architectural structure within the same palace complex was the twin orangeries made of glass and wrought iron, flanking the southern gate leading to Mâbeyn Garden. A third orangery, referred to as the "billûr saray" (glass palace), was constructed in the enclosed rear garden of Çırağan Palace following an extended construction period. Detailed archival correspondence traces each stage of its ordering, manufacturing, and transportation processes, shedding light on the unexpected challenges that emerged and documenting the intermediary agents engaged throughout this intricate process in 1859-64. Commissioned bySultan Abdülmecid, this structure was ordered as an integral element of the Sultan’s vision for a romantic English garden.In 1841, as house advertisements began appearing in the rapidly expanding newspapers, listings mentioned proper&lt; ties with orangeries across various city districts. Although the spatial characteristics of these residences indicated that they were not particularly exclusive, it can be asserted that these orangeries were originally constructed as modest timber structures, as iron was not widely available at the time.From the 1870s onwards, a commercialization process accompanied the formal and technological evolution of orangeries in England. These structures began to be publicly experienced in botanical gardens and parks, while standardized designs and reduced costs led to their availability in catalogs for middle-class homes. By the late nineteenth century in Istanbul, while orangeries remained confined to the private gardens of palaces and residences, their variety and visibility increased. During the formation of Yıldız Palace, a French influence focusing on orangeries and greenhouse structures gained prominence in palace gardens, following the implementation of the English romantic garden tradition by Bavyerian Christian Sester and his apprentices in the late nineteenth century. Sultan Abdülhamid II, who rarely left Yıldız Palace during his reign from 1876 to 1909, developed a passion for carpentry, gardening, and the care of exotic plants gathered from around the world. A significant figure during this period was Charles Henry, a French greenhouse expert appointed as the palace’s last head gardener around 1900, who introduced a more functional hot water climate control system for the greenhouse instead of dry channels. Photographs from the Yıldız Albums showcase a wide array of glass and wrought iron orangeries built in the gardens of the Yıldız Palace.By the second half of the nineteenth century, landscaping and plant cultivation projects involving local and foreign gardeners had proliferated, leading to the appearance of kiosks, flower beds, artificial ponds, and large, transparent orangeries in many home gardens. Photographs from the Yıldız Albums depict high-ranking Muslim and non-Muslim bureaucrats’ gardens in neighborhoods like Nişantaşı and Beşiktaş, where orangeries were integral components of the picturesque landscapes, indicating the palace’s influence on urban gardening esthetics. The emergence of these structures also reflected a fashion in the period’s popular culture. Publications like Servet-i Fünûn and Şehbâl reminded readers of the appropriate time to move delicate flowers into orangeries, showcasing images of winter blooms.Refik Halit Karay (1888-1965), a late Ottoman and early Republican author, narrated the spatial and social transformations of Istanbul in parallel with Türkiye’s political history, with a melancholic narrative in his various works. In his 1943 book titled "Three Generations, Three Lives," (Üç Nesil Üç Hayat), he comparably depicted daily life in Istanbul during the reigns of Sultan Abdulaziz, Sultan Abdulhamid II, and the Republican period. Karay described the landscape fashion reflected in the garden of an upper&lt;class mansion in the Hırka-ı Şerif neighborhood of the Fatih district during the "Aziz Era," followed by the transformation of orangeries (limonluk) into "ser" during the Abdulhamid II era, and finally recounted the sad story of the warm-climate trees that lost their mansions and orangeries.Orangeries appear to have become a symbol of the spatial transformation accompanying Istanbul’s social history. Another aspect of the change narrated by Karay for Fatih occurred across the Bosporus, in the garden villas and mansions of Kadıköy. The many innovations that transformed residential life and social interactions also altered the role of gardens in everyday life, rendering orangeries increasingly obsolete. Another literary testimony regarding this situation is found in the novel "A Rose Bloomed in My Garden" (Bahçemde Bir Gül Açtı) by Mahmut Yesari (1895-1945), another late Ottoman and early Republican author, published in serialized form in the newspaper Milliyet. Here, the tension between the old and the new is explored within the context of significant societal changes, depicting orangeries as burdens of the past.In the societal context of the Early Republic, a noteworthy decision emerged from the political will advocating for public participation in urban spaces: the relocation of two orangeries from the Yıldız Palace to the garden of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara, thereby making them accessible for public use. Postcards depicting the Assembly garden feature the cross-vaulted orangery, transferred from Yıldız Palace, positioned behind a cascading fountain. This larger orangery was demolished for reasons that remain unknown between 1935 and 1937, while no further information or documentation regarding the smaller structure has been located. This act of relocation and transformation underscores the shifting values and architectural priorities of the time, reflecting a broader trend in the reimagining of public spaces in the context of the modern Turkish identity.Finally, this research raises two significant themes related to architectural history. First, it addresses the structural evolution of the long&lt;established tradition of orangeries in Istanbul, influenced by European technologies, specialized botanical interests, and increasing plant diversity. These structures often remained anonymous and did not participate in industrial production as standardized buildings, warranting further research. Second, the discussion points to the limited interaction between these private residential spaces and the public realms in urban settings during the Late Ottoman period. The Early Republican period saw a unique attempt to preserve this tradition through the relocation of two Yıldız Palace orangeries to the Turkish Grand National Assembly’s garden in Ankara, reflecting a political commitment to public accessibility in garden spaces. Still, while innovative designs existed, their visibilityand accessibility in the urban space remained restricted, highlighting the need for further investigation.Overall, orangeries in Istanbul have evolved as integral components of garden culture, becoming expressions of a new class esthetic in the nineteenth century. By the mid-twentieth century, they had largely disappeared from the urban landscape. This study highlights how orangeries, initially designed to protect valuable citrus plants like lemon, gained architectural prominence in Istanbul gardens. In Europe and North America, orangeries similarly evolved as pivotal structures in modern architectural history, marking advancements in materials, structural techniques, and spatial experiences, with their function gradually shifting from plant conservation to human use. In Istanbul, the most refined examples of orangeries appeared in palace gardens, influenced by European styles, and by the Late Ottoman period, they had become status symbols in private gardens as well. Archival drawings and photographs show them as either stand-alone buildings or extensions of the main residences. The rise of iron and glass industrial production enriched their technical and esthetic qualities although there is no evidence that they were mass-produced as prefabricated structures.In conclusion, gardens represent some most fragile and variable spaces in architectural history, often eluding documentation. The visual materials accompanying this study testify to a distinct aspect of Istanbul’s history, showcasing the delicate structures and plants that are increasingly difficult to trace. The ongoing rapid transformation of Istanbul threatens not only its architectural fabric but also its natural landscapes, complicating efforts to trace the architectural culture nourished by gardens and plants. Contemporary urban transformation policies, which prioritize buildings over the broader landscape, along with significant market pressures on urban land, place garden and plantculture at risk of near-total extinction. This study aims to illuminate the nearly lost spatial sensitivity embedded in Istanbul’s historical landscape and its collective memory, contributing to discussions that may aid in reviving this cultural heritage.

Kayıp Bir Mirasın İzinde: 19. Yüzyılda İstanbul’da Limonluklar

The radical change in the postal organizations of the Ottoman Empire began immediately after the Tanzimat era. Although it is known that the first steps were taken during the reign of Mahmud II, the first concrete change was the establishment of the Ministry of Posts and the enactment of the regulation in 1840. The postal organization, which was first developed and institutionalized in Istanbul, soon spread to the major provinces of the empire. In fact, as early as 1841, postal organizations were established in cities such as Yenişehir, Thessaloniki, Serres, Nis, Ioannina, Ankara and Kayseri. By 1849, the number of provincial postal organizations had risen to 44. The regulations of 1840 and 1870 shaped the administrative organization of the postal organization, and efforts were made to benefit from the communication technologies of the time, using the reports of foreign experts. The telegraph played an important role in the development of communication technology. The telegraph, the new communication technology introduced in the Ottoman lands during the Crimean War, became widespread in the Ottoman lands soon after the war. The Telegraph Administration, which initially had a directorate7level management structure (1855), was merged with the Post Ministry in 1871, and the name of the Ministry was updated to the Post and Telegraph Ministry. Another change in the name of the ministry came with the spread of telephone technology in the Ottoman Empire. After the first attempts in 1881, telephone lines became widespread in 1908 and the name of the ministry in charge of transport and communication was changed to the Ministry of Post, Telegraph and Telephone by a decree in 1911. The development of the Ministry of Post and Telegraph continued during the reign of Abdülhamid II, and post and telegraph buildings were built or designed in many parts of the empire. However, in settlements that did not have an independent structure, postal and telegraph services were provided within buildings such as government buildings, municipal buildings and banks.The main subject of this study is the construction process and project files of the Telegraph and Post Office building that was planned to be built in Konya Province. Some files in the Ottoman Archive contain the official correspondence and project files related to the building in question. The correspondence and project file dated 1899 shows that the Konya Provincial Council requested for the building. The Provincial Council stated that the existing post office building was in a dilapidated condition and that the construction of a new post office building was imperative. The construction projects and findings are also attached. The Konya Provincial Council also mentioned that the poor condition of the building undermined the representation of the state. The Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs responded negatively to this request. The main reason given was that the budget allocated by the Ministry for constructing the building was insufficient. Based on this letter to the Ministry of the Interior, the response of the Ministry of the Interior was also negative. However, it has also been reported that initiatives have been taken to renovate the buildings, which are in a dilapidated state and undermine the image of the state. In addition to the file in question, there are other documents relating to the construction of the building. As part of the study, these documents were also analyzed and the correspondence that occurred after the preparation of the project was evaluated. The correspondence between the Konya Provincial Assembly, the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Post and Telegraph on May 22, 1899, June 29, 1899, July 5, 1899, July 23, 1899 and November 18, 1900 emphasizes the urgency of the construction of a post office building, but also shows that the amount determined was not appropriate.The planned building project consisted of floor plans and a main facade design. In the project prepared by Mehmet Şaban, the Deputy Chief Engineer of Konya Province, the floor plans repeated a scheme found in many public buil7 dings. A wide corridor in the center of the plan and rooms lined up on either side of the corridor form the layout of the building. The building has three floors and a basement. The ground floor of the building was to be used as a post office and the first floor as a telegraph office. The rooms on the ground floor, which have different dimensions, function as the "Postal Center Manager's Room", "Chief Engineer's Room", "Coffee Oven", "Kavas (Bodyguard) and Sergeant's Room", "Store" and "Post Office". In addition, in the post office room on this floor, there are two separate sections, labeled "the place of receipt of letters and leveling letters" and "the place of receipt and distribution of security deposits". The first floor, which was used as a telegraph office, consists of the following rooms: "Chief Manager's Room", "Telegraph Center Manager's Room", "Communication Room", "Pen Room", "Inspector's Room", "Foreign Communication Room" and "Rest Room". The façades of the buildings were designed in the neoclassical style. The ornamental elements of the door and window frames and the symmetrical openings show that the basic elements of neoclassical architecture were preferred in this building. Another file that provides details about the architectural features of a building is the Discovery Book. The discovery book shows that the body walls of a building are built with two different types of stone. However, wooden materials were preferred for the ceiling and floor coverings inside the building and for the roof structure. The use of beams for the basement floor, which is not shown in the plan drawing but in the façade drawing, was noted in the discovery book. On the basis of this, the ground floor has a jack arch technique. In the seal and signature section of the survey book in the file, it can be read that the project in question was prepared by Mehmet Şaban bin Ahmet, the Deputy Chief Engineer of Konya Province. The name in question is also mentioned in the Konya Province Annual of 1899.It can be seen that the main obstacle to the construction of the Konya Telegraph and Post Office building was mainly financial. In fact, this situation is not unique to this building. In the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century, one of the biggest problems in the construction of public buildings was the budget. When budgets were insufficient, the provincial assemblies could resort to various means. Donations collected from prominent individuals and families in the region (iane), the sale of land owned by the provincial council or the relevant institution, or lotteries were different ways of raising funds for construction. In the case of the Konya Telegraph and Post Office, there is no evidence that these means were used.&nbsp;The Konya Post and Telegraph Building consists of a space defined as a sofa/divanhane/corridor/lounge in the center and a scheme consisting of rooms located on both sides of the space, which is often found in traditional residential architecture in terms of plan features. In this context, it can be said that it has a common design approach with the Bursa, Kastamonu, Giresun and Antalya Telegraph and Post Office buildings, although it has similar features with the plan scheme of many public buildings.An analysis of the building, façade and massing characteristics shows that the neoclassical style is gaining in importance in the design process. In the second half of the 19th century, it is known that the neoclassical style was favored in many public buildings. It can be seen that this process continues in the Post Office and Telegraph buildings. The design approach close to the style preferred in the Konya Post and Telegraph Building can also be observed in the British Post Office Building in Galata, Giresun, Niş and Cisr7i Mustafapaşa Town Telegraph Offices. In general, the post office buildings have forms that are in accordance with the architectural texture of the region, especially the residential architecture.Another striking feature of the Konya Telegraph and Post Office building is that the postal and telegraph services are divided into separate floors and the administrative structure is proportionally distributed within the plan scheme. The ground floor is reserved for postal services and the upper floor for telegraph services.The construction process of the telegraph and post office building, which occupied the Konya Provincial Assembly for a short period, has been studied with the help of original documents, the reasons why the construction of the building was not carried out have been detailed, the design details of the project have been discussed and its place in the construction activities of the period has been determined. As a result, it is believed that a detailed study of the post and telegraph buildings of the Ottoman period will lead to a better understanding of their place in Ottoman architecture and will contribute to future research in this field.

Uygulanmamış Bir Proje: Konya Telgraf ve Postahane Binası

Bilgen

Cevriye

The notion of conservation evolved throughout history and gained different meanings in different geographies. Alt7 hough conservation has a long history as an action, its emergence as a theoretical field dates back to the nineteenth century. The concept of conservation has been transformed with the different meanings that major concepts such as time, history and memory have acquired over time. The theory of values developed by Alois Riegl in "The Cult of the Modern Monument: Its Nature and Origin,” (1903) opened a different channel in conservation studies. It is a theory that provides answers to the questions of which monuments should be preserved and how.The conservation consciousness that emerged in the Renaissance is based on the centuries7long "The Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns" in literature and art in Europe and the Renaissance’s transition from a cyclical or theological concept of time to an irreversible, progressive concept of time. The periodization of antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times is made in the early Renaissance period and antiquity is defined as resplendent light, the Middle Ages as the Dark Ages and the Renaissance as the awakening from darkness, rebirth. In this framework, the renaissance ignores the Middle Ages in a sense, emphasizing Classical Antiquity and defining themselves as modern dwarfs on the shoulders of ancient giants. This, in turn, led to the study of Classical Antiquity, especially in Italy, during the Renaissance period, and the formation of a conservation consciousness in this framework.The transition period from the 19th to the 20th century was such a period that the moderns considered themselves superior to antiquity from the 17th century onwards, and that they no longer had ancient giants to stand on their shoulders; at the same time, tradition and social structures were questioned and shattered, and all grounds that could form a basis were destroyed. Perhaps the only point that can provide a basis is the desire of the nation7states that emerged in the process of modernization to construct a historical past that will prove themselves on the world stage. Therefore, for every nation7state, monuments symbolizing these historical values are important and worth preserving. In such a transitional period, Riegl’s text is important in that it not only provides rational definitions and classifications but also proposes a system of values that can include singular examples and cannot be reduced to mere physicality. Its inclusive theoretical infrastructure is also valuable in that this system of values has the possibility of being developed.&nbsp;In Vienna at the end of the 19th century, unlike German art historians who based their understanding of history on Hegel’s philosophy, the work of historians approaching Hegel from a distance highlighted the prominence of rationalism, positivism, and empiricism derived from Enlightenment thought. At the same time, Friedrich Nietzsche’s critiques of Enlightenment thought were being followed, and debates on "Philosophical Irrationalism" were also occurring in the Viennese art historical context. Consequently, the rational understanding brought by Enlightenment thought, alongside the questioning of this rational understanding, created an environment that allowed for the emergence of diverse perspectives within the field of art history.&nbsp;Riegl entered this multi7faceted environment in 1880 by joining the Austrian Institute for Historical Research, one of the prominent institutions of the Austrian Empire. At the time Riegl joined the institute, efforts were underway to apply scientific methods to art history and to construct a new art historical framework in this context. Moriz Tausing, who was in charge during this period, directed these efforts while advocating for the necessity of art history finding its own intellectual and autonomous academic methodology. Both Tausing and Riegl prioritized the physicality of the art object rather than seeking the source of the art historical method externally. This understanding seems to have influenced Riegl’s recognition of the significance of changes over time in objects and, consequently, his formulation of the theory of the value of age.While following rationality in the sense of "historical objectivity," Riegl integrated discussions of temporality and individuality into his efforts to preserve, demonstrating a non7reductive approach. Riegl advocated an understanding of objectivity based not only on the physical characteristics of objects but also on perceptual psychology and phenomenology. Therefore, Riegl was interested not only in the physical characteristics of monuments but also in how individuals perceived them. This understanding forms a significant pillar of his work The Modern Cult of Monuments.&nbsp;The most distinctive feature of modernity is the concept of "progressive, linear time." Riegl’s understanding of time forms the foundation of his value theory. He identifies two key conceptions of time: first, “time as a historical concept,” and second, “time as a phenomenon embedded in artifacts.” In the first conception, Riegl acknowledges the linear progression of modern time. In the second, he emphasizes the notions of temporality and continuity. According to Riegl, an art historian must grasp the interplay between these different perspectives on time—fluid and transient on one hand, and linear7interactive on the other. Another significant aspect of Riegl’s understanding of time is its connection to the concept of nature. For him, development signifies “continuous change or oscillation,” but not necessarily progress toward perfection. Riegl argues that science demonstrates how everything inevitably moves toward decay. This perspective challenges the modern notion of progressive time rooted in Enlightenment thought. In the late 19th century, when the concept of progressive time was a central tenet in Europe despite widespread upheaval, Riegl emphasized the primacy of natural processes.&nbsp;Riegl’s system of values involves the questioning of the commemorative value. In this theory, there are two main categories: commemorative values and present7day values. Commemorative values include age value, historical value and intended commemorative value; present7day values include use value and art value. The distinguishing feature of Riegl’s theory is the age value. In “The Cult of the Modern Monument,” Riegl discusses the aforementioned values compared with each other, but mostly with the age value, because the age value can contradict other values.Riegl defines the age value with reference to different concepts: "imperfection, closure and lack of completeness," "deterioration," "disintegration," "disintegration into fragments," "reassembly of the singularity into its elements," "unification with formless nature." This idea, which also includes Riegl’s view of the concept of time, is based on the "pure, legitimate cycle of becoming and passing away" of nature in general. According to him, while a work of art is produced in a completed form by moving from parts to the whole, it returns to nature by disintegrating and dispersing after its incarnation. When talking about the age value of a monument, he also refers to the "unmistakable perception of the traces" of this dissolution.In Riegl’s theory, historical value refers to a "singular" stage in the creation of a monument as a whole. It is a value that does not include deterioration and seeks and prioritizes completion. According to Riegl, "the higher the historical value, the lower the age value." For Riegl, who believes in historical continuity, the singular moment symbolized in the understanding of historical value is more important than the development itself. It is an understanding that freezes time, emphasizes the period in which the monument was produced and attributes a special importance to this period.Intended commemorative value, on the other hand, focuses on not letting a moment identified at the time of the monument’s construction pass and keeping it alive and current in the minds of future generations. As the value with the highest demand for restoration, the intended commemorative value is the "mortal enemy" of age value. According to Riegl, the age value is based on extinction, while the historical value wishes to stop extinction. The intended commemorative value, on the other hand, "lays claim to immortality, an eternal present, and an uninterrupted becoming."&nbsp;Riegl exposes the contradictions of these three different categories of value and questions whether they can co7 exist. Although the historical value and the value of the intended commemorative value are almost diametrically opposed to the age value, he emphasizes that these values can be reconciled through individual examples, but that the age value should be prioritized.&nbsp;In this study, within the framework of Riegl’s values theory, it is analyzed which values come to the forefront and which conservation processes are realized in the re7functionalized seven prison buildings in Turkey. In the analyzed examples, it has been concluded that Riegl's commemorative value comes to the forefront, but other values, especially age value, should also be activated in the conservation process of a building. In the future conservation processes of the 378 abandoned prison buildings in Turkey, it is suggested to take into consideration the values theory, which will be important in terms of both the place of the buildings in collective memory and the continuity of their physical structures.

Alois Riegl’in Değerler Teorisi ve Türkiye’deki Hapishane Yapıları

Safiye

The bag, which is made of different materials and used in the transportation process, is a garment complement that appears for a certain purpose. Bags that reflect the personality and taste of the user have been a symbol of power and wealth in the historical process. Furthermore they have been referred to with various forms and names throughout history. This is the first bag form seen in history. These pouches are attached to clothing in various forms or carried by hand, in the form of a bag containing personal items such as money and handkerchiefs.The ancient Egyptians carried bags made of linen and leather containing fragrances, cosmetics or coins, Roman soldiers carried decorated bronze9colored bags, and men and women belonging to the upper class in the Middle Ages used money bags similar to the reticule. European nations have used ‘pear9shaped’ pouches, which are popularly used in decorative arts 15. and 17. Between the centuries. These bags have evolved over the centuries to brand bags such as Hermès (1837) and Louis Vuitton (1851), and thus they have continued their development. Nowadays, they have become important complements of clothing collections. Pouches presented the rarest examples of which, like their European counterparts, have a very ancient history in traditional Turkish arts. According to information from archeological excavations, kurgans, reliefs, miniatures and wall paintings, the Central Asian Turks used pouches, which were attached to the pendulums of belt buckles.The tradition of tying the belt and belt continued during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods even after the Turks settled in Anatolia. These pouches, which have been seen in Anatolia since the early Turkish periods, have continued their existence to the present day as a continuation of an ancient tradition, although their use has decreased. The study aims to discuss the elements of bags and similar bags, to highlight and to Decipher the similar and different aspects of accessories belonging to two different cultures. They have undertaken important tasks about the periods in which he was and about the research that was done before him. The aim of the study is to decipher the place of bags and pouches in the historical process, the form, pattern, technical and material characteristics in the culture they belong to, the artistic and design influences they feed on, and the similar and different aspects between each other. The ethnographic research method, one of the qualitative research methods, was used in the study. The information of the collection related to the semi9structured interview technique as a data collection tool was obtained. Furthermore, thus, the cultural and social background of the periods to which the bags and bags belong, as well as the data sources, have been comprehensively evaluated.The study has been started with the special permissions obtained (ethics committee permission certificate and permission for the works to be used within the framework of publication). It has been seen in the field studies that have been examined, pouches that vary depending on the type and size of the item to be used in the region. In the research, paraboloid (half ellipse), triangular, square and rectangular forms were found in the region. Most of the pouches made as dowry items have small sizes. Most money pouches have been seen in the area. Few examples of these sacs have reached the present day.According to the information obtained in the field from the bags and pouches, they were fed from their own cultures. In this case, it has been influential in the period art movements. One of the important results of the study is that the bags represent the Art Nouveau art movement. The decorative elements used in the bags and the technical characteristics used in these elements also strengthen this knowledge. On the other hand, similar results have been obtained in the study of the ornamental properties of pouches. It is extremely normal that the pouches are influenced by traditional Turkish arts in terms of form and decoration. Because the Bayburt province has been the sanjak center of the Ottoman Empire for many years. On the other hand, Bayburt has been home to various civilizations in ancient times.Within the scope of the research, about 70 national and international sources through which bags and pouches belonging to two different cultures passed were examined. As a result of the examination, it was obtained that the bags and pouches belonging to two different cultures show great ethnographic artifact characteristics of historical importance in terms of form, weaving, ornament and motif characteristics, especially in the period and years of construction.The handbags that originated from European reticules and purses, which are key elements of material culture in Turkey, are significant for understanding the historical period. Their weaving, form, color, motif, decoration, embro9 idery, and sewing characteristics provide valuable insights for future research. Ethnographic research, a qualitative research method, was used in this study. The study data on the handbag and purse collection were collected through semi9structured interviews, while the cultural and social background of the periods of the handbags and purses, along with data sources, was established through a comprehensive and in9depth document review. Before the study, special approvals were obtained from the ethics committee and the collection owner. The absence of comprehensive studies on purses in the literature presented a significant challenge in the classification of the sources. In this study, a theoretical framework was first developed by examining handbags and purses from a historical perspective. The findings, which included the visual and design characteristics of the handbags and purses, were then analyzed.&nbsp;In this study, we used an ethnographic approach, a qualitative research method, to examine the historical and design characteristics of the Zurich handbags and Bayburt purses in the Emir collection. The study material included two Zurich handbags and three Bayburt purses. The history of Bayburt province in Turkey, home to the Emir collection, dates back to 3000 BC. This city is among the regions where the Turks first settled in Anatolia. Bayburt, which was a sanjak under Ottoman rule until 1878, was part of the Erzurum province until 1927. It then became a district of Gümüşhane province, and in 1989, it was established as a province. The Emir family is one of the longstanding families of Bayburt. The eldest member is Mustafa Efendi, known as Kitapsız Hoca. Selbin Emir, one of Mustafa Efendi’s grandchildren born in 1952, is the owner of the purses discussed in this study.&nbsp;It has also been seen that the design findings based on the results from historical findings indicate that the pouches dated to the 70s retain the form, weaving, motif, embroidery and sewing characteristics seen in previous periods. The situation is not different with bags. Nations keep alive the characteristics born of their cultural arts as a positive situation born of emulation and inspiration in art. The transmission of cultural elements stemming from the arts of various nations through imitation and inspiration is viewed as a beneficial result of cultural interaction. Situations involving artistic inspiration, influence, and the act of being influenced are common interactions among artists.On the other hand, while it is unlikely that the handbags were added to the collection before the purses, It can be inferred that the handbags may have inspired the purses. The sewing, decoration, and embroidery techniques support this. It should not be overlooked that the source of inspiration in design plays a crucial role in generating ideas.As a result, the study examined bags and conspecific pouches belonging to two different cultures of historical importance in the same study. Thus, it was possible to look at the historical and design characteristics of cultures at the same time, and it was concluded that it could be an effective study in terms of contributing to subsequent research based on the findings it obtained. Based on these analyses, the main findings on the Zurich handbags and Bayburt purses in the Emir Collection are presented in Tablo&nbsp;1.&nbsp;

Emir Koleksiyonunda Bulunan Zürih Menşeili Çantalar ile Bayburt Keselerinin Tasarımsal Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi

Melis

As humans began to understand their place in the world, their relationship with nature also started to take shape. At the beginning of human history, nature was viewed as a source of fear, filled with uncertainties. Natural events could devastate living spaces, wild animals could pose threats to life, and unexplored territories and unknowns could endanger their existence. However, with the cognitive revolution, humans began to see nature not just as a being to be feared, but as an area to be explored, understood, and ultimately mastered. This change marked a significant turning point that enabled humanity to manipulate its environment and develop strategies for survival.&nbsp;As knowledge and technology advanced, humans gradually shifted from a mindset of fear to curiosity and innovation. They learned to cultivate the land, harness natural resources, and create tools that transformed their surroundings. This evolving relationship laid the foundation for civilizations, as people increasingly sought to coexist with nature rather than simply conquer it. Ultimately, this journey from fear to understanding paved the way for a more complex and nuanced interaction with the natural world, influencing cultures and economies throughout history.The concept of nature, one of humanity’s most fundamental relationships, has gradually become one of the critical elements of art. Throughout history, artists have drawn inspiration from nature, reflecting its beauty, complexity, and chaos. In examining art history, we can observe a significant transformation toward the 20th century, following periods when nature was often treated superficially and depicted through a romantic lens. During this time, artists began to study nature not just as an object but as a complex system. Themes questioning the relationship between humans and nature began to emerge alongside the esthetic values of nature in artworks. In this context, nature shifted from being merely a backdrop or source of inspiration to occupying the center of artistic expression, prompting artists to develop new techniques and methods to explore the often-overlooked aspects of nature.&nbsp;The Industrial Revolution, as one of the significant turning points in human history, played a vital role in this artistic transformation. This led to a substantial increase in consumer culture and urban living. The technological advancements of this era changed the dynamics of human life, contributing to the growth of cities and the rise of industry. However, this rapid development came at a high cost, resulting in issues such as international economic crises and the irreversible destruction of natural habitats. Air pollution, the contamination of water resources, and various factors disrupting the natural balance forced people to confront environmental problems.&nbsp;By the mid-20th century, these factors led to a new awareness of ecological issues, fostering a tendency among people to advocate for and support ecological movements. Artists began to play a significant role in this transformation, creating works aimed at questioning the relationship between nature and humanity and raising awareness. Art evolved from merely reflecting society to becoming a form of activism, stimulating discussions about environmental degradation and the consequences of unchecked industrialization.In this context, the late 1960’s marked a period when many artists began to reclaim nature. A desire to address environmental issues and a critique of the art market and gallery spaces drove this transformation. Artists, adopting a perspective that criticized the destruction of nature and the gallery environment, started creating their works in natural settings. One of the first significant examples of this new approach emerged with the artist Robert Smithson, who created works using natural materials found in the environment.Following in Smithson’s footsteps, artists like Michael Heizer, Helen Mayer Harrison, Robert Morris, and Agnes Denes contributed to this movement through their installations featuring geometric forms in natural settings. However, the initial excitement surrounding the movement known as Land Art eventually became the focus of criticism. These critiques influenced some artist’s production processes, prompting them to shift from merely directing nature to aiming to heal it. They took steps to transform social awareness through large-scale environmental projects, leading to what began to be called Ecological Art.&nbsp;Sonfist’s “Time Landscape” project is one of the most significant examples of the ecological art movement. This project restores Manhattan, which was once covered by forests, by collaborating with local residents to return the area to its natural state. The project not only seeks to achieve an ecological transformation but also aims to revive collective memory and enhance environmental awareness. Today, this project has become a symbol of the efforts of both artists and communities to reconnect with nature. Artists’' ecological projects focus not only on the protection and restoration of nature but also on raising social awareness. For instance, Agnes Denes’s work “Wheatfield – A Confrontation” questions the importance of agriculture and nature during urban life, offering viewers a chance to reflect on environmental issues. Joseph Beuys used his art as a tool for social change, focusing on the preservation of nature and strengthening human relationships. Lynne Hull has developed respectful and sustainable projects, reexamining the relationship between art and ecosystems.These artists have highlighted the potential of art for ecological awareness and social change by focusing on sustainable art projects. Each has developed different approaches to nature conservation and human-nature interaction, successfully increasing viewer’s sensitivity to environmental issues.In addition to artists involved in large-scale ecological projects, there are also those who address ecological concerns through smaller works, relying on nature and using recycled materials. This research highlights Bilge Friedlaender, an exemplary artist who settled in the United States in the 1950s. Preferring materials derived from nature and handmade papers, she produces ecology-focused works that reflect her sensitivity to the environment. Friedlaender questions the surface of painting by using natural materials in her installation and printmaking practices, leading to artistic productions that reference her own life experiences.The artist, who conducts research on space, has focused on the concept of placelessness following a personal experience, producing works that explore themes such as horizon and gravity. Generally described as having a minimalist approach, she tends to use geometric forms in her art. Issues related to the production process on canvas have led her to create works on paper, where the texture, line, and tear of the paper -essentially every state of the paper- constitute the foundation of her pieces. Additionally, she is interested in mythological themes, with one of her significant series being the Epic of Gilgamesh. Through her Gilgamesh exhibition, she created her first installation work, adding depth to the relationship between nature and humanity in the context of the themes she addresses.The artist returned to Turkey in 1998 and began producing works in her homeland for a period. During this time, she held exhibitions under the guidance of Galeri Nev. The period when the Gilgamesh exhibition was created coincides with this phase of her work. She has also produced a print series using a technique called Chine Colle. By employing traditional printing techniques in innovative ways, she draws from handmade paper in her printmaking processes. This material, integrated into her art with ecological concerns, holds a significant place in her artistic practice.&nbsp;This research examines the emergence of ecological art and the works of artist Bilge Friedlaender, who adopted ecology-focused artistic practices. It has been observed that the artist adopts an artistic approach that embraces ecological thinking, taking a stand against the materialist world. Natural materials, such as handmade paper, guide her works, avoiding the occupation of space. Ecological art goes beyond being merely an esthetic form of expression, shedding light on profound social and environmental issues. In Friedlaender’s works, the depth of the relationship with nature provides the viewer with an opportunity to question the complex structure of nature and humanity’s place within it. This aspect highlights the impact of art on both individual and collective consciousness, allowing viewers to rethink their connections to nature through the artistic experience. In this way, the artist creates a societal transformation through her artistic practice.&nbsp;Ecological art has a significant potential to combine artistic expression with environmental sensitivity, offering viewers new ways of thinking. This art form encourages audiences to question their relationship with nature while also drawing attention to environmental issues. Artists like Friedlaender have become crucial tools for social transformation in this context. Their works are more than mere esthetic objects; they carry deep meanings and strive to foster social awareness. Their works transcend mere esthetic appeal; they embody profound meanings that resonate on multiple levels. By integrating natural materials and processes into their creations, these artists invite viewers to reflect on the intricate connections between humanity and the environment. Through this reflective process, ecological art aims not only to raise awareness but also to inspire action and advocacy for sustainable practices.In conclusion, the journey from viewing nature as something to be feared to embracing it as an integral part of our existence underscores the importance of ecological awareness in art. As artists continue to explore this dynamic relationship, they will not only enrich the cultural landscape but also inspire meaningful change toward the environment. The ongoing dialog between art and nature will undoubtedly evolve, offering new insights and opportunities to promote a more sustainable future for our planet.

Sanatçı Bilge Friedlaender’ın Eserlerinde Ekoloji Odaklı Anlatılar

Mustafa

Geri Çekilen Makale: Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Müzik Tercihleri

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Alper

Water is the source of life for all living things. Because of our need for water, mankind has always seen water as a sacred element throughout history. Water, over artifacts and monuments symbolized life, healing, fertility, strength, beauty and enjoyment. It was seen as sacred in Turkey and was believed to be the spirit of water. In addition, water was associated with fortune, life, soul, chance, fortune, conscience, and character. In Turkish culture and the Islamic faith, water and rain are considered as the source of life and abundance. In Turkish-Islamic architecture, waterspouts are called corten. Waterspouts protected mortar and masonry walls from corrosive effects by getting rid of rain and snow water away from the wall and foundation. In the Anatolian Seljuks and Dynasties periods, a large part of the cortens in architectural works was made simple and another was meant to be figurative. The pre-Islamic and Islamic beliefs of Turks determined their view of water. Cortens was produced positively in the context of these religious beliefs. It is known that the cortens, especially those with figures, are made with symbolic purposes such as fertility, abundance, happiness, and power. Therefore, the figures are in direct relation with these concepts. The usage of animal figures was avoided apart from these meanings. Although Islamic belief and Turks perceived water positively, the Christian faith and the Latins perceived water as positive in the spiritual direction and negative in the material direction. Sacred water was used for religious rituals. No doubt the most important of these rites is baptism, which is seen as a spiritual cleansing rather than a material one and early Christians emphasized the spiritual aspect. During the Middle Ages, the Western Christian world did not accept bathing as an innocent practice leaving out it in religious rituals. Many monks and saints believed St. Francis of Assisi’s idea that an unwashed body is a sign of piety! For this reason, Western society avoided water except for the occasional bath. In the 12-14th centuries, the works of Gothic architecture started in Europe. In this architectural understanding in which religious structures are predominant, buildings tend to rise vertically. In Gothic architecture, the waterspouts represented as figures that provide the evacuation of rain water are called gargoyles. The gargoyles have a terrifying psychological effect on the believer. These are mostly waterspouts with plastic properties made in the form of terrifying demonic creatures. In the medieval Christian world, the church taught religion to society through art. That is, art was made for the purpose of religious propaganda. In the Middle Ages, the Church even resorted to the most formidable forms of evil in order to spread its religious teachings. Some gargoyles served as a moral reminder to sinners, and because gargoyles were thought to represent the souls condemned for their sins, it was suggested that sinners were forbidden to enter the church. By reflecting the horrible appearance of hell, Satan, which is an unconventional image that does not conform to the church, reminds people that they will be safe in the sacred church. Although some gargoyles are quite simple in design, the&nbsp;majority of them are decorated in detail. These are decorative carvings representing grotesque animals, birds, dragons, satyrs, mermaids, snakes, and many other themes. They can also be in the form of fascinating hybrids and mythical creatures such as semi-human semi-animal figures. The functional purpose of the gargoyles is the waterspout. The symbolic aim is to ward off evil. The waterspouts in religious and secular buildings served the same purpose in different architectures throughout the 12-14th centuries. The figured waterspouts are shaped differently in proportion to the value judgments, beliefs, traditions, cultural and architectural heritage of societies. Due to the ban on animal and human figures in Islamic architecture, the figured ornament was rarely seen. The Turks have a moderate approach to figurative ornaments due to their old beliefs. In the Anatolian Seljuk architecture, almost all the building groups have symbolic, mythological, astrological, cosmological and talismanic figures. We usually see figured ornament around openings such as doors and windows, but it is rarely encountered in the waterspouts. Cortens have symbolized power, strength in relation to protection while symbolizing goodness, abundance and mercy in relation to rain. The cortens associated with guardianship of religion generally had been located on facades trough the roads where people can see easily. In the cortens, animal or human figures can be seen. Animal figures include depictions of lions, rams and bulls. Mythical creatures include depictions of dragons. The lion is the symbol of strength; the rams and bulls are symbols of abundance, and the dragon symbolizes both abundance and power. The Abbey Church of Saint Denis in France is accepted as the first Gothic structure. The eastern section of the church was designed by Abbot Suger. The Western world inherited the Greek, Hellenistic, Etruscan and Roman architectures and adapted these ancient styles to gothic architecture. The understanding of ornaments in Gothic architecture developed in the scholastic thinking of the church. All the decorations around the religious buildings were made parallel to the teachings of the church. Emphasis on the instructional use of visual imageries, resulted in the creation of many monsters. The animal figured waterspouts were used in the western world by Greeks and Etruscans who especially preferred those with lion heads. The gargoyles depict a wide variety of animals and imaginary creatures that we tend to associate with evil. It is not a coincidence that they often have cloven hooves, bat wings, goat beards and horns. Gargoyles were consciously depicted as demons and associated with evil. The use of these figures in waterspouts caused them to consider water as a symbol of disaster and trouble. Since Turkish-Islamic architecture has a limited number of cortens showing figures, we tried to include all the samples. The cortens are classified according to the&nbsp;figures they depict. As there is a large number of gargoyles in Gothic Architecture, we included only a few samples. Some examples of gargoyles in churches or monasteries in different parts of Europe were compared. Similarities between these gargoyles were found in different structures. Finally, similar and different characteristics of the figured waterspouts in two separate cultures are indicated.

12-14. Yüzyıl Türk-İslam Mimarisi ile Gotik Mimarisindeki Figürlü Yağmur Olukları Üzerine Bir Karşılaştırma Denemesi

Sevinç

Assoc. Prof.

Drawing attention with its decorations in addition to its architectural features, Double Minaret Madrasa has been the center of attention of many researchers and has been examined in many respects. Our aim is not to repeat the evaluations and studies related to the structure, but to present new suggestions for its ornaments. A large part of the decorations of the madrasa has been destroyed and only the entrance facade has survived. Unfortunately, in the recent restorations, the extent of this damage has increased. Within the scope of our research, new determinations have been made regarding the original status of some decorations in the structure. Built in 1271, the Double Minaret Madrasa was abandoned over time, and the stones of the building were used in the construction of other buildings. Excavations were carried out in the structure under the presidency of Prof. Dr. Haluk Karamağaralı between 1963-1965, and restorations were carried out in various periods. The ashlar facing of the structure ends in the upper part of the pointed arches of the openings that leads to ascend to the minaret inside. There is almost a square panel just above the opening which leads to ascend to the left (north) minaret. In this panel, which is made with Mâ’kılî writing style, an arrangement consisting of turquoise and eggplant purple colored glazed tiles and bricks is seen. In this writing style based on geometric basis, all the letters are angled. In the ornament, the word “Allah” is placed in four different directions. The missing tiles were renewed, the writing panel was completed, and the unglazed tiles were painted in the repairs carried out in 2007-2008. However, various errors in the writing and completions of the current panel are striking. This panel decorating the minaret base has a mathematical arrangement. Letters are placed in two rows; there are gaps between the leaning unglazed bricks. These areas are filled with (baklava) diamond-shaped and eggplant-purple glazed tiles. Thus, the name “Allah” has been made apparent with the eggplant purple tiles. The areas around the unglazed bricks and eggplant purple tiles are surrounded by turquoise glazed tiles. In the restoration, it is understood that the tips of letters on the left side of the panel are not completed and the “elif “ letter in the upper left corner is missing. Additionally, one arm of the swastika was left missing. A panel is located just above the opening leading to ascend to the right (south) minaret. In the panel, the original of which consisted of mâ’kılî style writing, there are geometrical looking irregular shapes instead of writing. It is understood that the work underwent a repair in an unauthentic way. It is seen in the panel that the names of “Muhammad”, “Ebubekir”, “Omar”, “Osman” and “Ali” are respectively written with Arabic letters in the mâ’kılî writing style. The current panel should be completely replaced and completed in accordance with the original. In the upper part of the bases, an arrangement of brick and tile is seen. In this ornament, square shaped turquoise tiles were placed between long rectangular unglazed bricks. The same ornament is repeated on the eastern and southern facades of the bases. However, in the restoration work, the same decoration which should be on the top of the left side minaret is left unpainted. On the outer sides of the both minaret bases (north and south), a large panel of tiles was placed. In the panels, which are understood to be formed with tile mosaic technique originally, two wide borders circle the big medallion in the middle. There is a palmette lotus frieze in the first row. Unglazed bricks and turquoise colored tiles were placed in skipping form in the second row. In the corners of the medallion, the plant ornamentation in from of palmette, rumi and curly branches is repeated. The border forming the frame is thick and its surface is decorated with a geometric decoration made of pentagons in two rows. There are 12 pointed arched niches in the polygonal section which enables the transition from the shoe cabinet section to the cylindrical body. It is understood from the traces that these niches with different widths were adorned with ornaments made with tile mosaic technique originally. It can be detected from the old traces that four of the pointed arched niches had plant decorations. In the plant ornamentation, there are palmettes at the ends of the interwoven hexagrams. Ornament made in accordance with the principle of infinity; the palmette ends of the stars are connected by concave curves and a hexagonal is formed. The palmettes decorate each corner of the hexagon. The decorations inside the other niches have almost disappeared. Minaret bodies are completely decorated with a beautiful harmony of bricks and tiles. Bricks shaped in different sizes, such as square and rectangle, are arranged in horizontal plane. Square shaped eggplant purple colored tiles are placed between the bricks. In the body ornament of the minarets, the name “Muhammed” which is written with eggplant purple glazed tiles in the mâ’kılî writing style is seen. Thin, rectangular turquoise colored tiles were mortared between both bricks and the joint gaps surrounding the eggplant purple glazed tiles. Turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles have been destroyed much faster because they have no organic bond with the structure and most of them have come off. One of the few examples, whose portal was crowned with double minaret, Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa is one of the most important works in terms of Turkish art. The double minaret integrates the portal with its decoration and adds color to the stone structure with its tiles. In the double minaret, in which turquoise and eggplant purple colored tiles were used, mâ’kılî writing is seen as well as geometric and plant ornaments in parallel with the decoration features of the period. These decorations are important in terms of reflecting the characteristics of the period. The blanks between the letters and the gaps have the same widths in mâ’kılî writings with angled, plain, sharp, lines. The master followed these rules in the examples of the Double Minaret Madrasa, but also filled the inside of the lines that made up the letters, resulting in seemingly thicker letters. In Mâ’kılî writing, words having high religious meanings and in this writing style words like Allah, Muhammad, Ali, Ebubekir, Omar, Osman and Kalima Shahadah are often used. The masters showed not only manual skills but also mathematical and design proficiencies. It is no doubt that the tiles of the Sivas Double Minaret Madrasa, which has been destroyed for the most part presently, are among the most outstanding examples of Anatolian decorative arts and reflect the fancy and tastes of their periods. Therefore, urgent measures should be taken to prevent further damage to the building both in terms of architecture and decoration.

Sivas Çifte Minareli Medrese’nin Minarelerindeki Tuğla ve Çini Süslemeler Üzerine Yeni Öneriler

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İlkay Canan

Öğretim Görevlisi Dr.

II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Resim Sanatında Nesne ve Özne Olarak Kadın

Seda

First thirty years of the 18th century was a milestone for the Ottoman society, culture, and architecture because when the Treaty of Passarowitz was signed, a long period of peace started between the Ottoman and Western civilization. Besides, the superiority of Western societies was accepted by the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the first envoys were sent to Europe. Yirmisekiz (twenty-eight) Mehmet Çelebi is the first envoy sent to France. Mehmet Çelebi observed a lot of palaces, gardens, cities, military postures, press housings in France, and on his return to the homeland, he brought with him the plans of these structures in his travel guide. He even had the plans of some important French palaces and gardens. When Sultan Ahmed III and his Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha read this travel guide, they were impressed a lot. Therefore, they immediately commissioned public works in Istanbul. For this reason, new palaces, kiosks, pavilions, medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, and sebils (Sebil is a public donation, for the distribution of cold drinking water, sweet drinks or fruit juice to passers-by in cups) were started to be built. Instead of grand mosques and social complexes of the 16th and 17th century’s Ottoman architecture, in 1718-1730, the so-called Tulip Era, public structures were built. Until the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire’s economy was in good condition. However, in the 17th century, it entered a recession. Therefore, only medium-sized complexes, a lot of fountains, kiosks, and summer palaces could be built in the first thirty years of the 18th century. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex, built in 1722 or during the Tulip Era, was one of these buildings. Eminzade Haci Ahmed Aga, a chamberlain of the navy yard in the Ottoman Empire, commissioned Ahmediye Complex. Uskudar Ahmediye Complex consists of a mosque, primary school (Islamic monastery), madrasah, library, two fountains, WC, tomb, burial area reserved for special people, and a room to show azan times. These units are located around a court. The court has a small pond, as well. If we look at the location plan, we can see that the Uskudar Ahmediye Complex has an asymmetrical composition. Buildings of the complex are built according to specific geometrical shapes like square, octagon, and polygon. Almost all the buildings are covered by domes. In addition to this, vaults are used in some places, as well. Although Uskudar Ahmediye Complex generally shows classical Ottoman architecture features, some parts exhibit Western and Eastern styles. For instance, the sebil has a polygonal plan like Early Baroque style. Besides, Uskudar Ahmediye fountain and minbar of the mosque have some flower motifs from Eastern cultures. Also, the Ahmediye fountain and the sebils have multifoil arches coming from the Antiquity and Early East culture. We know that Uskudar Ahmediye Complex have neither entirely Western nor Eastern architecture features. It is a classical Ottoman architecture example but, in some parts of this complex, the reflections of the Eastern and Western architectures can be seen. Indeed, the first thirty years of the 18th century were a transition period for the Ottoman architecture. During the first thirty years of the 18th century, there was the Baroque and Rococo style in Europe. Notably, the Baroque style was the most prominent style in France during Louis IV’ time, which is famous for the palaces built. The exterior facades of these palaces are generally plain, but the interior design is more elaborate. In the decorations, which bears traces of the Baroque style, is seen botanical patterns like leaf Frisians, seashells, and flyaway figures. After the Baroque style, the Rococo style, which was a decorative art, emerged in Louis V’s period in France. The number of columns and pilasters, which had been used as exterior architecture, had decreased. The rococo style includes S and C crimped branches, toothed medallion, seashells, and acanthus leaves. Versailles Palace is the most notable example of Baroque and Rococo style in France. The baroque and rococo styles did not enter in the Ottoman Architecture until after the transition period called the Tulip Era, which began in 1718 and continued until 1730. Indeed, it could be said that the effects of this era can be seen in the Ottoman architecture until 1740. The Tulip Era brought some novelties (such as wide eaves and more decorations) to the Ottoman architecture. These new decorations were from Persian and especially Indian and Mughal cultures. Another novelty was polygonal buildings which were generally seen at the sebils of this period. This was coming from the West and called the Early Baroque style. Although some parts of Uskudar Ahmediye Complex reflects Eastern and Western architectures, the architectural elements and details of the buildings in the complex are traditional. In other words, the buildings in the complex generally have Classical Ottoman architecture features. Also, some details and decorative motifs of the complex are from the Eastern and Western architectures. In conclusion, Uskudar Ahmediye Complex is a building that displays the features of the transition period from the classical Ottoman architecture to the Baroque style.

Üsküdar Ahmediye Külliyesi ve Lale Devri Mimarisi İçindeki Yeri

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Art-Sanat Dergisi’nin amacı, Arkeoloji, Sanat Tarihi, Mimarlık Tarihi, Restorasyon-Konservasyon, Müzecilik, Güzel Sanatlar ve diğer sanat alanlarıyla ilgili akademik, bilimsel ve özgün çalışmaları desteklemek, yayımlamak ve geliştirmektir. 
 
Dergide Arkeoloji, Sanat Tarihi, Mimarlık Tarihi, Restorasyon-Konservasyon, Müzecilik, Güzel Sanatlar ve Sahne Sanatları alanlarındaki akademik, bilimsel ve özgün araştırma makalelerine yer verilir.

Dergi Sahibi: İstanbul Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü (adına Enstitü Müdürü Prof. Dr. Ayşe Zişan Furat)

ResearchBib

ProQuest

Islamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)

Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)

International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)

Akademik Araştırmalar İndeksi (Acar Index)

Arastirmax

JournalTOCs

Türk Eğitim İndeksi

Scopus

Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)

EBSCO

ERIH PLUS

TR Dizin

DOAJ

SOBIAD

Gale Cengage

Ulrichsweb

@METRIC_VOLUMES

@METRIC_ISSUES

@METRIC_ARTICLES

@METRIC_OPENACCESS

Art-Sanat

Art-Sanat is an international academic peer-reviewed electronic journal published twice a year (January and July).

Academic, scientific and original research articles in the fields of Archaeology, Art History, Architectural History, Restoration-Conservation, Museology, Fine Arts and Performing Arts are included.

Owner: Istanbul University Research Institute of Turkology (on behalf of Director of the Institution Prof. Dr. Ayşe Zişan Furat)

@INFO_TAB_ABOUT

Editor in Chief

Co Editor in Chief

Ethics Editor

English Language Editor

Redaction

Editorial Board Member

@INFO_TAB_BOARDS

AimThe aim of Art-Sanat Journal is to support, publish and develop academic, scientific and original studies related to Archaeology, Art History, Architectural History, Restoration-Conservation, Museology, Fine Arts and other art fields.ScopeAcademic, scientific and original research articles in the fields of Archaeology, Art History, Architectural History, Restoration-Conservation, Museology, Fine Arts and Performing Arts are included.Studies based on surveys, especially in education departments, technical studies such as building and construction technologies in Architecture, and studies in the field of cinema are excluded.Non-original articles or review articles are excluded.Translations, book reviews, exhibition presentations, interviews and news articles are excluded.

Aim & Scope

ScopusEmerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)EBSCO Art &amp; Architecture SourceTÜBİTAK-ULAKBİM TR IndexDOAJErih PlusIslamic World Science Citation Center (ISC)Access to Mideast and Islamic Resources (AMIR)International Medieval Bibliography (IMB)SOBIAD Sosyal Bilimler Atıf DiziniAkademik Araştırmalar Index (Acar index)ArastirmaxJournalTOCsResearchBibTürk Eğitim İndeksi (TEİ)<a href="https://go.gale.com/ps/dispAdvSearch.do?userGroupName=anon~84c5a0c7&amp;prodId=AONE" target="_blank">Gale Cengage</a> ProQuest Arts &amp; Humanities<a href="https://about.proquest.com/en/products-services/Ulrichsweb/" target="_blank" style="font-size: 14.6667px;">Ulrichsweb</a>

Indexing and Abstracting

The journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and the <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a> The subjects covered in the manuscripts submitted to the Journal for publication must be in accordance with the aim and scope of the Journal. Only those manuscripts approved by every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation.Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors.Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unethical behaviors. All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. Plagiarism Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. If plagiarism/self-plagiarism will be found authors will be informed. Editors may resubmit manuscript for similarity check at any peer-review or production stage if required. High similarity scores may lead to rejection of a manuscript before and even after acceptance. Depending on the type of article and the percentage of similarity score taken from each article, the overall similarity score is generally expected to be less than 15 or 20%. Double Blind Peer-Review After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by the editors-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. The editor provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles and hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims.

Policies

The journal is an open access journal and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Except for commercial purposes, users are allowed to read, download, copy, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the <a href="https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read" target="_blank" style="background-color: transparent;">BOAI</a> definition of open access.The open access articles in the journal are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en" target="_blank" style="background-color: transparent;">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) license.

All expenses of the journal are covered by the Istanbul University. Processing and publication are free of charge with the journal. There is no article processing charges or submission fees for any submitted or accepted articles.

Authors publishing with the journal retain the copyright to their work licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-NC 4.0</a>) (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/</a>) and grant the Publisher non-exclusive commercial right to publish the work. CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Editor should consider publishing correction if minor errors that do not effect the results, interpretations and conclusions of the published paper are detected. Editor should consider retraction if major errors and/or misconduction that invalidate results and conclusions are detected.Editor should consider issuing an expression of concern if there is evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors; there is evidence that the findings are not reliable and institutions of the authors do not investigate the case or the possible investigation seems to be unfair or nonconclusive. The guidelines of <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/complete-set-english" target="_blank">COPE</a> and <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/" target="_blank">ICJME</a> are taken into consideration regarding correction, retractions or expression of concern.RetractionJournal follows <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/retraction-guidelines-cope.pdf" target="_blank">COPE’s Retraction Guidelines</a> in case of retraction. The editor has the right to retract an article if: <ul><li>There is clear evidence that the findings are unreliable; either as a result of a major error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error), or as a result of fabrication (e.g. of data) or falsification (e.g. image manipulation).</li><li>It contains plagiarised content. </li><li>It has been published elsewhere without proper attribution. </li><li>It contains material or data without authorisation for use.</li><li>There is copyright infringement or there is some other serious legal issue.</li><li>It reports unethical research. </li><li>There is evidence that the peer-review process is compromised or manipulated.</li><li>The author(s) failed to disclose a significant competing interest (also known as a conflict of interest) that, in the opinion of the editor, would have unduly influenced the interpretation of the work or the recommendations of the editors and peer reviewers.</li></ul>In case of retraction the following steps are followed:<ul><li>Retraction notice including article title is published in a subsequent issue of the journal. The retraction notice is paginated and listed in the table of contents. </li><li>A link is provided between the retraction notice and the original article in the electronic version. </li><li>The online article is preceded by a page containing the retraction notice; the reader can then proceed to the article itself.</li><li>The original article remains unchanged, except for a watermark on the .pdf on each page stating that it has been &#34;retracted”.</li></ul>Article Removal for Legal ReasonsIn the following circumstances, except the metadata (title and authors), the text of the article is removed and a page informing that the article has been removed for legal reasons replaces the article. <ul><li>The article is found to be defamatory or to infringe the legal rights of others, and retraction is not deemed to be an adequate solution.</li><li>The article has been, or is reasonably likely to be the subject of a court order.</li><li>There is a significant risk to public health. </li></ul>

To guarantee that all papers published in the journal are maintained and permanently accessible, articles are stored in Dergipark which serves as a  national archival web site and at the same time permits LOCKSS to  collect, preserve, and serve the content.Additionally, authors are encouraged to self-archive the final PDF version of their articles in open electronic archives with  that conform to standards of Open Archives Initiative (<a href="https://www.openarchives.org/" target="_blank">https://www.openarchives.org/</a>). Authors should provide a link from the deposited version to the URL of IUPress journal website.

The Artificial Intelligence Policy, prepared in light of developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and practices in scholarly publishing, sets out the editorial and ethical principles that authors, reviewers, and editors should follow when using such technologies. The following sources have been considered in the preparation of the AI policy:Committee on Publication Ethics <a href="https://publicationethics.org/guidance/cope-position/authorship-and-ai-tools" target="_blank">(COPE) - Authorship and AI tools</a>; International Committee of Medical Journal Editors <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#four" target="_blank">(ICMJE) - Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Assisted Technology; World Association of Medical Editors  (WAME) Chatbots, Generative AI, and Scholarly Manuscripts</a><a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#four"></a>AI-assisted technologies (such as large language models [LLMs], chatbots, or image generators) can develop and produce a wide variety of content, including text, images, audio, and synthetic data. When used ethically and safely, these capabilities can increase productivity and foster innovation, but when used without human guidance, they pose risks such as inaccurate and biased results, omissions and errors in citations, deficiencies in protecting privacy and intellectual property rights, and potential violations of authors' and publishers' rights. IUPress adopts the following core principles to avoid these risks in the use of AI:  <ul><li>Details of any AI used in the production of content (including but not limited to text, figures, images, and code) must be declared and clearly explained in the appropriate section of the paper (as an acknowledgement and/or in the methods section). </li><li>No AI tool may be listed as an author in any scientific paper. </li><li>Authors are responsible for the accuracy, completeness, and originality of their work, even if AI is used in any way; they are responsible for the proper referencing and attribution of others' ideas, data, words, or other materials. </li><li>Reviewers and editors must not upload submitted work, in whole or in part, to any generative AI application.</li></ul>In the editorial processes of IUPress publications, tools are available to assist editors in identifying AI-generated content. On the other hand, it is common to use AI tools that provide suggestions for improving and enhancing readability, language, and grammar, and such AI tools can be used in IUPress publications under the supervision of editors and authors.

Artificial Intelligence Policy

<ul><li>Authors are required to declare if they have used AI-assisted technologies (such as large language models [LLMs], chatbots, or image generators) in the creation of their submitted work. </li><li>Authors should explain, both in the cover letter and in the appropriate section of the submitted paper (as a footnote and/or in the methods section), which AI tool and which version of it they have used and for what purpose. </li><li>Authors should also indicate how they used the AI tool and how they assessed the validity of the results obtained using this technology, and what aspects of the paper, manuscript content, data or supporting files were influenced by the use of the AI tool or were generated by AI.</li><li>It is the authors' responsibility to ensure the accuracy, validity and appropriateness of content and citations generated by AI-assisted technologies and to eliminate potential errors, inconsistencies and biased results. </li><li>Authors should always check the original sources to eliminate possible plagiarism, recognising that there is a potential for plagiarism in texts produced with AI-assisted technologies. They should confirm that they have checked and that the sources are original.  </li><li>AI-assisted tools (such as ChatGPT) cannot be listed as authors because they cannot be responsible for the accuracy, integrity, and originality of the work, and these responsibilities are essential to authorship. Therefore, authors are responsible for all material involving the use of AI-assisted technologies. Authors should ensure that all statements in the article that state the hypotheses, interpretations, conclusions, limitations, and implications of the study represent their own opinions.  </li><li>Studies created by authors using AI tools in the following ways, which substitute for the basic researcher's and author's responsibilities, violate the principles of scientific publishing and publication ethics, and such studies are not eligible for inclusion in publications: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Generation of text or code without rigorous review, </li><li>Generation of synthetic data to replace missing data without a robust methodology, </li><li>Creation of any inaccurate, synthetic content, including abstracts or supplementary materials, </li><li>Creation and manipulation of images and figures (pictures, graphs, data tables, medical images, image snippets, computer codes and formulae) or original research data (enhancing, hiding, moving, removing or adding a particular feature within an image or figure) using AI.</li></ul></ul>

It is essential to maintain confidentiality in the peer review process and not to share or use the reviewed work in this process. <a href="https://publicationethics.org/sites/default/files/ethical-guidelines-peer-reviewers-cope.pdf" target="_blank">(COPE – Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers</a>)<ul><li>Reviewers should not upload a manuscript or part of a manuscript submitted to them for review to generative AI tools or large language models to assist in the review, evaluation or decision-making process, as uploading content to such AI tools by reviewers violates the authors' privacy and property rights.  </li><li>Reviewing a scientific paper is a responsibility that can only be undertaken by human beings. The critical thinking and original evaluation required for peer review is beyond the scope of this technology, and there is a risk that the technology will produce inaccurate, incomplete or biased conclusions about the paper. The peer review report and decision letters should reflect the personal assessment of the reviewers and editors of the submitted content. The reviewer is responsible and accountable for the content of his/her report. </li><li>AI tools may be used in a limited way to improve the quality of the language of the peer review report (for translation or language editing) in the context of peer review. If such use is made, the reviewer must declare the use when submitting the report. </li><li>Reviewers who suspect inappropriate or undisclosed use of generative AI in a submission should report their concerns to the editor.</li></ul>

Editors are obliged to ensure that the confidentiality of the manuscripts submitted to the journal is maintained during the evaluation process, and it is essential that the peer-reviewed work is not shared or used outside the parties involved in that process. (COPE - Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors) <a href="https://publicationethics.org/files/Code_of_conduct_for_journal_editors_Mar11.pdf" target="_blank">(COPE – Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors)</a>.<ul><li>Editors should not upload a submitted article, or any part of it, to generative Artificial Intelligence tools or Big Language Models to assist in the review, evaluation or decision-making process, as this may violate authors' privacy and property rights. </li><li>Managing the editorial review of a scientific article implies responsibilities that can only be attributed to humans. Generative AI or AI-assisted technologies should not be used by editors to assist in the evaluation or decision-making process of an article, as the critical thinking and original evaluation required for this task is beyond the scope of this technology and there is a risk that the technology will produce inaccurate, incomplete or biased conclusions about the article. The editor is responsible and accountable for the editorial process, the final decision and its communication to the authors.</li><li>Editors should not use generative AI tools to compose decision letters or abstracts of unpublished research. </li><li>Editors may use generative AI tools to help find appropriate reviewers.</li><li>If editors suspect the use of generative AI in a submitted manuscript or a submitted referee report, they should conduct an editorial review of the matter and consider the policy.</li></ul>

Art-Sanat Journal is committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics and pays regard to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing published <a href="https://publicationethics.org/" target="_blank">by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)</a>, <a href="https://doaj.org/apply/transparency/#principles-of-transparency-and-best-practice-in-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)</a>, <a href="https://oaspa.org/" target="_blank">the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA)</a>, and <a href="https://www.wame.org/" target="_blank">the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)</a> on <a href="https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing" target="_blank">https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines-new/principles-transparency-and-best-practice-scholarly-publishing</a>All parties involved in the publishing process (Editors, Reviewers, Authors and Publishers) are expected to agree on the following ethical principles.All submissions must be original, unpublished (including as full text in conference proceedings), and not under the review of any other publication synchronously. Each manuscript is reviewed by one of the editors and at least two referees under double-blind peer review process. Plagiarism, duplication, fraud authorship/denied authorship, research/data fabrication, salami slicing/salami publication, breaching of copyrights, prevailing conflict of interest are unnethical behaviors.All manuscripts not in accordance with the accepted ethical standards will be removed from the publication. This also contains any possible malpractice discovered after the publication. In accordance with the code of conduct we will report any cases of suspected plagiarism or duplicate publishing.

Ethics

The journal adheres to the highest standards in research ethics and follows the principles of international research ethics as defined below. The authors are responsible for the compliance of the manuscripts with the ethical rules.-    Principles of integrity, quality and transparency should be sustained in designing the research, reviewing the design and conducting the research.-    The research team and participants should be fully informed about the aim, methods, possible uses and requirements of the research and risks of participation in research.-    The confidentiality of the information provided by the research participants and the confidentiality of the respondents should be ensured. The research should be designed to protect the autonomy and dignity of the participants.-    Research participants should participate in the research voluntarily, not under any coercion.-    Any possible harm to participants must be avoided. The research should be planned in such a way that the participants are not at risk.-    The independence of research must be clear; and any conflict of interest or must be disclosed.-    In experimental studies with human subjects, written informed consent of the participants who decide to participate in the research must be obtained. In the case of children and those under wardship or with confirmed insanity, legal custodian’s assent must be obtained.-    If the study is to be carried out in any institution or organization, approval must be obtained from this institution or organization.-    In studies with human subject, it must be noted in the method’s section of the manuscript that the informed consent of the participants and ethics committee approval from the institution where the study has been conducted have been obtained.

It is authors’ responsibility to ensure that the article is in accordance with scientific and ethical standards and rules. And authors must ensure that submitted work is original. They must certify that the manuscript has not previously been published elsewhere or is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere, in any language. Applicable copyright laws and conventions must be followed. Copyright material (e.g. tables, figures or extensive quotations) must be reproduced only with appropriate permission and acknowledgement. Any work or words of other authors, contributors, or sources must be appropriately credited and referenced.All the authors of a submitted manuscript must have direct scientific and academic contribution to the manuscript. The author(s) of the original research articles is defined as a person who is significantly involved in “conceptualization and design of the study”, “collecting the data”, “analyzing the data”, “writing the manuscript”, “reviewing the manuscript with a critical perspective” and “planning/conducting the study of the manuscript and/or revising it”. Fund raising, data collection or supervision of the research group are not sufficient roles to be accepted as an author. The author(s) must meet all these criteria described above. The order of names in the author list of an article must be a co-decision and it must be indicated in the <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>. The individuals who do not meet the authorship criteria but contributed to the study must take place in the acknowledgement section. Individuals providing technical support, assisting writing, providing a general support, providing material or financial support are examples to be indicated in acknowledgement section.All authors must disclose all issues concerning financial relationship, conflict of interest, and competing interest that may potentially influence the results of the research or scientific judgment.When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published paper, it is the author’s obligation to promptly cooperate with the Editor to provide retractions or corrections of mistakes.

Editor-in-Chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors. He/She provides a fair double-blind peer review of the submitted articles for publication and ensures that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential before publishing.Editor-in-Chief is responsible for the contents and overall quality of the publication. He/She must publish errata pages or make corrections when needed.Editor-in-Chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers. Only he has the full authority to assign a reviewer and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal.Reviewers must have no conflict of interest with respect to the research, the authors and/or the research funders. Their judgments must be objective.Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side.A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process.The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees must be ensured. In particular situations, the editor may share the review of one reviewer with other reviewers to clarify a particular point.

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation. Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope.Short presentations that took place in scientific meetings can be referred if indicated in the article. The editor hands over the papers matching the formal rules to at least two national/international referees for evaluation and gives green light for publication upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Changing the name of an author (omission, addition or order) in papers submitted to the Journal requires written permission of all declared authors. Refused manuscripts and graphics are not returned to the author. The copyright of the published articles and pictures belong to the Journal.

Peer Review

Only those manuscripts approved by its every individual author and that were not published before in or sent to another journal, are accepted for evaluation. Submitted manuscripts that pass preliminary control are scanned for plagiarism using iThenticate software. After plagiarism check, the eligible ones are evaluated by editor-in-chief for their originality, methodology, the importance of the subject covered and compliance with the journal scope. Editor-in-chief evaluates manuscripts for their scientific content without regard to ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy of the authors and ensures a fair double-blind peer review of the selected manuscripts. The selected manuscripts are sent to at least two national/international external referees for evaluation and publication decision is given by editor-in-chief upon modification by the authors in accordance with the referees’ claims. Editor in chief does not allow any conflicts of interest between the authors, editors and reviewers and is responsible for final decision for publication of the manuscripts in the Journal. Reviewers’ judgments must be objective. Reviewers’ comments on the following aspects are expected while conducting the review. - Does the manuscript contain new and significant information? - Does the abstract clearly and accurately describe the content of the manuscript? - Is the problem significant and concisely stated? - Are the methods described comprehensively? - Are the interpretations and consclusions justified by the results? - Is adequate references made to other Works in the field? - Is the language acceptable? Reviewers must ensure that all the information related to submitted manuscripts is kept as confidential and must report to the editor if they are aware of copyright infringement and plagiarism on the author’s side. A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the topic of a manuscript or knows that its prompt review will be impossible should notify the editor and excuse himself from the review process. The editor informs the reviewers that the manuscripts are confidential information and that this is a privileged interaction. The reviewers and editorial board cannot discuss the manuscripts with other persons. The anonymity of the referees is important.

Writing RulesPublication Principles and Writing Rules of Art-Sanat JournalArt-Sanat Journal is an electronic journal with international academic referees which is published twice a year (January and July). In Art-Sanat Journal, published openly on DergiPark Open Journal Systems; only original, scientific and scholarly articles on Archeology, Art History, Architecture History, Conservation-Restoration, Museology and Performing Arts about Turks and communities related with Turks are accepted.To contact, our e-mail address is <a href="mailto:art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr" target="_blank">art-sanat@istanbul.edu.tr</a>. (Direct messaging on DergiPark site is inactive. If you have any inquiries, please send an e-mail to the aforementioned address.)Our web pages are             <a href="https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr/en/journal/art-sanat/home" target="_blank">https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr/en/journal/art-sanat/home</a>                                               <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/iuarts" target="_blank">https://dergipark.org.tr/iuarts</a> The languages of Art-Sanat Journal are Turkish and English. The articles which are sent to the Journal are analyzed by the editor and the board of publishing, then forwarded to three academic referees and should at least two of them approve, they are then published. The writers of the articles are not disclosed to the referees.Copyright:All rights reserved by Art-Sanat Journal. The publication rights of the published articles belong to Art-Sanat Journal. The author has the legal and scientific responsibility for the contents of the articles. The visual materials (figures, photographs, pictures, drawings, plans, etc.) used in the articles should not be used without reference and the author has to obtain permission for the copyrighted material. The legal responsibility for these issues belongs to the authors. The sources for the visuals must certainly be openly stated and permission to use the copyrighted material must be obtained. In case a visual belong to the author, a statement in which the copyright belongs to the author is declared should be added under each visual.The articles submitted for publication in the Art-Sanat Journal should neither have been published elsewhere nor have been submitted to another journal. The IThenticate (Plagiarism Prevention Program) is used to ensure plagiarism control for each submission.If an article is based on an acheological excavation, the head of the excavation, the excavation team, the institution(s) that support the excavation and project code name/number or official permit date and number must be stated in the footnote section. If the article is written by someone else than the head of the excavation, the permit obtained from the head of the excavation must be uploaded to the system and also stated in the footnote section. If the article is about some artifacts that are displayed in a museum, the date and number of the official permit of the study obtained from the related museum directory must be stated in the footnote section. Any study about historical sites, such as ruins, requires an official permit from the public autorities and institutions involved. General Information:In case the article is generated using a master’s or doctorate thesis, an asterisk (*) should be added at the end of the article heading, then the details concerning the thesis’ author, name, in which university it was written, the names of the institution, department and the advisor must be stated in the footnote section. If the article is supported by any project including BAP and funded financially from any source, after the “Conclusion” part, there must be a “Financial Support” section with the information about type and the code of the project, stating that the study received financial support.As of 2020, “Permission from the Ethical Board” must be obtained and attached to the study if the article is written utilizing one or any combination of applications such as surveys, interviews, conversation, focus group study, observatios, experimenting etc.The articles submitted to Art-Sanat Journal must be in Microsoft Word format. Under the title of the article, the author's name and surname should be included. After the name of the author, the asterisk (*) should be used as a footnote sign and the job title, the institution and the e-mail address of the author and the submission date of the article should be specified at the bottom of the first page. ORCID number should also be written under the author’s name. Articles with multiple writers should include each author’s ORCID number. If you do not have an ORCID number please register: <a href="https://orcid.org/" target="_blank">https://orcid.org/</a>.Articles should have Turkish and English titles, abstracts (150-200 words) and 3-5 keywords.  After the English abstract, the Turkish articles should contain an English extended summary of 800-1000 words. The English articles should contain a Turkish extended summary of 800-1000 words.The articles should consist of “Introduction”, numbered subheadings, “Conclusion” (Evaluation and Conclusion are two separate sections) and “Bibliography/References”. The visuals should be placed in a suitable way between paragraphs (F.1).Each of the visual material must be in jpeg format with a resolution of at least 300 dpi (images with a poor image quality will not be used). For the visual materials used in the article, numbering should be done with the abbreviation bold F. (F.1., F.2., F.3., etc.). The description of the visual material should be specified below the material in parentheses. If visual material belongs to the author, it should be indicated.Article should be written in Times New Roman, 12 pt., 1.5 line spacing, before 6NK-after 6NK spacing and both side justified. Footnotes should be written in Times New Roman, 10 pt., 1 line spacing and both side justified. Words that need to emphasized should be written in italic. The Quotations less than five lines should be written in quotation marks in the same paragraph and the quotations longer than five lines should be written separately 1 cm inside from left and right sides of page, blocked and in 8 pts. The article should not exceed 10.000 words, the visuals used in the article should not be more than the number of text pages and also maximum 25 images are allowed. The visuals which are directly related to the subject should be preferred with reference to comparison images. Images should be numbered in the text and used in the relevant place.

Author Guidelines

Ensure that the following items are present:●    Cover letter to the editorü    The category of the manuscriptü    Confirming that “the paper is not under consideration for publication in another journal”.ü    Including disclosure of any commercial or financial involvement.ü    Confirming that the statistical design of the research article is reviewed.ü    Confirming that last control for fluent English was done.ü    Confirming that journal policies detailed in Information for Authors have been reviewed.ü    Confirming that the references cited in the text and listed in the references section are in line with CMOS 16.●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a>●    Permission of previously published copyrighted material if used in the present manuscript●    <a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/48AF2DA482C84901A8AB29FBCD8298AC" target="_blank">Title page</a>ü    The category of the manuscriptü    The title of the manuscriptü    All authors’ names and affiliations (institution, faculty/department, city, country), e-mail addressesü    Corresponding author’s email address, full postal address, telephone and fax numberü    ORCIDs of all authors.●    Main Manuscript Documentü    The title of the manuscriptü    Abstract (150-200 words)ü    Key words: 3 to 5 wordsü    Extended Summary (800-1000 words) in Englishü    Main article sectionsü    Grant support (if exists)ü    Conflict of interest (if exists)ü    Acknowledgement (if exists)ü    Referencesü    All tables, illustrations (figures) (including title, description, footnotes)

<div><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/172395B610F14DE1A70863DF7F923B59" target="_blank">Copyright Agreement Form</a><a href="https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/file/JTA6CLJ8T5/48AF2DA482C84901A8AB29FBCD8298AC" target="_blank">Title Page</a></div>

Issue Type	Thematic
Editor(s)	İbrahim Çeşmeli
Cover (PDF)
Full Text (PDF)
Front Pages (PDF)